SAU 1401 - AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION
Automobile history and development, classifications,vehicle layout-engine location and drive
arrangement, safety regulations, specifications of vehicles, chassis types, constructional
details, frames, sub frames, frameless vehicles, vehicle dimensions, details of chassis material,
IC engines-components-functions and materials, emissions from automobiles, pollution
standards - national and international-pollution control techniques
Classification of automobile:
Automobiles can be classified into several types based on several criteria. A brief
classification of automobiles is listed below:
Based on purpose:
1. Passenger vehicles – These automobiles carry passengers – e.g.: Buses, Passenger trains,
cars
2. Goods vehicles – These vehicles are used for transportation of goods from one place to
another. e.g.: Goods lorry, goods carrier
Based on capacity:
1. Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) – Large and bulky motor vehicles – e.g.: Large trucks,
buses
2. Light Motor Vehicle (LMV) – Small motor vehicles – e.g.: Cars, Jeeps
3. Medium Vehicle – Relatively medium sized vehicles – e.g.: Small trucks, mini buses
Based on fuel source:
1. Petrol engine vehicles – Automobiles powered by petrol engine – e.g.: scooters, cars,
mopeds, motorcycles
2. Diesel engine vehicles – Automotive's powered by diesel engine – e.g.: Trucks, Buses

Introduction of Chassis Frame:

Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote thef rame parts or Basic Structure
of the vehicle. It is the back bone of the vehicle. A vehicle without body is called
Chassis. The components of the vehicle like Power plant,Transmission System,
Axles, Wheels and Tyres, Suspension, Controlling Systems likeBraking, Steering etc.,
and also electrical system parts are mounted on the Chassis frame. It is the main mounting for
all the components including the body. So it is also called as CarryingUnit.
Unit.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CHASS

SIS FRAME:
1. To carry load of the passengerrs or goods carried in the body.
2. OF
FUNCTIONS To support the load of
THE CHASSIS the bod
FRAME: d:y, engine, gear box etc.,
3. To
1. To carry load of withstand the forces
the passengers caused
or goods d due in
carried to the
the body.
sudden braking or
2. To supportacceleration
the load of the body, engine, gear box etc.,
4. To
3. To withstand thewithstand the stresses
forces caused cause
due to the ed duebraking
sudden to the bad
or road condition.
acceleration 5. To withstand centrifugal forcee while cornering.
4. To withstand the stresses caused due to the bad road condition.
55. To withstand centrifugal force while cornering..
TYPES OF CHASSIS FRAMES:
There are three types of frames
1. Conventional frame
2. Integral frame
3. Semi-integral frame
1. Conventional frame: It has two long side members and 5 to 6 cross members joined
together with the help of rivets and bolts. The frame sections are used generally.
a. Channel Section - Good resistance to bending
b. Tabular Section - Good resistance to Torsion
c. Box Section - Good resistance to both bending and
Torsion
2. Integral Frame: This frame is used now a days in most of the cars. There is no frame and
all the assembly units are attached to the body. All the functions of the frame carried out by
the body itself. Due to elimination of long frame it is cheaper and due to less weight most
economical also. Only disadvantage is repairing is difficult.
3. Semi - Integral Frame: In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on which
engine gear box and front suspension is mounted. It has the advantage when the vehicle is
met with accident the front frame can be taken easily to replace the damaged chassis frame.
This type of frame is used in FIAT cars and some of the European and American cars.

VARIOUS LOADS ACTING ON THE FRAME:

Various loads acting on the frame are
1. Short duration Load - While crossing a broken patch.
2. Momentary duration Load - While taking a curve.
3. Impact Loads - Due to the collision of the vehicle.
4. Inertia Load - While applying brakes.
5. Static Loads - Loads due to chassis parts.
6. Over Loads - Beyond Design capacity.

REQUIREMENTS OF BODIES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF VECHILE:

The body of the most vehicle should fulfil the following requirements:
1. The body should be light.
2. It should have minimum number of components.
3. It should provide sufficient space for passengers and luggage.
4. It should withstand vibrations while in motion.
5. It should offer minimum resistance to air.
6. It should be cheap and easy in manufacturing.
7. It should be attractive in shape and colour.
8. It should have uniformly distributed load.
9. It should have long fatigue life
10.It should provide good vision and ventilation.

