11.

Analytic Trigonometry

11.1 Using Fundamental Identities

11.1.1 Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn how to use the fundamental identities to do the following.
1. Evaluate trigonometric functions.
2. Simplify trigonometric expressions.
3. Develop additional trigonometric identities.
4. Solve trigonometric equations.

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1
sin u = cos u = tan u =
csc u sec u cot u
1 1 1
csc u = sec u = cot u =
sin u cos u tan u
Quotient Identities
sin u cos u
tan u = cot u =
cos u sin u
Pythagorean Identities

sin2 u + cos2 u = 1 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u 1 + cot2 u = csc2 u

Cofunction Identities
(π ) (π )
sin − u = cos u cos − u = sin u
( 2π ) ( π2 )
tan − u = cot u cot − u = tan u
( π2 ) ( π2 )
sec − u = csc u csc − u = sec u
2 2
Even/Odd Identities

sin(−u) = − sin u cos(−u) = cos u tan(−u) = − tan u

csc(−u) = − csc u sec(−u) = sec u cot(−u) = − cot u
 118 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

Pythagorean Identities are sometimes used in radical form such as

√
sin u = ± 1 − cos2 u

or
√
tan u = ± sec2 u − 1

where the sign depends on the choice of u.

11.1.2 Using the Fundamental Identities

One common application of trigonometric identities is to use given values of trigonometric
functions to evaluate other trigonometric functions.
3
Example 11.1 Use the values sec u = − and tan u > 0 to find the values of all six trigono-
2
metric functions.

Example 11.2 Simplify sin x cos2 x − sin x.

When factoring trigonometric expressions, it is helpful to find a special polynomial fac-

toring form that fits the expression, as shown in Example 11.3.
Example 11.3 Factor each expression.

1. sec2 θ − 1 2. 4 tan2 θ + tan θ − 3


11.1 Using Fundamental Identities 119

On occasion, factoring or simplifying can best be done by first rewriting the expression in
terms of just one trigonometric function or in terms of sine and cosine only. These strategies
are shown in Examples 11.4 and 11.5, respectively.
Example 11.4 Factor csc2 x − cot x − 3.

Example 11.5 Simplify sint + cott cost.

Example 11.6 Perform the addition and simplify.

sin θ cos θ
+
1 + cos θ sin θ

The next two examples involve techniques for rewriting expressions in forms that are
used in calculus.
1
Example 11.7 Rewrite so that it is not in fractional form.
1 + sin x


 120 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

Example 11.8 Use the substitution x = 2 tan θ , 0 < θ < π /2, to write
√
4 + x2

as a trigonometric function of θ

Figure 11.1: Angle whose tangent is π /2

Figure 11.1 shows the right triangle illustration of the trigonometric substitution x =
2 tan θ in Example 11.8. You can use this triangle to check the solution of Example 11.8.
For 0 < θ < π /2, you have
√
opp = x, adj = 2, and hyp = 4 + x2 .

With these expressions, you can write the following.

hyp
sec θ =
adj
√
4 + x2
sec θ =
√ 2
2 sec θ = 4 + x2

So, the solution checks.

11.1.3 Exercises
1. Use the given values to evaluate (if possible) all six trigonometric functions.
√
1 3 8 17
(a) sin x = , cos x = (c) tan x = , sec x = −
2 2 √ 15 15√
√ 2 3 3 5
(b) sec θ = 2, sin θ = − (d) sec ϕ = , csc ϕ = −
2 2 5
11.1 Using Fundamental Identities 121
√
1 2 (f) tan θ = 2, sin θ < 0
(e) sin(−x) = − , tan x = −
3 4 (g) sin θ = −1, cot θ = 0

2. Use the fundamental identities to simplify the expression. There is more than one
correct form of each answer.

(a) cot θ sec θ

sin α
(b) tan(−x) cos x (g) sec α ·
(c) sin ϕ (csc ϕ − sin ϕ ) tan α
(π )
cot x (h) cos − x sec x
(d) 2
csc x 2
cos y
1 − sin2 x (i)
(e) 1 − sin y
csc2 x − 1
(j) sin β tan β + cos β
tan θ cot θ
(f) (k) cot u sin u + tan u cos u
sec θ
3. Factor the expression and use the fundamental identities to simplify. There is more
than one correct form of each answer.

(a) tan2 x − tan2 x sin2 x (d) tan4 x + 2 tan2 x + 1

(b) sin2 x sec2 x − sin2 x (e) sin4 x − cos4 x
sec2 x − 1 (f) csc3 x − csc2 x − csc x + 1
(c)
sec x − 1
4. Perform the multiplication and use the fundamental identities to simplify. There is
more than one correct form of each answer.

(a) (sin x + cos x)2 (c) (2 csc x + 2)(2 csc x − 2)

(b) (cot x + csc x)(cot x − csc x) (d) (3 − 3 sin x)(3 + 3 sin x)

5. Perform the addition or subtraction and use the fundamental identities to simplify.
There is more than one correct form of each answer.
1 1
(a) + 1 + sin x
1 + cos x 1 − cos x (c)
cos x
+
1 1 1 + sin x cos x
(b) − cos x
sec x + 1 sec x − 1 (d) tan x +
1 + sin x
6. Use the trigonometric substitution to write the algebraic expression as a trigonometric
function of θ , where 0 < θ < π /2.
√ √
(a) √9 − x2 , x = 3 cos θ (d) √x2 + 25, x = 5 tan θ
(b) √16 − x2 , x = 4 sin θ (e) √4x2 + 9, 2x √= 3 tan θ
(c) x − 9, x = 3 sec θ
2 (f) 2 − x2 , x = 2 sin θ

7. Use the trigonometric substitution to write the algebraic equation as a trigonometric

equation of θ , where −π /2 < θ < π /2. Then find sin θ and cos θ .
 122 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry
√ √ √
(a) 3 = √9 − x2 , x = 3 sin θ (c) 2 √2= √ 16 − 4x2 , x = 2 cos θ
(b) 3 = 36 − x2 , x = 6 sin θ (d) −5 3 = 100 − x2 , x = 10 cos θ

8. The forces acting on an object weighing W units on an inclined plane positioned at an

angle of θ with the horizontal (see figure) are modeled by

µ W cos θ = W sin θ

where µ is the coefficient of friction. Solve the equation for µ and simplify the result.

