7.

Trigonometric Functions

7.1 Degree and Radian Measure

7.1.1 Angles
Trigonometry means “measurement of triangles.”
• Initially, trigonometry dealt with relationships among the sides and angles of triangles
and was used in the development of astronomy, navigation, and surveying.
• With the development of calculus and the physical sciences in the 17th century, a
different perspective aroseone that viewed the classic trigonometric relationships as
functions with the set of real numbers as their domains. Consequently, the applications
of trigonometry expanded to include a vast number of physical phenomena involving
rotations and vibrations. These phenomena include sound waves, light rays, planetary
orbits, vibrating strings, pendulums, and orbits of atomic particles.
The approach in this course incorporates both perspectives, starting with angles and their
measure.
• An angle is determined by rotating a ray (half-line) about its endpoint.
• The starting position of the ray is the initial side of the angle, and the position after
rotation is the terminal side.
• The endpoint of the ray is the vertex of the angle.
• If the origin is the vertex and the initial side coincides with the positive-axis, we say
that the angle is in standard position.

• Positive angles are generated by counterclockwise rotation, and negative angles by

clockwise rotation.
• Two angles are coterminal if they have the same initial and terminal sides.
 66 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

7.1.2 Degree and Radian Measure

The measure of an angle is determined by the amount of rotation from the initial side to the
terminal side. One way, which is known, to measure angles is in degree.

1
Definition 7.1.1 A measure of one degree (1◦ ) is equivalent to a rotation of of a
360
complete revolution about the vertex.
1
• A minute of arc or arcminute (1′ ) is a unit of angular measurement equal to
60
of one degree. That is

1◦ = 60′ .
1 1
• A second of arc or arcsecond (1′′ ) is of an arcminute or of a degree.
60 3600
That is

1′ = 60′′ or 1◦ = 3600′′ .

Example 7.1 85◦ 18′ 30′′ ≈ 85.308◦ 

Figure 7.1: Degrees on the circumference of a circle

Another way to measure angles is in radians. This type of measure is especially useful in
calculus.

Definition 7.1.2 One radian is the measure of a central angle θ that intercepts an arc s
equal in length to the radius r of the circle. Algebraically, this means that
s
θ=
r
where θ is measured in radians.

Example 7.2 If the length of the arc equals the length of the radius, the angle has a measure
of 1 radian. 
7.1 Degree and Radian Measure 67

R The circumference of a circle of radius r is 2π r ≈ (6.28)r units.

The following are common angles.

Recall that the four quadrants in a coordinate system are numbered I, II, III, and IV. The
below picture shows which angles between 0 and 2π lie in each of the four quadrants.

Example 7.3 Give an example of a coterminal angle of each angle.

(a) 13π /6 (b) 3π /4 (c) −2π /3


68 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

• Two positive angles α and β are complementary (complements of each other) if their
sum is π /2.
• Two positive angles are supplementary (supplements of each other) if their sum is π .

Example 7.4 If possible, find the complement and the supplement of

(a) 2π /5 (b) 4π /5.

R
π
• 1◦ = radian ≈ 0.01745 radian
180
180◦
• 1 radian = ≈ 57◦ 18′
π

Conversions Between Degrees and Radians

π rad
• To convert degrees to radians, multiply degrees by .
180◦
180◦
• To convert radians to degrees, multiply radians by .
π rad

Example 7.5  
π rad 3π
1. 135◦= (135 deg) = radians
180 deg 4
π  π   180 deg 
2. − rad = − rad = −90◦
2 2 π rad
 
180 deg 360◦
3. 2 rad = (2 rad ) = ≈ 114.59◦
π rad π


R When no units of angle measure are specified, radian measure is implied. For instance,
if you write θ = 2, you imply that θ = 2 radians.
 7.1 Degree and Radian Measure 69

7.1.3 Applications
Arc Length

For a circle of radius r, a central angle θ intercepts an arc of length s given by

s = rθ

where θ is measured in radians. Note that if r = 1, then s = θ and the radian measure
of θ equals the arc length.

Example 7.6 A circle has a radius of 4 inches. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a
central angle of 240◦ as shown in the figure below.

Linear and Angular Speeds

Consider a particle moving at a constant speed along a circular arc of radius r. If s is

the length of the arc traveled in time t, then the linear speed of the particle is
arc length s
Linear speed v = = .
time t
Moreover, if θ is the angle (in radian measure) corresponding to the arc length s, then
the angular speed ω (the lowercase Greek letter omega) of the particle is
central angle θ
Angular speed ω = = .
time t

Example 7.7 A Ferris wheel with a 50-foot radius makes 1.5 revolutions per minute.

1. Find the angular speed of the Ferris

wheel in radians per minute.
2. Find the linear speed of the Ferris
wheel.

 70 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

A sector of a circle is the region bounded by two radii of the circle and their intercepted arc.

Area of a Sector of a Circle

For a circle of radius r, the area A of a sector

of the circle with central angle θ is given by
1
A = r2 θ
2
where θ is measured in radians.

Example 7.8 A sprinkler on a golf course fairway

is set to spray water over a distance of 70 feet and
rotates through an angle of 120◦ . Find the area of
the fairway watered by the sprinkler. 