Integrated Frame and Body

The integrated frame and body type of construction (image 3) also referred to as unitized
construction, combines the frame and body into a single, one-piece structure. This is done by
welding the components together, by forming or casting the entire structure as one piece, or
by a combination of these techniques. Simply by welding a body to a conventional frame,
however, does not constitute an integral frame and body construction. In a truly integrated
structure, the entire frame-body unit is treated as a load-carrying member that reacts to all
Integrated-type bodies for wheeled vehicles are fabricated by welding preformed metal
panels together. The panels are preformed in various load-bearing shapes that are located and
oriented so as to result in a uniformly stressed structure. Some portions of the integrated
structure resemble frame like components, while others resemble body like panels. This is not
surprising, because the structure must perform the functions of both of these elements. An
integrated frame and body type construction allows and increases in the amount of noise
transmitted into the passenger compartment of the vehicle. However, this disadvantage is
negated by the following advantages:
Substantial weight reduction, which is possible when using a well-designed unitized body.
Lower cargo floor and vehicle height. Protection from mud and water required for driveline
components on amphibious vehicles. Reduction in the amount of vibration present in the
vehicle structure.
Ladder Frame (Truck Frame)
The truck frame allows different types of truck beds or enclosures to be attached to the frame.
For larger trucks, the frames are simple, rugged, and of channel iron construction. The side
rails are parallel to each other at standardized widths to permit the mounting of stock
transmissions, transfer cases, rear axles, and other similar components. Trucks that are to be
used as prime movers have an additional reinforcement of the side rails and rear cross
members to compensate for the added towing stresses.
Chassis Frame:
There are different types of chassis frame sections 1. Channel section 2. Box section 3.
Tubular section The conventional frame is also known as Non-load carrying frame. In this
types of frame , the loads on the vehicle are transferred to the suspension by the frame which
is the main skeleton of the vehicle. The channel section is used in long members and box
section in short members. Tubular section is used now-a-days is three wheelers, scooters,
matadors and pickup vans. The frames should be strong enough to bear load while sudden
brakes and accidents.
Frame Construction:
The longitudinal members A and the cross members B. The frame is upswept at the rear and
front to accommodate the movement of the axle due to springing. It also keeps the chassis
height to low. The frame is narrowed down at the front either as shown to have a better
steering lock, which gives a smaller turning circle. C are brackets supporting the body. E are
dumb irons to act as bearings for spring shackles. They also take the bumper brackets.
Brackets E are meant for mounting the springs. The extension of the chassis frame ahead of
the front axle is called front overhang, whereas its extension beyond the rear axle is called
rear overhang.

The commercial vehicles have to carry large loads, framed construction is invariably used for
these vehicle, ground clearance is larger and sufficient space is otherwise available for
steering the vehicle, the frames for these have only straight members without taper towards
the front or upsweeps at the front or rear.
A double frame increases the resistance to bending, ensures an even distribution of the load
on the chassis frame and eliminates the need for a sub frame. The Channel section and square
box section have bending stiffness as compared to solid square with equal cross-sectional
area whose stiffness taken as 1. Due to this reason, both these sections are used extensively
for side member . Sometimes the box section is formed by welding a plate to a channel
section or by welding two channel section, for cross member. For heavy duty applications,
side members may be formed by placing two channel sections back to back.
Articulated Vehicle:
This is also heavy goods vehicle consisting of a tractor and semi-trailer. the tractor provides
the motive power while the trailer carries the goods. The two units are connected together by
means of a fifth-wheel coupling. This type of vehicle has smaller turning circle than the rigid
truck. Moreover, the trailer being detachable, the tractor can directly move off after reaching
destination with some other trailer unit without having to wait for unloading and reloading.
Definition of ‘Engine’
An engine is a device, which transforms one form of energy into another form. Normally,
most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are
called ‘heat engines’.
Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories:
i. Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
ii. External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
External Combustion and Internal Combustion Engines
External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place outside the engine
whereas in internal combustion engines combustion takes place within the engine. For
example, in a steam engine or a steam turbine, the heat generated due to the combustion of
fuel is employed to generate high pressure steam, which is used as the working fluid in a
reciprocating engine or a turbine. In case of gasoline or diesel engines, the products of
combustion generated by the combustion of fuel and air within the cylinder form the working
fluid.
Application of IC and EC Engines
IC Engines
1. GASOLINE ENGINE –AUTOMOTIVE, MARINE AIRCRAFT
2. DIESEL ENGINE - AUTOMOTIVE, MARINE,POWER,LOCOMATIVE
3. GAS ENGINES –INDUSTRIAL POWER