11.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities

11.2.1 Introduction
In this section, you will study techniques for verifying trigonometric identities. In the next
section, you will study techniques for solving trigonometric equations. The key to verifying
identities and solving equations is the ability to use the fundamental identities and the rules
of algebra to rewrite trigonometric expressions.
Remember that a conditional equation is an equation that is true for only some of the
values in its domain. For example, the conditional equation

sin x = 0 Conditional equation

is true only for x = nπ , where n is an integer. When you find these values, you are solving
the equation.
On the other hand, an equation that is true for all real values in the domain of the variable
is an identity. For example, the familiar equation

sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x Identity

is true for all real numbers x. So, it is an identity.

11.2.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities

Although there are similarities, verifying that a trigonometric equation is an identity is quite
different from solving an equation. There is no well-defined set of rules to follow in verifying
trigonometric identities, and the process is best learned by practice.
11.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities 123

Guidelines for Verifying Trigonometric Identities

1. Work with one side of the equation at a time. It is often better to work with the
more complicated side first.
2. Look for opportunities to factor an expression, add fractions, square a binomial,
or create a monomial denominator.
3. Look for opportunities to use the fundamental identities. Note which functions
are in the final expression you want. Sines and cosines pair up well, as do
secants and tangents, and cosecants and cotangents.
4. If the preceding guidelines do not help, try converting all terms to sines and
cosines.
5. Always try something. Even paths that lead to dead ends provide insights.

Verifying trigonometric identities is a useful process if you need to convert a trigonomet-

ric expression into a form that is more useful algebraically. When you verify an identity, you
cannot assume that the two sides of the equation are equal because you are trying to verify
that they are equal. As a result, when verifying identities, you cannot use operations such as
adding the same quantity to each side of the equation or cross multiplication.
sec2 θ − 1
Example 11.9 Verify the identity = sin2 θ .
sec2 θ

Notice how the identity is verified. You start with the left side of the equation (the more
complicated side) and use the fundamental trigonometric identities to simplify it until you
obtain the right side.
There can be more than one way to verify an identity. Here is another way to verify the
identity in Example 11.9.

sec2 θ − 1 sec2 θ 1
= − Rewrite as the difference of fractions.
sec θ
2 sec θ sec2 θ
2

= 1 − cos2 θ Reciprocal identity

= sin θ
2
Pythagorean identity

1 1
Example 11.10 Verify the identity 2 sec2 α = + .
1 − sin α 1 + sin α


124 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

Example 11.11 Verify the identity (tan2 x + 1)(cos2 x − 1) = − tan2 x.

Example 11.12 Verify the identity tan x + cot x = sec x csc x.

Recall from algebra that rationalizing the denominator using conjugates is, on occasion,
a powerful simplification technique. A related form of this technique, shown below, works
for simplifying trigonometric expressions as well.

( )
1 1 1 + cos x
=
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
1 + cos x
=
1 − cos2 x
1 + cos x
=
sin2 x
= csc2 x(1 + cos x)

This technique is demonstrated in the next example.

cos x
Example 11.13 Verify the identity sec x + tan x = .
1 − sin x

In Examples 11.9 through 11.13, you have been verifying trigonometric identities by
working with one side of the equation and converting to the form given on the other side.
On occasion, it is practical to work with each side separately, to obtain one common form
equivalent to both sides. This is illustrated in Example 11.14.
 11.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities 125

cot2 θ 1 − sin θ
Example 11.14 Verify the identity = .
1 + csc θ sin θ

In Example 11.15, powers of trigonometric functions are rewritten as more complicated

sums of products of trigonometric functions. This is a common procedure used in calculus.
Example 11.15 Verify the identity.
1. tan4 x = tan2 x sec2 x − tan2 x
2. sin3 x cos4 x = (cos4 x − cos6 x) sin x
3. csc4 x cot x = csc2 x(cot x + cot3 x)

11.2.3 Exercises
1. Verify the identity.
(π )
(a) tant cott = 1 (m) tan − θ tan θ = 1
(b) cot2 y(sec2 y − 1) = 1 2
(c) (1 + sin α )(1 − sin α ) = cos2 α tan x cot x
(n) = sec x
(d) cos2 β − sin2 β = 1 − 2 sin2 β cos x
tan2 θ (o) (1 + sin y)[1 + sin(−y)] = cos2 y
(e) = sin θ tan θ
sec θ tan x + cot y
(p) = tan y + cot x
cot2 t 1 − sin2 t √
tan x cot y
(f) =
csct sint 1 + sin θ 1 + sin θ
(q) =
x cos x − sin5/2 x cos x
(g) sin1/2√ 1 − sin θ | cos θ |
= (π )
3
cos x sin x (r) cos β + cos
2 2 −β = 1
cot x 2
(h) = csc x − sin x (π )
sec x (s) sint csc − t = tant
2
(i) csc x − sin x = cos x cot x x
1 1 (t) tan(sin−1 x) = √
(j) + = tan x + cot x 1 − x2
tan x cot x ( )
x−1 x−1
1 + sin θ cos θ (u) tan sin−1 =√
(k) + = 2 sec θ 4 16 − (x − 1)2
cos θ 1 + sin θ
1 1 (v) tan5 x = tan3 x sec2 x − tan3 x
(l) + = −2 csc x cot x (w) cos3 x sin2 x = (sin2 x − sin4 x) cos x
cos x + 1 cos x − 1
 126 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

2. The rate of change of the function f (x) = sin x + csc x with respect to change in the
variable x is given by the expression cos x − csc x cot x. Show that the expression for
the rate of change can also be − cos x cot2 x.
3. The length of a shadow cast by a vertical gnomon (a device used to tell time) of height
h when the angle of the sun above the horizon is θ (see figure) can be modeled by the
equation
h sin(90◦ − θ )
s= .
sin θ

(a) Verify that the equation for s is equal to h cot θ .

(b) Use a graphing utility to complete the table. Let h = 5 feet.

θ 15◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 75◦ 90◦

s

(c) Use your table from part (3b) to determine the angles of the sun that result in the
maximum and minimum lengths of the shadow.
(d) Based on your results from part (3c), what time of day do you think it is when
the angle of the sun above the horizon is 90◦ ?

11.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations

11.3.1 Introduction
To solve a trigonometric equation, use standard algebraic techniques such as collecting like
terms and factoring. Your preliminary goal in solving a trigonometric equation is to isolate
the trigonometric function in the equation. For example, to solve the equation 2 sin x = 1,
divide each side by 2 to obtain
1
sin x = .
2
1 π 5π
To solve for x, note in Figure 11.2 that the equation sin x = has solutions x = and x =
2 6 6
in the interval [0, 2π ). Moreover, because sin x has a period of 2π , there are infinitely many
other solutions, which can be written as
π 5π
x= + 2nπ and x = + 2nπ General solution
6 6
11.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations 127

Figure 11.2

where n is an integer, as shown in Figure 11.2.