7.1.4 Exercises
1. Estimate (a) the number of degrees in the angle and (b) the angle to the nearest one-half
radian.

2. Determine two coterminal angles (one positive and one negative) for each angle. Give
your answers in radians.
7.1 Degree and Radian Measure 71

3. Find the angle in radians.

4. (Linear and Angular Speeds) A carousel with a 50-foot diameter makes 4 revolutions
per minute.
4.1. Find the angular speed of the carousel in radians per minute.
4.2. Find the linear speed of the platform rim of the carousel.
5. (Speed of a Bicycle) The radii of the pedal sprocket, the wheel sprocket, and the wheel
of the bicycle in the figure are 4 inches, 2 inches, and 14 inches, respectively. A cyclist
is pedaling at a rate of 1 revolution per second.

(a) Find the speed of the bicycle in feet per second and miles per hour.
(b) Use your result from part (a) to write a function for the distance (in miles) a
cyclist travels in terms of the number of revolutions of the pedal sprocket. Find
the linear speed of the Ferris wheel.
(c) Write a function for the distance (in miles) a cyclist travels in terms of the time
(in seconds). Compare this function with the function from part (b).
 72 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

7.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle

7.2.1 The Unit Circle
Consider the unit circle given by x2 + y2 = 1

Imagine that the real number line is wrapped around this circle, with positive numbers cor-
responding to a counterclockwise wrapping and negative numbers corresponding to a clock-
wise wrapping.

As the real number line is wrapped around the unit circle, each real number t corresponds
to a point (x, y) on the circle. For example, the real number 0 corresponds to the point
(1, 0). Moreover, because the unit circle has a circumference of 2π , the real number 2π also
corresponds to the point (1, 0).

In general, each real number t also corresponds to a central angle θ (in standard position)
whose radian measure is t. With this interpretation of t, the arc length formula s = rθ (with
r = 1) indicates that the real number t is the length of the arc intercepted by the angle θ ,
given in radians.
 7.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle 73

7.2.2 The Trigonometric Functions

From the preceding discussion, it follows that the coordinates x and y are two functions of
the real variable t. We can use these coordinates to define the six trigonometric functions of
t.

sine cosecant cosine secant tangent cotangent

Definition 7.2.1 (Trigonometric Functions) Let t be a real number and let (x, y) be the
point on the unit circle corresponding to t.

y
sint = y cost = x tant = , x ̸= 0
x
1 1 x
csct = , y ̸= 0 sect = , x ̸= 0 ̸ 0
cott = , y =
y x y

1. The domain of the sine and cosine functions

is R
R 2. The range of the sine and cosine functions is
[−1, 1].
3. sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 for all t ∈ R.

The unit circle has been divided into eight equal

arcs, corresponding to t-values of
π π 3π 5π 3π 7π
0, , , , π , , , , and 2π
4 2 4 4 2 4

Similarly, the unit circle has been divided into 12

equal arcs, corresponding to t-values of
π π π 2π 5π 7π 4π 3π 5π 11π
0, , , , , , π , , , , , , and 2π
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
74 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions
√ !
3 1
Example 7.9 Since t = π /6 corresponds to the point (x, y) = , , we have
2 2

π 1 π 1
sin =y= csc = =2
6 2 6 y
√ √
π 3 π 1 2 3
cos = x = sec = =
6 2 6 x 3
√
π y 3 π x √
tan = = cot = = 3.
6 x 3 6 y


Example 7.10 Evaluate the six trigonometric functions at each real number.

5π (c) t = π
π
(a) t = (b) t = 0 (d) t = −
4 3


Definition 7.2.2 A function f is periodic if there exists a positive real number c such
that

f (t + c) = f (t)

for all t in the domain of f . The smallest number c for which f is periodic is called the
period of f .

R Observe that

sin(t + 2π n) = sint and cos(t + 2π n) = cost

for any n ∈ Z and t ∈ R. So, the sine and cosine functions are periodic and have a period
of 2π .
 7.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle 75
Recall that a function f is even if f (−t) = f (t), and is odd if f (−t) = − f (t).

Theorem 7.2.1 (Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions) The cosine and secant func-
tions are even.

cos(−t) = cost sec(−t) = sect

The sine, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent functions are odd.

sin(−t) = − sint csc(−t) = − csct

tan(−t) = − tant cot(−t) = − cott

Example 7.11
13π π 13π
1. Because = 2π + , you have sin =
6 6 6
 
7π π 7π
2. Because − = −4π + , you have cos − =
2 2 2
4
3. If sint = , you have sin(−t) =
5


7.2.3 Exercises
1. Determine the exact values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle θ .

2. Find the point (x, y) on the unit circle that corresponds to the real number t.
2.1. t = π /4
2.2. t = 7π /6
2.3. t = 5π /3
2.4. t = π
 76 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

7.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry

7.3.1 The Six Trigonometric Functions

Our second look at the trigonometric functions is from a right triangle perspective. Consider
a right triangle, with one acute angle labeled as shown in Figure 7.2. Relative to the angle
θ , the three sides of the triangle are the hypotenuse, the opposite side (the side opposite the
angle θ ), and the adjacent side (the side adjacent to the angle θ ).

Figure 7.2: A right triangle

In the following definitions, it is important to see that 0◦ < θ < 90◦ (θ lies in the first
quadrant) and that for such angles the value of each trigonometric function is positive.