EC Engines
1. STEAM ENGINES – LOCOMOTIVES,MARINE
2. STEAM TURBINE – POWER,LARGE MARINE
Classification of Internal Combustion Engines
Internal Combustion engines are of two types,
i. Rotary engines
ii. Reciprocating engines
(a) Two stroke & four stroke engines
(b) Petrol & diesel engines

TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES

Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore
Stroke: The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two limiting position s is called
stroke.
Top Dead Center ( T.D.C.) : the top most position of the piston towards cover end side of
the cylinder is called T.D.C.
Bottom dead Center ( B.D.C.) : The lowest position of the piston towards the crank end side
of the cylinder is called B.D.C.
Clearance Volume : The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston , when
the piston is at top dead center , is called the clearance volume.
Swept Volume: The volume swept through by the piston in moving between T.D.C. and
B.D.C, is called swept volume or piston displacement.
Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of Total cylinder volume to clearance volume
PETROL ENGINE:
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
Basic Engine Components and Nomenclature
Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, they are highly
complex machines. There are hundreds of components that have to perform their functions
satisfactorily to produce output power. There are two types of engines, viz., spark ignition
(S1) and compression-ignition (CI) engine. Let us now go through the important engine
components and the nomenclature associated with an engine.
Engine Components
The major components of the engine and their functions are briefly described below.
Cylinder Block:
The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The cylinder
of a multi-cylinder engine is cast as a single unit, called cylinder block. The cylinder head is
mounted on the cylinder block. The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with water
jackets in the case of water-cooling with cooling fins in the case of air-cooling. Cylinder head
gasket is incorporated between the cylinder block and cylinder head. The cylinder head is
held tight to the cylinder block by number of bolts or studs. The bottom portion of the
cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called crankcase, which becomes a sump for
lubricating oil is fastened to the bottom of the crankcase. The inner surface of the cylinder
block, which is machined and finished accurately to cylindrical shape, is called bore or face.
Cylinder
As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a
reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the
engine is filled with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic processes.
The cylinder is supported in the cylinder block.
Piston
It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the
combustion system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with
the piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the
output shaft.
Combustion Chamber
The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top
during the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel
and the consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part
of the cylinder.

Inlet Manifold
The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which
air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold.
Exhaust Manifold
The pipe that connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through
which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.
Inlet and Exhaust Valves
Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the
cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder
(inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the
cylinder.
Connecting Rod
It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the piston to
the crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end and the big end.
Small end is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the
crankshaft by crankpin.
Crankshaft
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft.
In the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is pair of crank arms and balance weights.
The balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system.
The crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.

Piston Rings
Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the piston and
the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases
Gudgeon Pin
It forms the link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.
Camshaft
The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves. The
associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also
provides the drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through
timing gears.
Cams
These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the
valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.
Fly Wheel
The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the
engine fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a
uniform torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft and this
wheel is called the flywheel.
Two-stroke Engine
As already mentioned, if the two unproductive strokes, viz., the suction and exhaust could be
served by an alternative arrangement, especially without the movement of the piston then
there will be a power stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft. In such an arrangement,
theoretically the power output of the engine can be doubled for the same speed compared to a
four-stroke engine. Based on this concept, Dugald Clark (1878) invented the two-stroke
engine.