1
Another way to show that the equation sin x = has infinitely many solutions is indicated
2
π 5π
in Figure 11.3. Any angles that are coterminal with or will also be solutions of the
6 6
equation.

Figure 11.3

When solving trigonometric equations, you should write your answer(s) using exact val-
ues rather than decimal approximations.
√
Example 11.16 Solve sin x + 2 = − sin x.


 128 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

Example 11.17 Solve 3 tan2 x − 1 = 0.

The equations in Examples 11.16 and 11.17 involved only one trigonometric function.
When two or more functions occur in the same equation, collect all terms on one side and try
to separate the functions by factoring or by using appropriate identities. This may produce
factors that yield no solutions, as illustrated in Example 11.18.
Example 11.18 Solve cot x cos2 x = 2 cot x.

11.3.2 Equations of Quadratic Type

Many trigonometric equations are of quadratic type ax2 + bx + c = 0. Here are a couple of
examples.

Quadratic in sin x Quadratic in sec x

2 sin2 x − sin x − 1 = 0 sec2 x − 3 sec x − 2 = 0
2(sin x)2 − sin x − 1 = 0 (sec x)2 − 3(sec x) − 2 = 0

To solve equations of this type, factor the quadratic or, if this is not possible, use the
Quadratic Formula.
Example 11.19 Find all solutions of 2 sin2 x − sin x − 1 = 0 in the interval [0, 2π ).


 11.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations 129

Example 11.20 Solve 2 sin2 x + 3 cos x − 3 = 0.

Sometimes you must square each side of an equation to obtain a quadratic, as demon-
strated in the next example. Because this procedure can introduce extraneous solutions, you
should check any solutions in the original equation to see whether they are valid or extrane-
ous.
Example 11.21 Find all solutions of cos x + 1 = sin x in the interval [0, 2π ).

11.3.3 Functions Involving Multiple Angles

The next two examples involve trigonometric functions of multiple angles of the forms sin ku
and cos ku. To solve equations of these forms, first solve the equation for ku, then divide your
result by k.
Example 11.22 Solve 2 cos 3t − 1 = 0.


x
Example 11.23 Solve 3 tan + 3 = 0.
2


 130 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

11.3.4 Using Inverse Functions

In the next example, you will see how inverse trigonometric functions can be used to solve
an equation.
Example 11.24 Solve sec2 x − 2 tan x = 4.

11.3.5 Exercises
1. Solve the equation.

(a) 2√cos x + 1 = 0 (e) 4 cos2 x − 1 = 0

(b) 3 csc x − 2 = 0 (f) 2 sin2 2x = 1
(c) 3 sec2 x − 4 = 0 (g) tan 3x(tan x − 1) = 0
(d) sin x(sin x + 1) = 0

2. Find all solutions of the equation in the interval [0, 2π ).

(a) cos3 x = cos x (e) 2 cos2 x + cos x − 1 = 0

(b) 3 tan3 x = tan x (f) 2 sec2 x + tan2 x − 3 = 0
(c) sec2 x − sec x = 2 (g) csc x + cot x = 1
(d) 2 sin x + csc x = 0

3. Solve the multiple-angle equation.

1 (d) sec 4x = 2
(a) cos 2x =
2 √
√ x 2
3 (e) cos =
(b) sin 2x = − 2 2
2 √
x 3
(c) tan 3x = 1 (f) sin = −
2 2

4. Find the x-intercepts of the graph.

πx
(a) y = sin +1
2
11.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations 131

(b) y = sin π x + cos π x

(πx)
(c) y = tan2 −3
6

(πx)
(d) y = sec4 −4
8

5. Use the Quadratic Formula to solve the equation in the interval [0, 2π ). Then use a
graphing utility to approximate the angle x.

(a) 12 sin2 x − 13 sin x + 3 = 0 (c) tan2 x + 3 tan x + 1 = 0

(b) 3 tan2 x + 4 tan x − 4 = 0 (d) 4 cos2 x − 4 cos x − 1 = 0

6. Use inverse functions where needed to find all solutions of the equation in the interval
[0, 2π ).

(a) tan2 x + tan x − 12 = 0 (d) cot2 x − 9 = 0

(b) tan2 x − 6 tan x + 5 = 0 (e) sec2 x − 4 sec x = 0
(c) 2 cos2 x − 5 cos x + 2 = 0 (f) csc2 x + 3 csc x − 4 = 0

7. A weight is oscillating on the end of a spring (see figure). The position of the weight
1
relative to the point of equilibrium is given by y = (cos 8t − 3 sin 8t), where y is the
12
displacement (in meters) and t is the time (in seconds). Find the times when the weight
is at the point of equilibrium (y = 0) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
8. The monthly sales S (in thousands of units) of a seasonal product are approximated by
πt
S = 74.50 + 43.75 sin
6
where t is the time (in months), with t = 1 corresponding to January. Determine the
months in which sales exceed 100, 000 units.
132 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

9. A batted baseball leaves the bat at an angle of θ with the horizontal and an initial
velocity of v0 = 100 feet per second. The ball is caught by an outfielder 300 feet from
home plate (see figure). Find θ if the range r of a projectile is given by
1 2
r= v sin 2θ .
32 0

10. A Ferris wheel is built such that the height h (in feet) above ground of a seat on the
wheel at time t (in minutes) can be modeled by
(π π)
h(t) = 53 + 50 sin t− .
16 2
The wheel makes one revolution every 32 seconds. The ride begins when t = 0.
(a) During the first 32 seconds of the ride, when will a person on the Ferris wheel be
53 feet above ground ?
(b) When will a person be at the top of the Ferris wheel for the first time during the
ride ? If the ride lasts 160 seconds, how many times will a person be at the top
of the ride, and at what times ?
11. The area of a rectangle (see figure) inscribed in one arc of the graph of y = cos x is
given by A = 2x cos x, 0 < x < π /2.

(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the area function, and approximate the area of the
largest inscribed rectangle.
(b) Determine the values of x for which A ≥ 1.
 11.4 Sum and Difference Formulas 133

11.4 Sum and Difference Formulas

11.4.1 Using Sum and Difference Formulas
In this and the following section, you will study the uses of several trigonometric identities
and formulas.

Sum and Difference Formulas

sin(u + v) = sin u cos v + cos u sin v

sin(u − v) = sin u cos v − cos u sin v
cos(u + v) = cos u cos v − sin u sin v
cos(u − v) = cos u cos v + sin u sin v
tan u + tan v
tan(u + v) =
1 − tan u tan v
tan u − tan v
tan(u − v) =
1 + tan u tan v

Examples 11.25 and 11.26 show how sum and difference formulas can be used to find
exact values of trigonometric functions involving sums or differences of special angles.
π
Example 11.25 Find the exact value of sin .
12

Example 11.26 Find the exact value of cos 75◦ .