Definition 7.3.1 (Right Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Functions) Let θ be an

acute angle of a right triangle. The six trigonometric functions of the angle θ are de-
fined as follows. (Note that the functions in the second row are the reciprocals of the
corresponding functions in the first row.)

opp adj opp

sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
hyp hyp adj

hyp hyp adj

csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
opp adj opp

The abbreviations opp, adj, and hyp represent the lengths of the three sides of a right
triangle.

opp = the length of the side opposite θ

adj = the length of the side adjacent to θ
hyp = the length of the hypotenuse
7.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry 77

Sines, Cosines, and Tangents of Special Angles

√
π 1 π 3 π 1
sin 30◦ = sin = cos 30◦ = cos = tan 30◦ = tan =√
6 2 6 2 6 3
√ √
π 2 π 2 π
sin 45◦ = sin = cos 45◦ = cos = tan 45◦ = tan =1
4 2 4 2 4
√
π 3 π 1 π √
sin 60◦ = sin = cos 60◦ = cos = tan 60◦ = tan = 3
3 2 3 2 3

R It can be shown from the right triangle definitions that cofunctions of complementary
angles are equal. That is, if θ is an acute angle, the following relationships are true.

sin(90◦ − θ ) = cos θ cos(90◦ − θ ) = sin θ

tan(90◦ − θ ) = cot θ cot(90◦ − θ ) = tan θ

sec(90◦ − θ ) = csc θ csc(90◦ − θ ) = sec θ

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

Reciprocal Identities

1 1 1
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
csc θ sec θ cot θ
1 1 1
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ

Quotient Identities

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

Pythagorean Identities

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

 78 Chapter 7. Trigonometric Functions

Example 7.12
1. Let θ be an acute angle such that sin θ = 0.6. Then,
1.1. cos θ =
1.2. tan θ =
1.3. csc θ =
2. Let θ be an acute angle such that tan θ = 3. Then,
2.1. cot θ =
2.2. sec θ =
2.3. sin θ =


7.3.2 Applications Involving Right Triangles

An angle of elevation represents the angle from the horizontal upward to an object. For
objects that lie below the horizontal, it is common to use the term angle of depression, as
shown in Figure 7.3

Figure 7.3: An angle of elevation and an angle of depression

Example 7.13 (Height of a Mountain) In traveling across flat land, you notice a mountain
directly in front of you. Its angle of elevation (to the peak) is 3.5◦ . After you drive 13 miles
closer to the mountain, the angle of elevation is 9◦ . Approximate the height of the mountain.


 7.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry 79

7.3.3 Exercises
1. Solve for x and y.

2. A man wishes to find the height of a church which stands on a horizontal plane; at a
point on this plane he finds the angle of elevation of the top of the church to be 45◦ ;
on walking 100 feet toward the church he finds the corresponding angle of elevation
to be 60◦ ; deduce the height of the church and also his original distance from the foot
of the church.
3. (Machine Shop Calculation) A tapered shaft has a diameter of 5 centimeters at the
small end and is 15 centimeters long (see figure). The taper is 3◦ . Find the diameter d
of the large end of the shaft.

4. (Length) A steel cable zip-line is being constructed for a competition on a reality

television show. One end of the zip-line is attached to a platform on top of a 150-foot
pole. The other end of the zip-line is attached to the top of a 5-foot stake. The angle
of elevation to the platform is 23◦ (see figure).

4.1. How long is the zip-pole?

4.2. How far is the stake from the pole?
 8. Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

8.1 Introduction
In the previous section, the definitions of trigonometric functions were restricted to acute
angles. In this section, the definitions are extended to cover any angle.
Example 8.1 Let (−3, 4) be a point on the terminal side of θ . Find the sine, cosine, and
tangent of θ .

Definition 8.1.1 Let θ be an angle in standard position

p a point (x, y) on the terminal side of θ and r =
with
x2 + y2 ̸= 0.

y x
sin θ = cos θ =
r r
y x
tan θ = , x ̸= 0 cot θ = , y ̸= 0
x y
r r
sec θ = , x ≠ 0 csc θ = , y ≠ 0
x y

The signs of the trigonometric functions in the four quadrants can be determined easily from
the definitions of the functions. For instance, because cos θ = x/r, it follows that cos θ is
positive wherever x > 0 which is in Quadrants I and IV. (Remember, r is always positive.)
 82 Chapter 8. Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
5
Example 8.2 Given tan θ = − and cos θ > 0, find sin θ and sec θ . 
4

8.2 Reference Angles

The values of the trigonometric functions of angles greater than 90◦ (or less than 0◦ ) can be
determined from their values at corresponding acute angles called reference angles.

Definition 8.2.1 Let θ be an angle in standard position. Its reference angle is the acute
angle θ ′ formed by the terminal side of θ and the horizontal axis.

Figure 8.1: shows the reference angles θ for in Quadrants II, III, and IV

Example 8.3 Find the reference angle θ ′ .

(a) θ = 300◦ (b) θ = 2.3 (c) θ = −135◦


 8.3 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers 83

8.3 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers

To see how a reference angle is used to evaluate a trigonometric function, consider the point
(x, y) on the terminal side of θ , as shown in the figure below.
By definition, you know that
y y
sin θ = and tan θ = .
r x
For the right triangle with acute angle θ ′ and
sides of lengths |x| and |y|, you have

|y| |y|
sin θ ′ = and tan θ ′ = .
r |x|

So, it follows that sin θ and sin θ ′ are equal,

except possibly in sign. The same is true for
tan θ and tan θ ′ and for the other four trigono-
metric functions. In all cases, the sign of the
function value can be determined by the quad-
rant in which θ lies.

Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

To find the value of a trigonometric function of any angle θ :

1. Determine the function value for the associated reference angle θ ′ .
2. Depending on the quadrant in which θ lies, affix the appropriate sign to the
function value.

By using reference angles and the special angles discussed

in the preceding section, you can greatly extend the scope of
exact trigonometric values.

Example 8.4 Evaluate each trigonometric function.