In two-stroke engines the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. The main
difference between two-stroke and four stroke engines is in the method of filling the fresh
charge and removing the burnt gases from the cylinder. In the four-stroke engine these
operations are performed by the engine piston during the suction and exhaust” strokes
respectively. In a two-stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge
compressed in crankcase or by a blower. The induction of the compressed charge moves out
the product of combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston strokes are required
for these two operations. Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for
compressing the fresh charge and the other for expansion or power stroke.
Figure 1 shows one of the simplest two-stroke engines, viz., the crankcase scavenged engine.
The air or charge is inducted into the crankcase through the spring loaded inlet valve when
the pressure in the crankcase is reduced due to upward motion of the piston during
compression stroke. After the compression and ignition, expansion takes place in the usual
way. During the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is compressed. Near the end of
the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and the cylinder pressure drops to
atmospheric pressure as the combustion products leave the cylinder. Further movement of the
piston uncovers the transfer ports, permitting the slightly compressed charge in the crankcase
to enter the engine cylinder.
The top of the piston has usually a projection to deflect the fresh charge towards the top of
the cylinder before flowing to the exhaust ports. This serves the double purpose of
scavenging the upper part of the cylinder of the combustion products and preventing the fresh
charge from flowing directly to the exhaust ports. The same objective can be achieved
without piston deflector by proper shaping of the transfer port. During the upward motion of
the piston from B DC the transfer ports close first and then the exhaust ports close when
compression of the charge begins and the cycle is repeated.
Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Engines
The two-stroke engine was developed to obtain a greater output from the same size of the
engine. The engine mechanism also eliminates the valve arrangement making it mechanically
simpler. Almost all two-stroke engines have no conventional valves but only ports (some
have an exhaust valve). This simplicity of the two-stroke engine makes it cheaper to produce
and easy to maintain. Theoretically a two-stroke engine develops twice the power of a
comparable four stroke engine because of one power stroke every revolution (compared to
one power stroke every two revolutions of a four-stroke engine). This makes the two-stroke
engine more compact than a comparable four-stroke engine. In actual practice power output
is not exactly doubled but increased by only about 30% because of
i. Reduced effective expansion stroke and
ii. Increased heating caused by increased number of power strokes that limits the maximum
speed.
The other advantages of the two-stroke engine are more uniform torque on crankshaft and
comparatively less exhaust gas dilution. However, when applied to the spark-ignition engine
the two stroke cycle has certain disadvantages which have restricted its application to only
small engines suitable for motor cycles, scooters, lawn mowers, outboard engines etc. In the
SI engine, the incoming charge consists of fuel and air. During scavenging, as both inlet and
exhaust ports are open simultaneously for some time, there is a possibility that some of the
fresh charge containing fuel escapes with the exhaust. This results in high fuel consumption
and lower thermal efficiency. The other drawback of two-stroke engine is the lack of
flexibility, viz., the capacity to operate with the same efficiency at all speeds. At part throttle
operating condition, the amount of fresh mixture entering the cylinder is not enough to clear
all the exhaust gases and a part of it remains in the cylinder to contaminate the charge. This
results in irregular operation of the engine. The two-stroke diesel engine does not suffer from
these defects. There is no loss of fuel with exhaust gases as the intake charge in diesel engine
is only air. The two- stroke diesel engine is used quite widely. Many of the high output diesel
engines work on this cycle. A disadvantage common to all two-stroke engines, gasoline as
well as diesel, is the greater cooling and lubricating oil requirements due to one power stroke
in each revolution of the crankshaft. Consumption of lubricating oil is high in two-stroke due
to higher temperature.
Emissions and Pollutants
Engine emissions undergo chemical reactions in atmosphere known largely as
‘photochemical’ reactions and give rise to other chemical species which are hazardous
to health and environment. Linkage of engine emissions and air pollutants is shown in
Fig