Example 11.27 Find the exact value of sin(u + v) given

4 π 12 π
sin u = , where 0 < u < , and cos v = − , where < v < π .
5 2 13 2


134 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

Example 11.28 Write cos(arctan 1 + arccos x) as an algebraic expression.

Example 11.29 shows how to use a difference formula to prove the cofunction identity

(π )
cos − x = sin x
2

(π )
Example 11.29 Prove the cofunction identity cos − x = sin x.
2

Sum and difference formulas can be used to rewrite expressions such as

( nπ ) ( nπ )
sin θ + and cos θ + , where n is an integer
2 2

as expressions involving only sin θ or cos θ . The resulting formulas are called reduction
formulas.

Example 11.30 Simplify each expression.

( )
3π 2. tan(θ + 3π )
1. cos θ −
2


 11.4 Sum and Difference Formulas 135
( π) ( π)
Example 11.31 Find all solutions of sin x + + sin x − = −1 in the interval [0, 2π ).
4 4

The next example was taken from calculus. It is used to derive the derivative of the sine
function.
( ) ( )
sin(x + h) − sin x sin h 1 − cos h
Example 11.32 Verify that = (cos x) −(sin x) where
h h h
h ̸= 0.

11.4.2 Exercises
1. Find the exact values of the sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle.

11π 3π π 13π
(a) = + (e)
12 4 6 12
17π 9π 5π 13π
(b) = − (f) −
12 4 6 12
(c) 105◦ = 60◦ + 45◦ (g) 285◦
(d) 195◦ = 225◦ − 30◦ (h) −165◦

2. Write the expression as the sine, cosine, or tangent of an angle.

(a) sin 3 cos 1.2 − cos 3 sin 1.2 tan 45◦ − tan 30◦
(c)
(b) sin 60◦ cos 15◦ + cos 60◦ sin 15◦ 1 + tan 45◦ tan 30◦
tan 2x + tan x
(d)
1 − tan 2x tan x

3. Find the exact value of the expression.

π π π π tan(5π /6) − tan(π /6)
(a) sin cos + cos sin (c)
12 4 12 4 1 + tan(5π /6) tan(π /6)
(b) sin 120◦ cos 60◦ − cos 120◦ sin 60◦
136 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry
5 3
4. Find the exact value of the trigonometric function given that sin u = and cos v = − .
13 5
(Both u and v are in Quadrant II.)

(a) sin(u + v) (c) tan(u + v)

(b) cos(u + v) (d) sec(v − u)
7
5. Find the exact value of the trigonometric function given that sin u = − and cos v =
25
4
− . (Both u and v are in Quadrant III.)
5
(a) cos(u + v) (c) csc(u − v)
(b) tan(u − v)

6. Write the trigonometric expression as an algebraic expression.

(a) sin(arcsin x + arccos x) (c) cos(arccos x + arcsin x)

(b) sin(arctan 2x − arccos x) (d) cos(arccos x − arctan x)

7. Prove the identity.

(π ) (π )
(a) sin − x = cos x (c) cos(π − θ ) + sin +θ = 0
2 2
(π ) 1 √ (d) cos(x+y) cos(x−y) = cos2 x−sin2 y
(b) sin
6
+ x = (cos x + 3 sin x)
2 (e) sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) = 2 sin x cos y

8. Simplify the expression algebraically and use a graphing utility to confirm your answer
graphically.
( ) ( )
3π 3π
(a) cos −x (c) sin +θ
2 2
(b) cos(π + x) (d) tan(π + θ )

9. Find all solutions of the equation in the interval [0, 2π ).

( π) ( π)
(a) sin(x + π ) − sin x + 1 = 0 (d) cos x + − cos x − =1
(b) cos(x + π ) − cos x − 1 = 0 4 4
( π)
( ) ( ) (e) sin x + − cos2 x = 0
π π 1 2
(c) sin x + − sin x − =
6 6 2

10. A weight is attached to a spring suspended vertically from a ceiling. When a driv-
ing force is applied to the system, the weight moves vertically from its equilibrium
position, and this motion is modeled by

1 1
y= sin 2t + cos 2t
3 4
where y is the distance from equilibrium (in feet) and t is the time (in seconds).
 11.5 Multiple-Angle and Product-to-Sum Formulas 137

(a) Use the identity

√
a sin Bθ + b cos Bθ = a2 + b2 sin(Bθ +C)
√
where C = arctan(b/a), a > 0, to write the model in the form y = a2 + b2 sin(Bt +
C).
(b) Find the amplitude of the oscillations of the weight.
(c) Find the frequency of the oscillations of the weight.

11.5 Multiple-Angle and Product-to-Sum Formulas

11.5.1 Multiple-Angle Formulas
In this section, you will study four other categories of trigonometric identities.
1. The first category involves functions of multiple angles such as sin ku and cos ku.
2. The second category involves squares of trigonometric functions such as sin2 u.
3. The third category involves functions of half-angles such as sin(u/2).
4. The fourth category involves products of trigonometric functions such as sin u cos v
You should learn the double-angle formulas because they are used often in trigonometry
and calculus.

Double-Angle Formulas
2 tan u
sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u tan 2u =
1 − tan2 u
cos 2u = cos2 u − sin2 u
= 2 cos2 u − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 u

Example 11.33 Solve 2 cos x + sin 2x = 0.

Example 11.34 Use a double-angle formula to rewrite the equation

y = 4 cos2 x − 2

Then sketch the graph of the equation over the interval [0, 2π ].


 138 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

Example 11.35 Use the following to find sin 2θ , cos 2θ , and tan 2θ .

5 3π
cos θ = , < θ < 2π
13 2

The double-angle formulas are not restricted to angles 2θ and θ . Other double combina-
tions, such as 4θ and 2θ or 6θ and 3θ , are also valid. Here are two examples.

sin 4θ = 2 sin 2θ cos 2θ and cos 6θ = cos2 3θ − sin2 3θ

By using double-angle formulas together with the sum formulas given in the preceding sec-
tion, you can form other multiple-angle formulas.

Example 11.36 Deriving a Triple-Angle Formula

sin 3x =

11.5.2 Power-Reducing Formulas

The double-angle formulas can be used to obtain the following power-reducing formulas.
Example 11.37 shows a typical power reduction that is used in calculus.