4π (b) tan(−210◦ ) 11π

(a) cos (c) csc
3 4

 84 Chapter 8. Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

8.4 Exercises
1. Determine the exact values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle θ .

2. Complete the table.

Angle θ Angle θ
Quadrant sin θ cos θ tan θ cot θ sec θ csc θ
(radians) (degrees)

3π

−315◦
37π
6
480◦
15π
−
2
4

−80◦ 30′

3 sec A + csc A
3. Let A be an angle such that tan A < 0 and cos A = − . Find .
5 cot A
10 sin x + 7 cos x
4. Let x be an angle such that 3 cot x = 4 and sin x > 0. Find .
5 sin x − 3 cos x
π
5. Let θ be an angle such that < θ < π and 8 sin θ = 4 + cos θ . Find cos θ .
2
8.4 Exercises 85

6. Find x satisfying the equation

25π 15π 16π 13π 7π
cos cos − sin sin = x sec .
4 4 3 3 4

sin 195◦ cos 150◦ tan 345◦

7. Let a = sin 15◦ . Find .
csc(−375◦ ) sec 555◦ cos 105◦

8. Find k ∈ R such that the expression (sin x + cos x)2 + k sin x cos x = 1 becomes an iden-
tity.
9. Prove that sin6 x + cos6 x + 3(sin x cos x)2 = 1 for all x ∈ R.
1
10. Let x ∈ (0, π ). If sin x + cos x = , find sin x and cos x.
5
9x2 sin2 x + 4
11. Find the minimum value of the function φ (x) = over the interval (0, π ).
x sin x
12. Let A be the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle of α ◦ as shown in the
below figure. Find sin(α ◦ ) − sin A.

13. 13.1. Use Figure 8.2 to deduce that cos(2θ ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ .

Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3

13.2. Suppose that A, B and C are three points lying on the unit circle as shown in
Figure 8.3. Let D be the feet of the perpendicular from C to the x-axis. If CD = 2
and the length of arcs AC and CB are equal, find AB.
 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

9.1 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions

9.1.1 Basic Sine and Cosine Curves
In Figure 9.1, the black portion of the graph represents one period of the function and is
called one cycle of the sine curve. The gray portion of the graph indicates that the basic sine
curve repeats indefinitely in the positive and negative directions. The graph of the cosine
function is shown in Figure 9.2.

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Recall that
• the domain of the sine and cosine functions is the set of all real numbers,
• the range of each function is the interval [−1, 1],
• each function has a period of 2π .

R
• The sine curve is symmetric with respect to the origin.
• The cosine curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
 88 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

To sketch the graphs of the basic sine and cosine functions by hand, it helps to note five key
points in one period of each graph: the intercepts, maximum points, and minimum points
(see Figure 9.3).

Figure 9.3

Example 9.1 Fill the table and sketch the graph of y = 2 sin x on the interval [−π , 4π ].

Intercept

Maximum

Intercept

Minimum

Intercept

9.1.2 Amplitude and Period

In the remainder of this section you will study the graphic effect of each of the constants
a, b, c and d in equations of the forms

y = d + a sin(bx − c) and y = d + a cos(bx − c).

The constant factor a in y = a sin x acts as a scaling factor — a vertical stretch or vertical
shrink of the basic sine curve. If |a| > 1, the basic sine curve is stretched, and if |a| < 1
the basic sine curve is shrunk. The result is that the graph of y = a sin x ranges between −a
and a instead of between −1 and 1. The absolute value of a is the amplitude of the function
y = a sin x. The range of the function y = a sin x for a > 0 is −a ≤ y ≤ a.
9.1 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 89

Definition 9.1.1 The amplitude of y = a sin x and y = a cos x represents half the distance
between the maximum and minimum values of the function and is given by

Amplitude = |a|.

Example 9.2 On the same coordinate axes, sketch the graph of each function.
1
1. y = cos x
2
2. y = 3 cos x
3. y = −3 cos x

Maximum

Intercept

Minimum

Intercept

Maximum

R The graph of y = − f (x) is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph of y = f (x).

Because y = a sin x completes one cycle from x = 0 to x = 2π , it follows that y = a sin bx

completes one cycle from to x = 0 to x = 2π /b.

Period of Sine and Cosine Functions

Let b be a positive real number. The period of y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx is given by
2π
Period = .
b
 90 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

R
• If 0 < b < 1, the period of y = a sin bx is greater than 2π and represents a horizon-
tal stretching of the graph of y = a sin x.
• If b > 1, the period of y = a sin bx is greater than 2π and represents a horizontal
shrinking of the graph of y = a sin x.
• If b is negative, the identities sin(−x) = − sin x and cos(−x) = cos x are used to
rewrite the function.

x
Example 9.3 Find the amplitude, the period and sketch the graph of y = sin . 
2

9.1.3 Translations of Sine and Cosine Curves

The constant c in the general equations

y = a sin(bx − c) and y = a cos(bx − c).

creates a horizontal translation (shift) of the basic sine and cosine curves. Comparing y =
a sin bx with y = a sin(bx − c), you find that the graph of y = a sin(bx − c) completes one
cycle from bx − c = 0 to bx − c = 2π . By solving for x you can find the interval for one cycle
to be

Right endpoint
Left endpoint
z}|{ z }| {
c c 2π
≤x≤ + .
b b |{z}
b
Period

This implies that the period of y = a sin(bx−c) is 2π /b and the graph of y = a sin bx is shifted
by an amount c/b. The number c/b is the phase shift.
9.1 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 91

Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions

The graphs of y = a sin(bx −c) and y = a cos(bx −c) have the following characteristics.
(Assume b > 0)
2π
Amplitude = |a| Period = .
b
The left and right endpoints of a one-cycle interval can be determined by solving the
equations bx − c = 0 and bx − c = 2π .