Health Effects of Air Pollutants The effect of pollutants on human health depends on
pollutant concentration in the ambient air and the duration to which the human beings are
exposed. Adverse health effects of different pollutants on human health are given in Table for
short term and long term exposures. Carbon monoxide on inhalation is known to combine
with haemoglobin at a rate 200 to 240 times faster than oxygen thus reducing oxygen supply
to body tissues and results in CO intoxication. Nitrogen oxides get dissolved in mucous
forming nitrous and nitric acids causing irritation of nose throat and respiratory tract. Long
term exposure causes nitrogen oxides to combine with haemoglobin and destruction of red
blood cells. Long term exposure resulting in more than 10% of haemoglobin to combine with
nitrogen oxides causes bluish coloration of skin, lips fingers etc.
Effect of Pollutants on Environment:
a. Unburned Hydro Carbons ( UBHC ): The major sources of UBHC in an automobile are the
engine exhaust, evaporative losses from fuel system blow by loss and scavenging in case of
2-stroke petrol engines. Unburned or partially burned hydrocarbons in gaseous form combine
with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical smog The products
of photochemical smog cause watering and burning of the eyes and affect the respiratory
system, especially when the respiratory system is marginal for other reasons. Some of the
high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to be carcinogenic in
animals. Some of the unburned hydrocarbons also serve as particulate matter in atmosphere.
b. Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is formed during combustion in engine only when
there is insufficient supply of air. The main source is the engine exhaust. The toxicity of
carbon monoxide is well known. The haemoglobin the human blood which carries oxygen to
various parts of the body has great affinity towards carbon monoxide than for oxygen. When
a human is exposed to an atmosphere containing carbon monoxide, the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood is reduced and results in the formation of carboxyl haemoglobin. Due to
this the human is subjected to various ill effects and ultimately leads to death. The toxic
effects of carbon monoxide are dependent both on time and concentration as shown in the
diagram.
Oxides of nitrogen(NO, NO2, N2O2etc)are formed at higher combustion temperature present
in engines and the engine exhaust is the major source.
Like carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen also tend to settle on the haemoglobin in blood.
Their most undesirable effect is their tendency to join with moisture in the lungs to form
dilute nitric acid. Because the amounts formed are minute and dilute, their effect is very small
but over a long period of time can be cumulatively undesirable, especially when the
respiratory problems for other reasons are found.
e. Particulates: Particulate matter comes from hydrocarbons ,lead additives and sulphur
dioxide. If lead is used with the fuel to controlcombustionalmost70% of the lead is airborne
with the exhaust gasses. In that30%ofthe particulates rapidly settle to the ground while
remaining remains in the atmosphere. Lead is well known toxic compound.
Engine emissions Vehicles without emission control have three sources of emissions
Exhaust emissions : Almost all of 100% of NOx and CO, and 60% of HC are emitted through
the engine exhaust or vehicle tailpipe Crankcase emissions: About 20% of HC are emitted via
crankcase blow by gases Evaporative Emissions: Fuel evaporation from tank, fuel system,
carburettor and permeation through fuel lines constitute another 20% of total HC Exhaust
Emission Concentrations SI Engine (Gasoline fuelled) Depending upon engine operating
conditions without catalytic control engine out emissions range : CO 0.2 to 5% by volume
(v/v) HC 300 to 6000 ppmc1*, v/v NOx 50 to 2000 ppm, v/v *ppmc1= parts per million as
methane measured by Flame Ionization Analyzer/Detector(FIA or FID) CO emissions are
high under engine idling and full load operation when engine is operating on fuel rich
mixtures. HC emissions are high under idling, during engine warm-up and light load
operation, acceleration and deceleration. NOx are maximum under full engine load
conditions.

MODERN EVAPORATIVE EMISSION CONTROL DEVICE

A-FUEL CUT VALVE
The fuel cut valve is built onto the evaporation pipe of the fuel tank. The rising level of the
fuel in the fuel tank causes the float to move up and close the cap hole so that no fuel can
flow to the evaporation line.

B-FUEL TANK CAP

The fuel tank cap has a relief valve which prevents development of vacuum in the fuel tank in
the event of a problem with the fuel vapour line. When there is no problem with the fuel
vapour line, the filler pipe is sealed at the portion (A) and by the seal pressed against the filler
pipe end. If vacuum develops in the fuel tank, the atmospheric pressure forces the spring
down to open the valve; consequently outside air flows into the fuel tank, thus controlling the
inside pressure.
PURGE CONTROL SOLENOID VALVE
The purge control solenoid valve is on the evaporation line between the canister and intake
manifold. The valve is installed under the intake manifold.