Power-Reducing Formulas
1 − cos 2u 1 + cos 2u 1 − cos 2u
sin2 u = cos2 u = tan2 u =
2 2 1 + cos 2u
 11.5 Multiple-Angle and Product-to-Sum Formulas 139

Example 11.37 Rewrite sin4 x as a sum of first powers of the cosines of multiple angles.

11.5.3 Half-Angle Formulas

You can derive some useful alternative forms of the power-reducing formulas by replacing u
with u/2. The results are called half-angle formulas.

Half-Angle Formulas
√
u 1 − cos u
sin = ±
2 2
√
u 1 + cos u
cos = ±
2 2
u 1 − cos u sin u
tan = =
2 sin u 1 + cos u
u u u
The signs of sin and cos depend on the quadrant in which lies.
2 2 2

Example 11.38 Find the exact value of sin 105◦ .

Use your √
calculator to verify the result obtained in Example 11.38. That is, evaluate
◦
√
sin 105 and ( 2 + 3)/2.

sin 105◦ ≈ 0.9659258

√ √
2+ 3
≈ 0.9659258
2

You can see that both values are approximately 0.9659258.

 140 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry
x
Example 11.39 Find all solutions of 2 − sin2 x = 2 cos2 in the interval [0, 2π ).
2

11.5.4 Product-to-Sum Formulas

Each of the following product-to-sum formulas can be verified using the sum and difference
formulas discussed in the preceding section.

Product-to-Sum Formulas
1
sin u sin v = [cos(u − v) − cos(u + v)]
2
1
cos u cos v = [cos(u − v) + cos(u + v)]
2
1
sin u cos v = [sin(u + v) + sin(u − v)]
2
1
cos u sin v = [sin(u + v) − sin(u − v)]
2

Product-to-sum formulas are used in calculus to evaluate integrals involving the products
of sines and cosines of two different angles.

Example 11.40 Rewrite the product cos 5x sin 4x as a sum or difference.

Occasionally, it is useful to reverse the procedure and write a sum of trigonometric func-
tions as a product. This can be accomplished with the following sum-to-product formulas.
11.5 Multiple-Angle and Product-to-Sum Formulas 141

Sum-to-Product Formulas
( ) ( )
u+v u−v
sin u + sin v = 2 sin cos
2 2
( ) ( )
u+v u−v
sin u − sin v = 2 cos sin
2 2
( ) ( )
u+v u−v
cos u + cos v = 2 cos cos
2 2
( ) ( )
u+v u−v
cos u − cos v = −2 sin sin
2 2

Example 11.41 Find the exact value of cos 195◦ + cos 105◦ .

Example 11.42 Solve sin 5x + sin 3x = 0.


sin 3x − sin x
Example 11.43 Verify the identity = tan x.
cos x + cos 3x


 142 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

11.5.5 Application
Example 11.44 — Projectile Motion. Ignoring air resistance, the range of a projectile fired
at an angle θ with the horizontal and with an initial velocity of v0 feet per second is given by
1 2
r= v sin θ cos θ
16 0
where r is the horizontal distance (in feet) that the projectile will travel. A place kicker for
a football team can kick a football from ground level with an initial velocity of 80 feet per
second (see Figure 11.4).

Figure 11.4

1. Write the projectile motion model in a simpler form.

2. At what angle must the player kick the football so that the football travels 200 feet ?
3. For what angle is the horizontal distance the football travels a maximum ?


 11.5 Multiple-Angle and Product-to-Sum Formulas 143

11.5.6 Exercises
1. Use the figure to find the exact value of the trigonometric function.

(a) cos 2θ (b) tan 2θ (c) csc 2θ (d) sin 4θ

2. Find the exact solutions of the equation in the interval [0, 2π ).

(a) sin 2x − sin x = 0 (d) sin 4x = −2 sin 2x

(b) 4 sin x cos x = 1 (e) tan 2x − cot x = 0
(c) cos 2x − cos x = 0

3. Use a double-angle formula to rewrite the expression.

(a) 6 sin x cos x (c) 4 − 8 sin2 x

(b) 6 cos2 x − 3 (d) (cos x + sin x)(cos x − sin x)

4. Find the exact values of sin 2u, cos 2u, and tan 2u using the double-angle formulas.
3 3π π
(a) sin u = − , < u < 2π (c) sec u = −2, <u<π
5 2 2
3 π
(b) tan u = , 0 < u <
5 2
5. Use the power-reducing formulas to rewrite the expression in terms of the first power
of the cosine.

(a) cos4 x (d) sin2 2x cos2 2x

(b) cos4 2x (e) sin4 x cos2 x
(c) tan4 2x

6. Use the figure to find the exact value of the trigonometric function.

θ θ θ
(a) sin (c) tan (e) sec
2 2 2
θ θ θ
(b) cos (d) csc (f) cot
2 2 2
7. Use the half-angle formulas to determine the exact values of the sine, cosine, and
tangent of the angle.
144 Chapter 11. Analytic Trigonometry

(a) 75◦ (b) 112◦ 30′ (c) π /8 (d) 3π /8

8. (a) determine the quadrant in which u/2 lies, and (b) find the exact values of sin(u/2),
cos(u/2), and tan(u/2) using the half-angle formulas.
7 π
(a) cos u = , 0 < u <
25 2
5 3π
(b) tan u = − , < u < 2π
12 2
5 3π
(c) csc u = − , π < u <
3 2
9. Use the product-to-sum formulas to write the product as a sum or difference.
π π (c) sin 5θ sin 3θ
(a) sin cos
3 6 (d) 7 cos(−5β ) sin 3β
(b) 10 cos 75◦ cos 15◦ (e) sin(x + y) sin(x − y)

10. Use the sum-to-product formulas to write the sum or difference as a product.
(a) sin 3θ + sin θ
(b) cos 6x + cos 2x
(c) sin(α + β ) − sin(α − β )
( π) ( π)
(d) cos θ + − cos θ −
2 2
11. Verify the identity.
csc θ u
= csc u − cot u
(a) csc 2θ = (e) tan
2 cos θ 2
α α 1 2α (f)
cos 4x + cos 2x
= cot 3x
(b) sin cos = sin sin 4x + sin 2x
3 3 2 3 (π ) (π )
(c) 1 + cos 10y = 2 cos2 5y (g) sin + x + sin − x = cos x
6 6
(d) cos 4α = cos2 2α − sin2 2α

12. The mach number M of an airplane is the ratio of its speed to the speed of sound.
When an airplane travels faster than the speed of sound, the sound waves form a cone
behind the airplane (see figure). The mach number is related to the apex angle θ of
the cone by sin(θ /2) = 1/M.

(a) Find the angle θ that corresponds to a mach number of 1.