Example 9.4 Sketch the graph of each function.

1  π
1. y = sin x − .
2 3
2. y = −3 cos(2π x + 4π )


The final type of transformation is the vertical translation caused by the constant d in the
equations

y = d + a sin(bx − c) and y = d + a cos(bx − c).

The shift is d units upward for d > 0 and d units downward for d < 0. In other words, the
graph oscillates about the horizontal line y = d instead of about the x-axis.
92 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Example 9.5 Sketch the graph of y = 2 + 3 cos 2x. 

Example 9.6 (Finding a Trigonometric Model)

Throughout the day, the depth of water at the end of a dock in Bar Harbor, Maine varies with
the tides. The table shows the depths (in feet) at various times during the morning. (Source:
Nautical Software, Inc.)

1. Use a trigonometric function to model the data.

2. Find the depths at 9 A.M. and 3 P.M.
3. A boat needs at least 10 feet of water to moor at the dock. During what times in the
afternoon can it safely dock?

 9.1 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 93

9.1.4 Exercises
1. Find the period and amplitude.
(a) y = 3 sin 2x (b) y = 2 cos 3x

5 x x
(c) y = cos (d) y = −3 sin
2 2 3

1 πx 2x
(e) y = sin (f) y = − cos
2 3 3
2. Describe the relationship between the graphs of f and g. Consider amplitude, period,
and shifts.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

3. Graph f and g on the same set of coordinate axes. (Include two full periods.)
3.1. f (x) = 2 cos 2x, g(x) = − cos 4x
1 x 1 x
3.2. f (x) = − sin , g(x) = 3 − sin
2 2 2 2
94 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

4. Sketch the graph of the function. (Include two full periods.)

2π x
4.1. y = 2 − sin
3
 π
4.2. y = 4 cos x + +4
4
5. Find a and d for the function f (x) = a cos x + d such that the graph of f matches the
figure.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

6. Find a, b and c for the function f (x) = a sin(bx − c) such that the graph of f matches
the figure.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
 9.2 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 95

9.2 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions

9.2.1 Graph of the Tangent Function
Recall that the tangent function is odd. That is, tan(−x) = − tan x. Consequently, the graph
of y = tan x is symmetric with respect to the origin. You also know from the identity tan x =
sin x/ cos x that the tangent is undefined for values at which cos x = 0.

As indicated in the table, tan x increases without bound as x approaches π /2 from the left,
and decreases without bound as x approaches −π /2 from the right. So, the graph of y = tan x
has vertical asymptotes at x = π /2 and x = −π /2 as shown in Figure 9.4. Moreover, because
the period of the tangent function is π , vertical asymptotes also occur when x = π /2 + nπ ,
where n is an integer. The domain of the tangent function is the set of all real numbers other
than x = π /2 + nπ , and the range is the set of all real numbers.

Figure 9.4

Sketching the graph of y = a tan(bx − c) is similar to sketching the graph of y = a sin(bx − c)

in that you locate key points that identify the intercepts and asymptotes.
• Two consecutive vertical asymptotes can be found by solving the equations
π π
bx − c = − and bx − c = .
2 2
• The midpoint between two consecutive vertical asymptotes is an x-intercept of the
graph.
• The period of the function y = a tan(bx − c) is the distance between two consecutive
vertical asymptotes.
• The amplitude of a tangent function is not defined.
• After plotting the asymptotes and the x-intercept, plot a few additional points between
the two asymptotes and sketch one cycle. Finally, sketch one or two additional cycles
to the left and right.
 96 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Example 9.7 Sketch the graph of each function.

x
1. y = tan
2
2. y = −3 tan 2x


R By comparing the graphs in Examples 9.7, you can see that the graph of y = a tan(bx−c)
increases between consecutive vertical asymptotes when a > 0, and decreases between
consecutive vertical asymptotes when a < 0. In other words, the graph for a < 0 is a
reflection in the x-axis of the graph for a > 0.

9.2.2 Graph of the Cotangent Function

The graph of the cotangent function is similar to the graph of the tangent function. It also
has a period of π . However, from the identity
cos x
y = cot x =
sin x
you can see that the cotangent function has vertical asymptotes when sin x is zero, which
occurs at x = nπ where n is an integer. The graph of the cotangent function is shown in
Figure 9.5. Note that two consecutive vertical asymptotes of the graph of y = a cot(bx − c)
can be found by solving the equations bx − c = 0 and bx − c = π .

Figure 9.5
 9.2 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 97
x
Example 9.8 Sketch the graph of y = 2 cot . 
3

9.2.3 Graphs of the Reciprocal Functions

The graphs of the two remaining trigonometric functions can be obtained from the graphs of
the sine and cosine functions using the reciprocal identities
1 1
csc x = and sec x = .
sin x cos x
For instance, at a given value of x, the y-coordinate ofsec x is the reciprocal of the y-coordinate
of cos x. Of course, when cos x = 0, the reciprocal does not exist. Near such values of x, the
behavior of the secant function is similar to that of the tangent function. In other words, the
graphs of

sin x 1
tan x = and sec x = .
cos x cos x
π
have vertical asymptotes at x = + nπ , where n is an integer, and the cosine is zero at these
2
x-values. Similarly,

cos x 1
cot x = and csc x = .
sin x sin x
have vertical asymptotes where sin x = 0 —that is, at x = nπ .