CHARCOAL CANISTER
The charcoal filled in the canister temporarily stores fuel vapours. When the purge control
solenoid valve is opened by a signal from the ECM, the external fresh air entering the
canister carries the fuel vapours into the intake manifold.
Positive Crankcase Ventilation:
The principle of PCV system
All the gas engines have crankcase ventilation equipment. There are two kinds of crankcase
ventilation types: natural ventilation and positive ventilation. Fig.1 shows the first type. It is
dependent on the back pressure which formed when automobile is running, so the crankcase’s
inner mixture gas can be extracted and fresh air can be entered by means of air cleaner and
throttling valve at the exit of exhaust pipe. Because natural ventilation type is not good for
environment, so the PCV system can be used on gas engine widely.
Positive Crankcase Ventilation is a system that was developed to remove harmful vapours
from the engine and to prevent those vapours from being expelled into the atmosphere. The
PCV system does this by using manifold vacuum to draw vapours from the crankcase into the
intake manifold. Vapour is then carried with the fuel/air mixture into the combustion
chambers where it is burned. The flow or circulation within the system is controlled by the
PCV Valve. The PCV Valve is effective as both a crankcase ventilation system and as a
pollution control device. PCV systems have been standard equipment on all new cars since
the early sixties. Prior to 1963 PCV was only used in California. There are a variety of PCV
systems used on various makes and models of cars produced since 1963, but all function
essentially the same. PCV systems can be described as either open or closed. The two
systems are quite similar. However, the closed system in use since 1968 is more effective at
air pollution control. The systems differ in the manner in which fresh air enters the crankcase
and excessive vapour is expelled.
Open PCV Systems The open system draws fresh air though a vented oil filler cap. This
presents no problem as long as the vapour volume is minimal. However, when the crankcase
vapour becomes excessive it is forced back through the vented oil filler cap and into the open
atmosphere. The open PCV system, though successful at removing contaminated vapours
from the crankcase, is not completely effective as a pollution control device. Closed PCV
Systems The closed PCV system draws fresh air from the air filter housing. The oil filler cap
in this system is NOT vented. Consequently, excess vapour will be carried back to the air
filter housing and from there into the intake manifold. The closed system prevents vapour,
whether normal or excessive, from reaching the open atmosphere. The closed system is very
effective as an air pollution control device.
Evaporative Emission control:
Construction and Operation
1) Refuelling Valve The refuelling valve consists of chamber A, chamber B, and the restrictor
passage. A constant atmospheric pressure is applied to chamber A. During refuelling, the
internal pressure of the fuel tank increases. This pressure causes the refuelling valve to lift up,
allowing the fuel vapours to enter the charcoal canister. The restrictor passage prevents the
large amount of vacuum that is created during purge operation or system monitoring
operation from entering the fuel tank, and limits the flow of the vapour gas from the fuel tank
to the charcoal canister. If a large volume of vapour gas recirculates into the intake manifold,
it will affect the air-fuel ratio control of the engine. Therefore, the role of the restrictor
passage is to help prevent this from occurring.

Pump module
Pump module consists of the canister vent valve, pressure sensor, vacuum pump, and pump
motor. The canister vent valve switches the passages in accordance with the signals received
from the ECM. A DC type brushless motor is used for the pump motor. A vane type vacuum
pump is used. D13N16 D13N15 Pressure Sensor Charcoal Canister Fresh Air Fresh Air
Canister Vent Valve Pressure Sensor.
Purge Flow Control
When the engine has reached predetermined parameters (closed loop, engine coolant temp.
above 80°C (176°F), etc), stored fuel vapours are purged from the charcoal canister whenever
the EVAP valve is opened by the ECM. The ECM will change the duty ratio cycle of the
EVAP valve, thus controlling purge flow volume. Purge flow volume is determined by intake
manifold pressure and the duty ratio cycle of the EVAP valve. Atmospheric pressure is
allowed into the charcoal canister to ensure that purge flow is constantly maintained
whenever purge vacuum is applied to the charcoal canister.
The catalytic converter assembly consists most of these components, inlet/outlet
pipes/flanges, steel housing, insulation material, seals, inlet/outlet cones, substrate(s), coating
and sensor boss.
• A steel housing provides protection and structure support for substrate; insulation material
(mat or wire mesh) provides heat insulation and support between steel housing and substrate;
seals are there to protect mat material from been burned by the exhaust gas.
• The substrate is often called a "catalyst support". It is a ceramic honeycomb or a stainless
steel foil honeycomb in modern catalytic converters. The ceramic substrate was invented by
Rodney Bagley, Irwin Lachman and Ronald Lewis at Corning, in use to increases the amount
of surface area available to support the catalyst.
• The washcoat is used to make converters more efficient, often as a mixture of silica and
alumina. When a washcoat is added to the substrate, it forms a rough, irregular surface, which
has a far greater surface area than the flat core surfaces do, which then gives the substrate a
larger surface area, providing more sites for active precious metal – the catalytic which is
added to the washcoat (in suspension) before being applied to the substrate.
• The catalyst itself is most often a precious metal. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is
widely used. However, because of unwanted additional reactions and/or cost, Palladium and
rhodium are two other precious metals that are used. Platinum and rhodium are used as a
reduction catalyst, while platinum and palladium are used as an oxidization catalyst. Cerium,
iron, manganese and nickel are also used, although each has its own limitations. There are
several well known canning methods that are available in production in automotive industry.
Clamshell or Shoebox – It’s just what the word is, the converter can has a upper and a lower
two piece structure, they are welded together in the fixture with substrate and the supporting
mat mount material sandwiched between them.
• Stuffed – This application is usually a round shape. The catalytic substrate is pre-wrapped
with supporting mat material and stuff (pushed with a tool) into the shell (tube), which has
smaller diameter than the diameter of supporting mat wrapped substrate.
• Swaged – This application usually is also a round shape. The catalytic substrate is
rewrapped with supporting mat material and placed (pushed with a tool) into the shell (tube),
which has bigger diameter than the diameter of supporting mat wrapped substrate, then the
shell diameter is reduced with a tool (swaging machine).
• Tourniquet – Pre-wrapped substrate with supporting mat is wrapped and pulled tied with a
steel sheet and is welded together by the sheet material overlapping end along the seam.
• Spin-formed – Pre-measured substrate with supporting mat wrapped and pushed into the
outer metal shell (tube), the tube is then fixed on the spinning machine and spinning along the
axis of the substrate, and a programmed spin tool thereby forms the metal shell into shape as
shown.