(b) Find the angle θ that corresponds to a mach number of 4.5.
(c) The speed of sound is about 760 miles per hour. Determine the speed of an object
with the mach numbers from parts (a) and (b).
(d) Rewrite the equation in terms of θ .
 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions

12.1 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

Recall from trigonometry that the graphs of sin x and
cos x are drawn as continuous curves. We will not for-
mally prove that these functions are continuous, but we
can motivate this fact by letting c be a fixed angle in ra-
dian measure and x a variable angle in radian measure.
If, as illustrated in Figure 12.1, the angle x approaches
the angle c, then the point P(cos x, sin x) moves along
the unit circle toward Q(cos c, sin c), and the coordi-
nates of P approach the corresponding coordinates of
Q. This implies that

lim sin x = sin c and lim cos x = cos c.

x→c x→c

Thus, sin x and cos x are continuous at the arbitrary

Figure 12.1 point c; that is, these functions are continuous every-
where.

Theorem 12.1.1 If c is any number in the natural domain of the stated trigonometric
function, then
lim sin x = sin c lim cos x = cos c lim tan x = tan c
x→c x→c x→c
lim csc x = csc c lim sec x = sec c lim cot x = cot c
x→c x→c x→c

Example 12.1 Find the limit

( )
x2 − 1
lim cos
x→1 x−1

146 Chapter 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 12.1.2 If f is a one-to-one function that is continuous at each point of its do-
main, then f −1 is continuous at each point of its domain; that is, f −1 is continuous at
each point in the range of f .

Example 12.2 The function f (x) = arcsin x is continuous on the interval [−1, 1]. 
 12.2 Obtaining Limits by Squeezing 147

12.2 Obtaining Limits by Squeezing

Theorem 12.2.1 (The Squeezing Theorem)

Let f , g and h be functions satisfying

g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x)

for all x in some open interval containing the number

c, with the possible exception that the inequalities
need not hold at c. If g and h have the same limit as
x approaches c, say

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L

x→c x→c

Figure 12.2 then f also has this limit as x approaches c, that is,

lim f (x) = L.
x→c

Applying the Squeezing Theorem, we obtain the following result.

Theorem 12.2.2
sin x 1 − cos x
lim =1 and lim =0
x→0 x x→0 x

Example 12.3 Find

tan x
1. lim
x→0 x
sin 2θ
2. lim
θ →0 θ
sin 3x
3. lim
x→0 sin 5x


Example 12.4 Discuss the limits

( )
1
1. lim sin
x→0
(x )
1
2. lim x sin
x→0 x

 148 Chapter 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions

12.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

We will assume in this section that the variable x in the trigonometric functions sin x, cos x, tan x,
cot x, sec x, and csc x is measured in radians. Let us start with the problem of differentiating
f (x) = sin x. Using the definition of the derivative and Theorem 12.2.2, we obtain
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin(x + h) − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0
[ ( h ) ( )]
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
[ ( ) ( )]
sin h 1 − cos h
= lim cos x − sin x
h→0 h h
sin h 1 − cos h
= lim cos x · lim − lim sin x · lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
= (cos x)(1) − (sin x)(0)
= cos x.
Thus, we have shown that
d
[sin x] = cos x. (12.1)
dx
Similarly, we can show that
d
[cos x] = − sin x. (12.2)
dx
Example 12.5 Find dy/dx if y = x sin x. 

sin x
Example 12.6 Find dy/dx if y = . 
1 + cos x

The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions are given in the below table.

Differentiation Formulas
d d
[sin x] = cos x [cos x] = − sin x
dx dx
d d
[tan x] = sec2 x [sec x] = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
[cot x] = − csc2 x [csc x] = − csc x cot x
dx dx
12.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 149

These can all be obtained using the definition of the derivative, but it is easier to use
Formulas (12.1) and (12.2) and apply the quotient rule. For example,
[ ]
d d sin x
[tan x] =
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x · [sin x] − sin x · [cos x]
= dx dx
cos2 x
cos x · cos x − sin x · (− sin x)
=
cos2 x
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
cos2 x
2
= sec x

Example 12.7 Find f ′′ (π /4) if f (x) = sec x. 

d [( 2 )sin x ]
Example 12.8 Use logarithmic differentiation to find x +1 . 
dx
150 Chapter 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions
d d
Example 12.9 Find [arcsin x] and [arccos x]
dx dx


Example 12.10

On a sunny day, a 50 ft flagpole casts a shadow that

changes with the angle of elevation of the Sun. Let s be
the length of the shadow and θ the angle of elevation
of the Sun (Figure 12.3). Find the rate at which the
length of the shadow is changing with respect to θ when
θ = 45◦ . Express your answer in units of feet/degree.

Figure 12.3

12.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 151

Example 12.11

As illustrated in Figure 12.4, suppose that a spring with

an attached mass M is stretched 3 cm beyond its rest
position and released at time t = 0. Assuming that the
position function of the top of the attached mass is

s = −3 cost

where s is in centimeters and t is in seconds, find the

velocity function and discuss the motion of the attached
mass.

Figure 12.4


√
Example 12.12 Use the double angle formula to simplify derivative of y = sin2 x

Example 12.13 Find f ′ (x) if f (x) = x2 cos x sin x.


x x
Example 12.14 Find f ′ (x) if f (x) = tan − cot
2 2


 152 Chapter 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions

12.4 Exercises
1. Find the limits.( )
πx
(a) lim sin
x→+∞ 2 − 3x
( )
x
(b) lim arcsin
x→+∞ 1 − 2x
(c) lim cos(2 arctan x)
x→+∞

sin2 θ
(d) lim
θ →0 θ
tan 7x
(e) lim
x→0 sin 3x
sin h
(f) lim
h→0 1 − cos h

θ2
(g) lim
θ →0 1 − cos θ
x
(h) lim (1 )
2π − x
x→0 cos

sin(π x)
(i) lim
x→1 x − 1
2. Suppose that M is a positive number and that for all real numbers x, a function f
satisfies

−M ≤ f (x) ≤ M.
f (x)
Show that lim x f (x) = 0 and lim = 0.
x→0 x→+∞ x
3. Find ′
f (x).
(a) f (x) = −4x2 cos x
(b) f (x) = 2 sin2 x
(c) f (x) = sec2 x − tan2 x
(d) f (x) = csc x cot x
sin x sec x
(e) f (x) =
1 + x tan x
(f) f (x) = arctan x
4. Find d 2 y/dx2 if y = x2 cos x + 4 sin x.
5. Find all values in the interval [−2π , 2π ] at which the graph of f has a horizontal
tangent line.
(a) f (x) = sin x
(b) f (x) = x + cos x
6. Make a conjecture about the derivative by calculating the first few derivatives and
observing the resulting pattern.
12.4 Exercises 153

d 87
(a) [sin x]
dx87
d 100
(b) [cos x]
dx100
7. An Earth-observing satellite can see only a portion of the Earths surface. The satellite
has horizon sensors that can detect the angle θ shown in the accompanying figure. Let
r be the radius of the Earth (assumed spherical) and h the distance of the satellite from
the Earths surface.