To sketch the graph of a secant or cosecant function, you should first make a sketch of its
reciprocal function. For instance, to sketch the graph of y = csc x, first sketch the graph of
sin x. Then take reciprocals of the y-coordinates to obtain points on the graph of y = csc x.
This procedure is used to obtain the graphs shown in Figure 9.6.
98 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Figure 9.6

R In comparing the graphs of the cosecant and secant

functions with those of the sine and cosine functions,
note that the hills and valleys are interchanged. For
example,
• a hill (or maximum point) on the sine curve
corresponds to a valley (a relative minimum)
on the cosecant curve, and a valley (or mini-
mum point) on the sine curve corresponds to
a hill (a relative maximum) on the cosecant
curve, as shown in Figure 9.7.
• x-intercepts of the sine and cosine functions
become vertical asymptotes of the cosecant Figure 9.7
and secant functions, respectively (see Figure
9.7).

Example 9.9 Sketch

 the graph of each functions.
π
1. y = 2 csc x +
4
2. y = sec 2x

 9.2 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 99

9.2.4 Damped Trigonometric Graphs

A product of two functions can be graphed using properties of the individual functions. For
instance, consider the function
f (x) = x sin x
as the product of the functions y = x and y = sin x. Using properties of absolute value and the
fact that | sin x| ≤ 1, you have 0 ≤ |x|| sin x| ≤ |x|. Consequently,
−|x| ≤ x sin x ≤ |x|
which means that the graph of f (x) = x sin x lies between the lines y = −x and y = x. Further-
more, because
π
f (x) = x sin x = ±x at x = + nπ
2
and
f (x) = x sin x = 0 at x = nπ
the graph of f touches the line y = −x or the line y = x at x = π /2 + nπ and has x-intercepts
at x = nπ . A sketch of f is shown in Figure 9.8. In the function f (x) = x sin x, the factor x is
called the damping factor.

Figure 9.8

Example 9.10 Sketch the graph of f (x) = e−x sin 3x. 

 100 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

We summarize the characteristics of the six basic trigonometric functions.

9.2.5 Exercises
1. Match the function with its graph. State the period of the function.
x 1
1. y = sec 2x 2. y = tan 3. y = cot π x
2 2
1 πx πx
4. y = − csc x 5. y = sec 6. y = −2 sec
2 2 2

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

9.2 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 101

2. Sketch the graph of the function. Include two full periods.

2.1. y = −3 tan π x
2.2. y = sec π x − 1
x
2.3. y = csc
2
 π
2.4. y = 2 cot x +
2
3. Use a graph to solve the equation on the interval [−2π , 2π ].
3.1. tan x = 1
√
3
3.2. cot x = −
3
√
2 3
3.3. csc x = −
3
4. Consider the functions given by
1
f (x) = 2 sin x and g(x) = csc x
2
on the interval (0, π ).
4.1. Graph f and g in the same coordinate plane.
4.2. Approximate the interval in which f > g.
4.3. Describe the behavior of each of the functions as x approaches π . How is the
behavior of g related to the behavior of f as x approaches π .
5. Match the function with its graph. Describe the behavior of the function as x ap-
proaches zero.

1. f (x) = |x cos x| 2. f (x) = x sin x 3. f (x) = |x| sin x 4. f (x) = |x| cos x

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
102 Chapter 9. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

6. Use a graphing utility to graph the function. Describe the behavior of the function as
x approaches zero.
6
6.1. f (x) = + cos x, x > 0
x
sin x
6.2. f (x) =
x
1 − cos x
6.3. f (x) =
x
1
6.4. f (x) = sin
x
1
6.5. f (x) = x sin
x
 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

10.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

10.1.1 Inverse Sine Function
Recall that, for a function to have an inverse function, it must be one-to-one — that is, it
must pass the Horizontal Line Test. From Figure 10.1, you can see that y = sin x does not
pass the test because different values of x yield the same y-value.

Figure 10.1

However, if you restrict the domain to the interval −π /2 ≤ x ≤ π /2 (corresponding to the

black portion of the graph in Figure 10.1, the following properties hold.
1. On the interval [−π /2, π /2], the function y = sin x is increasing.
2. On the interval [−π /2, π /2], y = sin x takes on its full range of values, −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1.
3. On the interval [−π /2, π /2], y = sin x is one-to-one.
So, on the restricted domain −π /2 ≤ x ≤ π /2, y = sin x has a unique inverse function called
the inverse sine function. It is denoted by

y = arcsin x or y = sin−1 x.

The notation sin−1 x is consistent with the inverse function notation f −1 (x).

R
• The arcsin x notation (read as “the arcsine of x”) comes from the association of a
central angle with its intercepted arc length on a unit circle. So, arcsin x means
the angle (or arc) whose sine is x.
• Remember that sin−1 x denotes the inverse sine function rather than 1/ sin x.
• The values of arcsin x lie in the interval −π /2 ≤ arcsin x ≤ π /2.
104 Chapter 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

Definition 10.1.1 The inverse sine function is defined by

y = arcsin x if and only if sin y = x

where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and −π /2 ≤ y ≤ π /2. The domain of y = arcsin x is [−1, 1], and the
range is [−π /2, π /2].

Example 10.1 If possible, find the exact value.

 
1
1. arcsin −
2
√
3
2. sin−1
2
−1
3. sin 2


Example 10.2
By definition, the equations y = arcsin x and sin y = x are equivalent for −π /2 ≤ y ≤ π /2.
So, their graphs are the same. Fill the below table and sketch a graph of y = arcsin x.