Two-way Converter
Two-way catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide emissions, and they were also used on spark ignition (gasoline) engines in
USA market automobiles through 1981, when the two-way converter's inability to control
NOx led to its supersession by three-way converters. A two-way catalytic converter has two
simultaneous tasks:
• Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
• Oxidation of un-burnt and partially-burnt hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water:
CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 → xCO2 + (x+1) H2O (a combustion reaction)
Three-way Converter
Since 1981, three-way catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control
systems in North America and many other countries on road going vehicles. A three-way
catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:
• Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
• Oxidation of un-burnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 +
[(3x+1)/2]O2 → xCO2 + (x+1)H2O
• Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx → xO2 + N2 These three
reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives the exhaust gas from an
engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. Below shows the necessary mixing
rate of the most common fuels.

Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF)

Diesel particulate filters remove particulate matter found in diesel exhaust by filtering
exhaust from the engine. In order to meet the stringent particulate emissions that are required
for diesel light duty vehicles starting with the 2007 model year, the highest efficiency
particulate filter is required. The filters are commonly made from ceramic materials such as
cordierite, aluminum titanate, mullite or silicon carbide.
The basis for the design of wall flow filters is a honeycomb structure with alternate channels
plugged at opposite ends. As the gasses passes into the open end of a channel, the plug at the
opposite end forces the gasses through the porous wall of the honeycomb channel and out
through the neighboring channel. The ultrafine porous structure of the channel walls results in
greater than 90% percent collection efficiencies of these filters. Wall flow filters capture
particulate matter by interception and impaction of the solid particles across the porous wall.
The exhaust gas is allowed to pass through in order to maintain low pressure drop.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation:
Emission Standards of vehicle in India:
The first emission norms were introduced in India in 1991 for petrol and 1992 for diesel
vehicles. These were followed by making the Catalytic converter mandatory for petrol
vehicles and the introduction of unleaded petrol in the market.
On 29 April 1999 the Supreme Court of India ruled that all vehicles in India have to meet
Euro I or India 2000 norms by 1 June 1999 and Euro II will be mandatory in the NCR by
April 2000. Car makers were not prepared for this transition and in a subsequent judgement
the implementation date for Euro II was not enforced. In 2002, the Indian government
accepted the report submitted by the Mashelkar committee. The committee proposed a road
map for the roll out of Euro based emission norms for India. It also recommended a phased
implementation of future norms with the regulations being implemented in major cities first
and extended to the rest of the country after a few years.
Based on the recommendations of the committee, the National Auto Fuel policy was
announced officially in 2003. The roadmap for implementation of the Bharat Stage norms
were laid out till 2010. The policy also created guidelines for auto fuels, reduction of
pollution from older vehicles and R&D for air quality data creation and health administration.
Overview of the emission norms in India
 1991 – Idle CO Limits for Petrol Vehicles and Free Acceleration Smoke for Diesel
Vehicles, Mass Emission Norms for Petrol Vehicles.
 1992 – Mass Emission Norms for Diesel Vehicles.
 1996 – Revision of Mass Emission Norms for Petrol and Diesel Vehicles, mandatory
fitment of Catalytic Converter for Cars in Metros on Unleaded Petrol.
 1998 – Cold Start Norms Introduced.
 2000 – India 2000 (Equivalent to Euro I) Norms, Modified IDC (Indian Driving
Cycle), Bharat Stage II Norms for Delhi.
 2001 – Bharat Stage II (Equivalent to Euro II) Norms for All Metros, Emission
Norms for CNG & LPG Vehicles.
 2003 – Bharat Stage II (Equivalent to Euro II) Norms for 13 major cities.
 2005 – From 1 April Bharat Stage III (Equivalent to Euro III) Norms for 13 major
cities.
 2010 – Bharat Stage III Emission Norms for 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers and 4-wheelers
for entire country whereas Bharat Stage – IV (Equivalent to Euro IV) for 13 major
cities for only 4-wheelers. Bharat Stage IV also has norms on OBD (similar to Euro
III but diluted)
 2020 – Proposed date for country to adopt Bharat Stage VI norms for cars, skipping
Bharat Stage V
Ineffectiveness of present pollution control system