(a) Show that h = r(csc θ − 1).

(b) Using r = 6378 km, find the rate at which h is changing with respect to θ when
θ = 30◦ . Express the answer in units of kilometers/degree.
Source: Adapted from Space Mathematics, NASA, 1985.
8. The derivative formulas for sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x and csc x were obtained under
the assumption that x is measured in radians. If x is measured in degrees, then

sin x π
lim = .
x→0 x 180

Use this result to prove that if x is measured in degrees, then

d π
(a) [sin x] = cos x
dx 180
d π
(b) [cos x] = − sin x
dx 180
dy
9. Find and then use trigonometric identity to simplify the expression.
dx
(a) y = sin2 3x
(b) y = 8 sin x cos x
sec x
(c) y =
1 + tan x
(d) y = sin3 x + cos3 x
x x
(e) y = sec2 + csc2
2 2
sin2 x cos2 x
(f) y = +
1 + cot x 1 + tan x
 154 Chapter 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions

12.5 Integrals Involving Trigonometric Functions

Many basic integration formulas can be obtained directly ∫from their companion differentia-
d
tion formulas. For example, as [sin x] = cos x, we have cos x dx = sin x +C, where C is
dx
a real number. Some of the most important integration formulas are given in the following
table.

Integration Formulas
∫ ∫
cos x dx = sin x +C sin x dx = − cos x +C
∫ ∫
sec2 x dx = tan x +C csc2 x dx = − cot x +C
∫ ∫
sec x tan x dx = sec x +C csc x cot x dx = − csc x +C

∫
Example 12.15 Evaluate csc x(sin x + cot x) dx. 

∫
cos x
Example 12.16 Evaluate dx. 
sin2 x
12.5 Integrals Involving Trigonometric Functions 155
∫
Example 12.17 Evaluate sin(π x + 9) dx. 

∫
Example 12.18 Evaluate sin2 x cos x dx. 

∫
Example 12.19 Evaluate cos3 x dx. 
156 Chapter 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions
∫
d 1 dx
Example 12.20 Use the formula [arcsin x] = √ to evaluate √ . 
dx 1 − x2 2 − x2

Example 12.21 Use the double-angle formula cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1 to evaluate the integral
∫
1
dx
1 + cos 2x

Example 12.22 Use the power-reducing formulas to evaluate the integral

∫ ∫
cos2 x dx and sin2 x dx

Example 12.23 Use the product-to-sum formulas sin α cos β = 2 [sin(α − β ) + sin(α + β )]
1

to evaluate the integral

∫
sin 7x cos 3x dx


 12.6 Exercises 157

12.6 Exercises
1. Evaluate the integral.
∫ ∫
(a) sec x(sec x + tan x) dx (l) (1 + sint)9 cost dt
∫ ∫
sec θ
(b) dθ (m) [csc(sin x)]2 cos x dx
cos θ
∫ ∫
sin x (n) esin x cos x dx
(c) dx.
cos2 x
∫ [ ] ∫ √
2 sec2 ( x)
(d) ϕ+ 2 dϕ (o) √ dx
sin ϕ x
∫ [ ∫
] cos 4θ
(e) 1 + sin2 θ csc θ d θ (p) dθ
(1 + 2 sin 4θ )4
∫ ∫
sec x + cos x √
(f) dx (q) cos 4θ 2 − sin 4θ d θ
2 cos x
∫ ∫
1
(g) dx (r) [sin(sin x)] cos x dx
1 + sin x
∫ ∫
(h) tan x dx 2
(s) sin3 2θ d θ
∫ ( ) ∫
1 ex
(i) + sec π x dx
2 (t) √ dx
x 1 − e2x
∫ √ ∫
dx
(j) sin πθ cos πθ d θ (u) , where a ̸= 0 is a constant
a + x2
2
∫
(k) cot x csc2 x dx

2. Evaluate the integrals using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

∫ π /2 ∫ π /8
(a) sin θ d θ (d) sin5 2x cos 2x dx
−π /2 0
∫ π /4 ∫ π /4 √
(b) cos θ d θ (e) tan x sec2 x dx
−π /4 0
∫ π /3 ∫ 4π 2
1 √
(c) (2x − sec x tan x) dx (f) √ sin( x) dx
0 π2 x

3. (a) Let
∫ a
f (x)
I= dx.
0 f (x) + f (a − x)

Show that I = a/2.

∫ 3 √
x
(b) Use the result of part (a) to find √ √ dx.
0 x+ 3−x
∫ π /2
sin x
(c) Use the result of part (a) to find dx.
0 sin x + cos x
158 Chapter 12. Calculus of Trigonometric Functions

4. Use the identities cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 to help evaluate the integrals
∫ ∫
2
(a) sin (x/2) dx (b) cos2 (x/2) dx

5. (a) Derive the identity

sec2 x 1
=
tan x sin x cos x

∫ the identity sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x along with the result in part (5a) to evaluate
(b) Use
csc x dx.
(c) Use the identity
∫ cos x = sin[(π /2) − x] along with your answer to part (5a) to
evaluate sec x dx.
6. Use a trigonometric identity to evaluate the integral.
∫ ∫ π
4
(a) sin x dx (f) cos2 5θ d θ
∫ ∫−2ππ
(b) cos4 x dx (g) sin2 kx dx
∫ ∫0
(c) tan4 x dx (h) sin 2x cos 3x dx
∫ ∫
(d) sec4 x dx (i) sin x cos(x/2) dx
∫
2 ∫ π /6
(e) cot x dx
(j) sin 4x cos 2x dx
0
 13. Additional Topics in Trigonometry

13.1 Law of Sines

13.1.1 Introduction
In this section and the next, you will solve oblique triangles—triangles that have no right
angles. As standard notation, the angles of a triangle are labeled A, B, and C, and their
opposite sides are labeled a, b, and c, as shown in Figure 13.1.

Figure 13.1

To solve an oblique triangle, you need to know the measure of at least one side and any
two other measures of the triangle—either two sides, two angles, or one angle and one side.
This breaks down into the following four cases.
1. Two angles and any side (AAS or ASA)
2. Two sides and an angle opposite one of them (SSA)
3. Three sides (SSS)
4. Two sides and their included angle (SAS)
The first two cases can be solved using the Law of Sines, whereas the last two cases require
the Law of Cosines (see Section 13.2).