 10.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 105

10.1.2 Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The cosine function is decreasing and one-to-one on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ π as shown in
Figure 10.2.

Figure 10.2

Consequently, on this interval the cosine function has an inverse function — the inverse
cosine function — denoted by

y = arccos x or y = cos−1 x.

Similarly, you can define an inverse tangent function by restricting the domain of y = tan x
to the interval (−π /2, π /2). The following list summarizes the definitions of the three most
common inverse trigonometric functions.

Definition 10.1.2 (Definitions of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

Function Domain Range

π π
y = arcsin x if and only if sin y = x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 − ≤y≤
2 2
y = arccos x if and only if cos y = x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤y≤π
π π
y = arctan x if and only if tan y = x −∞ < x < ∞ − <y<
2 2
The graphs of these three inverse trigonometric functions are shown in Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3
 106 Chapter 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

Example 10.3 Find the exact value.

√
2
1. arccos
2
−1
2. cos (−1)
3. arctan 0
4. tan−1 (−1)


10.1.3 Compositions of Functions

Recall that for all x in the domains of f and f −1 , inverse functions have the properties


f f −1 (x) = x and f −1 ( f (x)) = x.

Inverse Properties of Trigonometric Functions

π π
• If −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤ y ≤ then
2 2
sin (arcsin(x)) = x and arcsin (sin(y)) = y.

• If −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π then

cos (arccos(x)) = x and arccos (cos(y)) = y.

π π
• If x is a real number and − < y < then
2 2
tan (arctan(x)) = x and arctan (tan(y)) = y.

R Keep in mind that these inverse properties do not apply for arbitrary values of x and y.
For instance,
 
3π π 3π
arcsin sin = arcsin(−1) = − ̸= .
2 2 2

In other words, the property

arcsin (sin(y)) = y

is not valid for values of y outside the interval [−π /2, π /2].

Example 10.4 If possible, find the exact value.

1. tan [arctan(−5)]
 
5π
2. arcsin sin
3
−1


3. cos cos π

10.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 107

Example 10.5 Find the exact value.

 
2
1. tan arccos
3
  
3
2. cos arcsin −
5


Example 10.6 Write each of the following as an algebraic expression in x.

1
1. sin (arccos 3x) , 0 ≤ x ≤
3
1
2. cot (arccos 3x) , 0 ≤ x <
3

 108 Chapter 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

10.1.4 Exercises
1. Determine the missing coordinates of the points on the graph of the function.

(a) (b)

2. Find the exact value of the expression.

√ !
2.1. sin(arcsin 0.3) 5
2.7. sin cos−1
2.2. cos [arccos(−0.1)] 5
  
2.3. arcsin(sin 3π ) 5
  2.8. csc arctan −
7π 12
2.4. arccos cos   
2 3
  2.9. sec arctan −
3 5
2.5. sin arctan   
4 2

2.10. sin arccos −
2.6. cos tan−1 2 3

3. Write an algebraic expression that is equivalent to the expression.

 
3.1. cot(arctan x) 1
3.5. cot arctan
x
3.2. cos(arcsin 2x)  
x
3.3. sec [arcsin(x − 1)] 3.6. csc arctan √
 x 2
3.4. tan arccos  
3 x−h
3.7. cos arcsin
r

4. Fill in the blank.

9
4.1. arctan = arcsin( ), x ̸= 0
x
√
36 − x2
4.2. arcsin = arccos( ), 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
6
3
4.3. arccos √ = arcsin( )
x − 2x + 10
2

x−2
4.4. arccos = arctan( ), |x − 2| ≤ 2
2

5. Sketch a graph of the function.

x
5.1. f (x) = arctan 2x 5.3. f (x) = arccos
4
5.2. f (x) = tan(arccos x)
10.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 109

6. (Photography) A photographer is taking a picture of a three-foot-tall painting hung in

an art gallery. The camera lens is 1 foot below the lower edge of the painting (see
figure). The angle β subtended by the camera lens x feet from the painting is
3x
β = arctan , x > 0.
x2 + 4

6.1. Use a graphing utility to graph β as a function of x.

6.2. Move the cursor along the graph to approximate the distance from the picture
when β is maximum.
6.3. Identify the asymptote of the graph and discuss its meaning in the context of the
problem.
7. Use a graphing utility to graph the functions
√
f (x) = x and g(x) = 6 arctan x.

For x > 0, it appears that g > f . Explain why you know that there exists a positive real
number a such that g < f for x > a. Approximate the number a.
8. Consider the functions given by

f (x) = sin x and f −1 (x) = arcsin x.

8.1. Use a graphing utility to graph the composite functions f ◦ f −1 and f −1 ◦ f .

8.2. Explain why the graphs in part (a) are not the graph of the line y = x. Why do
the graphs of f ◦ f −1 and f −1 ◦ f differ?
9. Prove each identity.
9.1. arcsin(−x) = − arcsin x
9.2. arctan(−x) = − arctan x
1 π
9.3. arctan x + arctan = , x>0
x 2
π
9.4. arcsin x + arccos x =
2
x
9.5. arcsin x = arctan √
1 − x2
 110 Chapter 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

10.2 Applications and Models

10.2.1 Applications Involving Right Triangles
Example 10.7

A safety regulation states that the maxi-

mum angle of elevation for a rescue lad-
der is 72◦ . A fire departments longest lad-
der is 110 feet. What is the maximum safe
rescue height?