Presently, all vehicles need to undergo a periodic emission check (3 months/ 6 months) at
PUC Centres at Fuel Stations and Private Garages which are authorised to check the vehicles.
In addition, transport vehicles need to undergo an annual fitness check carried out by RTOs
for emissions, safety and road-worthiness.
The objective of reducing pollution not achieved to a large extent by the present system.
Some reasons for this are: – Independent centres do not follow rigorous procedures due to
inadequate training – Equipment not subjected to periodic calibration by independent
authority – Lack of professionalism has led to malpractice – Tracking system of vehicles
failing to meet norms non-existent
Comparison between Bharat Stage and Euro norms
The Bharat Stage norms have been styled to suit specific needs and demands of Indian
conditions. The differences lie essentially in environmental and geographical needs, even
though the emission standards are exactly the same.
For instance, Euro-III is tested at sub-zero temperatures in European countries. In India,
where the average annual temperature ranges between 24 and 28 °C, the test is done away
with.
Another major distinction is in the maximum speed at which the vehicle is tested. A speed of
90 km/h is stipulated for BS-III, whereas it is 120 km/h for Euro-III, keeping emission limits
the same in both cases
In addition to limits, test procedure has certain finer points too. For instance, the mass
emission test measurements done in g/km on a chassis dynamometer requires a loading of
100 kg weight in addition to unloaded car weight in Europe. In India, BS-III norms require an
extra loading of 150 kg weight to achieve the desired inertia weight mainly due to road
conditions here.
Non-existence of CO2 limits
Various groups and agencies have criticised the government and urged the government of
India to draft mandatory fuel efficiency standards for cars in the country, or at least to make
the CO2 emissions labelling mandatory on all new cars in the country. The auto companies
should inform the customers about a vehicle's emissions.
Lag behind Euro standards
There has been criticism of the fact that the Indian norms lag the Euro norms. As of 2014,
only a few cities meet Euro IV or Bharat Stage IV standards that are nine years behind
Europe. The rest of India gets Bharat Stage III standard fuel and vehicles, which are 14 years
behind Europe. Also, there was a suggestion from some bodies to implement Euro IV norms
after Euro II norms, skipping the Euro III norms totally. This is because the Euro III norms
are only a small improvement over Euro II, whereas Euro IV norms mark a big leap over
Euro II. According to a study conducted by the Desert Research Institute and the Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi, the only way to stabilise fine particulates (PM2.5) at the 2011
levels despite the five-fold rise in vehicular density is nationwide implementation of Bharat V
standards by 2015.
Cycle beating
For the emission standards to deliver real emission reductions it is crucial that the test cycles
under which the emissions have to comply as much as possible reflect normal driving
situations. It was discovered that manufacturers of engine would engage in what was called
'cycle beating' to optimise emission performance to the test cycle, while emissions from
typical driving conditions would be much higher than expected, undermining the standards
and public health. In one particular instance, research from two German technology institutes
found that for diesel cars no 'real' NOx reductions have been achieved after 13 years of
stricter standards.
Need for uniform emissions standards across the country
The practice of limiting improved emissions standards only to a few cities and to a smaller
proportion of urban population has been criticised as violating the fundamental right to
healthy life for all. This also does not allow lorries to move to cleaner fuel and technology
and they heavily pollute cities during transit and aggravate pollution in cities. Many persons
and establishments try to purchase Bharat Stage III vehicles and fuel from outside city limits
in order to take advantage of lower prices, even though these are used in cities.