Example 10.8

At a point 200 feet from the base of a

building, the angle of elevation to the bot-
tom of a smokestack is 35◦ , whereas the
angle of elevation to the top is 53◦ . Find
the height of the smokestack alone.

 10.2 Applications and Models 111

10.2.2 Trigonometry and Bearings

In surveying and navigation, directions are generally given in terms of bearings. A bearing
measures the acute angle that a path or line of sight makes with a fixed north-south line, as
shown in Figure 10.4. For instance, the bearing S 35◦ E in Figure 10.4 means 35 degrees
east of south.

Figure 10.4

Example 10.9 A ship leaves port at noon and heads due west at 20
knots, or 20 nautical miles (nm) per hour. At 2 P.M. the ship changes
course to N 54◦ W. Find the ships bearing and distance from the port
of departure at 3 P.M.


 112 Chapter 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

10.2.3 Harmonic Motion

The periodic nature of the trigonometric functions is useful for describing the motion of a
point on an object that vibrates, oscillates, rotates, or is moved by wave motion.
For example, consider a ball that is bobbing up and down on the end of a spring, as shown in
Figure 10.5. Suppose that 10 centimeters is the maximum distance the ball moves vertically
upward or downward from its equilibrium (at rest) position. Suppose further that the time
it takes for the ball to move from its maximum displacement above zero to its maximum
displacement below zero and back again is t = 4 seconds. Assuming the ideal conditions of
perfect elasticity and no friction or air resistance, the ball would continue to move up and
down in a uniform and regular manner.

Figure 10.5

From this spring you can conclude that the period (time for one complete cycle) of the motion
is
• Period = 4 seconds
its amplitude (maximum displacement from equilibrium) is
• Amplitude = 10 centimeters
and its frequency (number of cycles per second) is
1
• Frequency = cycle per second.
4
Motion of this nature can be described by a sine or cosine function, and is called simple
harmonic motion.
10.2 Applications and Models 113

Definition 10.2.1 (Definition of Simple Harmonic Motion)

A point that moves on a coordinate line is said to be in simple harmonic motion if its
distance from the origin at time is given by either

d = a sin ω t or d = a cos ω t

where a and ω are real numbers such that ω > 0. The motion has amplitude |a|, period
2π /ω , and frequency ω /(2π ).

Example 10.10 Write the equation for the simple harmonic motion of the ball described in
Figure 10.5, where the period is 4 seconds. What is the frequency of this harmonic motion?


One illustration of the relationship between sine waves and harmonic motion can be seen in
the wave motion resulting when a stone is dropped into a calm pool of water. The waves
move outward in roughly the shape of sine (or cosine) waves, as shown in Figure 10.6. As
an example, suppose you are fishing and your fishing bob is attached so that it does not move
horizontally. As the waves move outward from the dropped stone, your fishing bob will
move up and down in simple harmonic motion, as shown in Figure 10.7.

Figure 10.6
Figure 10.7
114 Chapter 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

Example 10.11 Given the equation for simple harmonic motion

3π
d = 6 cos t
4
find
1. the maximum displacement,
2. the frequency,
3. the value of d when t = 4, and
4. the least positive value of t for which d = 0.

 10.2 Applications and Models 115

10.2.4 Exercises
1. (Angle of Depression) A Global Positioning System satellite orbits 12, 500 miles above
Earths surface (see figure). Find the angle of depression from the satellite to the hori-
zon. Assume the radius of Earth is 4000 miles.

2. (Mountain Descent) A sign on a roadway at the top of a mountain indicates that for
the next 4 miles the grade is 10.5◦ (see figure). Find the change in elevation over that
distance for a car descending the mountain.

3. (Navigation) A ship leaves port at noon and has a bearing of S 29◦ W. The ship sails
at 20 knots.
3.1. How many nautical miles south and how many nautical miles west will the ship
have traveled by 6:00 P.M.?
3.2. At 6:00 P.M., the ship changes course to due west. Find the ships bearing and
distance from the port of departure at 7:00 P.M.
4. (Surveying) A surveyor wants to find the distance across a swamp (see figure). The
bearing from A to B is N 32◦ W. The surveyor walks 50 meters from A, and at the point
C the bearing to B is N 68◦ W. Find (a) the bearing from A to C and (b) the distance
from A to B.

5. (Height) While traveling across flat land, you notice a mountain directly in front of
you. The angle of elevation to the peak is 2.5◦ . After you drive 17 miles closer to the
mountain, the angle of elevation is 9◦ . Approximate the height of the mountain.
116 Chapter 10. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Applications

6. 6.1. Determine the angle between the diago-

nal of a cube and the diagonal of its base,
as shown in the figure.
6.2. Determine the angle between the diago-
nal of a cube and its edge, as shown in
the figure.

7. Find the lengths of all the unknown members of the truss.

8. (Wave Motion) A buoy oscillates in simple harmonic motion as waves go past. It is

noted that the buoy moves a total of 3.5 feet from its low point to its high point (see
figure), and that it returns to its high point every 10 seconds. Write an equation that
describes the motion of the buoy if its high point is at t = 0.

9. (Data Analysis) The table shows the average sales S (in millions of dollars) of an
outerwear manufacturer for each month t, where t = 1 represents January.

9.1. Create a scatter plot of the data.

9.2. Find a trigonometric model that fits the data. Graph the model with your scatter
plot. How well does the model fit the data?
9.3. What is the period of the model? Do you think it is reasonable given the context?
Explain your reasoning.
9.4. Interpret the meaning of the models amplitude in the context of the problem.