Law of Sines
If ABC is a triangle with sides a, b, and c, then
a b c
= = .
sin A sin B sinC
160 Chapter 13. Additional Topics in Trigonometry

(a) A is acute (b) A is obtuse

The Law of Sines can also be written in the reciprocal form

sin A sin B sinC
= =
a b c
Example 13.1 For the triangle in Figure 13.2, C = 102◦ , B = 29◦ and b = 28 feet. Find the
remaining angle and sides.

Figure 13.2

Example 13.2 A pole tilts toward the sun at an 8◦ angle from the vertical, and it casts a
22-foot shadow. The angle of elevation from the tip of the shadow to the top of the pole is
43◦ . How tall is the pole ?


 13.1 Law of Sines 161

For practice, try reworking Example 13.2 for a pole that tilts away from the sun under the
same conditions.

13.1.2 The Ambiguous Case (SSA)

In Examples 13.1 and 13.2, you saw that two angles and one side determine a unique triangle.
However, if two sides and one opposite angle are given, three possible situations can occur:
(1) no such triangle exists, (2) one such triangle exists, or (3) two distinct triangles may
satisfy the conditions.
The Ambiguous Case (SSA)
Consider a triangle in which you are given a, b, and A. (h = b sin A)

A is acute.

Sketch
Necessary condition a<h a=h a≥b h<a<b
Triangles possible None One One Two

A is obtuse.

Sketch
Necessary condition a≤b a>b
Triangles possible None One

Example 13.3 For the triangle in Figure 13.3, a = 22 inches, b = 12 inches, and A = 42◦ .
Find the remaining side and angles.

Figure 13.3: One solution: a ≥ b


 162 Chapter 13. Additional Topics in Trigonometry

Example 13.4 Show that there is no triangle for which a = 15, b = 25, and A = 85◦ .

Example 13.5 Find two triangles for which a = 12 meters, b = 31 meters, and A = 20.5◦ .

13.1.3 Area of an Oblique Triangle

The procedure used to prove the Law of Sines leads to a simple formula for the area of an
oblique triangle. Referring to Figure 13.4, note that each triangle has a height of h = b sin A.
Consequently, the area of each triangle is

1 1 1
Area = (base)(height) = (c)(b sin A) = bc sin A.
2 2 2

By similar arguments, you can develop the formulas

1 1
Area = ab sinC = ac sin B.
2 2

(a) A is acute (b) A is obtuse

Figure 13.4
 13.1 Law of Sines 163

Area of an Oblique Triangle

The area of any triangle is one-half the product of the lengths of two sides times the
sine of their included angle. That is,
1 1 1
Area = bc sin A = ab sinC = ac sin B.
2 2 2

Note that if angle A is 90◦ , the formula gives the area for a right triangle:
1 1 1
Area = bc sin 90◦ = bc = (base)(height).
2 2 2
Similar results are obtained for angles C and B equal to 90◦ .
Example 13.6 Find the area of a triangular lot having two sides of lengths 90 meters and 52
meters and an included angle of 102◦ .

13.1.4 Application
Example 13.7 The course for a boat race starts at point A in Figure 13.5 and proceeds in the
direction S 52◦ W to point B, then in the direction S 40◦ E to point C, and finally back to
A. Point C lies 8 kilometers directly south of point A. Approximate the total distance of the
race course.

Figure 13.5


 164 Chapter 13. Additional Topics in Trigonometry

13.1.5 Exercises
1. Use the Law of Sines to solve the triangle. Round your answers to two decimal places.

(a) A = 102.4◦ , C = 16.7◦ , a = 21.6 (e) A = 36◦ , a = 8, b = 5

(b) A = 83◦ 20′ , C = 54.6◦ , c = 18.1 (f) B = 15◦ 30′ , a = 4.5, b = 6.8
(c) A = 35◦ , B = 65◦ , c = 10 (g) A = 145◦ , a = 14, b = 4
(d) A = 55◦ , B = 42◦ , c =
3 (h) A = 110◦ 15′ , a = 48, b = 16
4
2. Use the Law of Sines to solve (if possible) the triangle. If two solutions exist, find
both. Round your answers to two decimal places.

(a) A = 110◦ , a = 125, b = 100 (d) A = 120◦ , a = b = 25

(b) A = 76◦ , a = 18, b = 20 (e) A = 45◦ , a = b = 1
(c) A = 58◦ , a = 11.4, b = 12.8

3. Find values for b such that the triangle has (a) one solution, (b) two solutions, and (c)
no solution.

(a) A = 36◦ , a = 5 (c) A = 10◦ , a = 10.8

(b) A = 60◦ , a = 10 (d) A = 88◦ , a = 315.6

4. Find the area of the triangle having the indicated angle and sides.

(a) C = 120◦ , a = 4, b = 6 (c) A = 43◦ 45′ , b = 57, c = 85

(b) B = 130◦ , a = 62, c = 20 (d) B = 72◦ 30′ , a = 105, c = 64

5. Because of prevailing winds, a tree grew so that it was leaning 4◦ from the vertical. At
a point 40 meters from the tree, the angle of elevation to the top of the tree is 30◦ (see
figure). Find the height h of the tree.
13.1 Law of Sines 165

6. A 10-meter utility pole casts a 17-meter shadow directly down a slope when the angle
of elevation of the sun is 42◦ (see figure). Find θ , the angle of elevation of the ground.

7. A bridge is to be built across a small lake from a gazebo to a dock (see figure). The
bearing from the gazebo to the dock is S 41◦ W. From a tree 100 meters from the
gazebo, the bearings to the gazebo and the dock are S 74◦ E and S 28◦ E, respectively.
Find the distance from the gazebo to the dock.

8. A pilot has just started on the glide path for landing at an airport with a runway of
length 9000 feet. The angles of depression from the plane to the ends of the runway
are 17.5◦ and 18.8◦ .
(a) Draw a diagram that visually represents the situation.
(b) Find the air distance the plane must travel until touching down on the near end
of the runway.
(c) Find the ground distance the plane must travel until touching down.
(d) Find the altitude of the plane when the pilot begins the descent.
 166 Chapter 13. Additional Topics in Trigonometry

9. A boat is sailing due east parallel to the shoreline at a speed of 10 miles per hour. At a
given time, the bearing to the lighthouse is S 70◦ E, and 15 minutes later the bearing
is S 63◦ E (see figure). The lighthouse is located at the shoreline. What is the distance
from the boat to the shoreline?

10. The angles of elevation to an airplane from two points A and B on level ground are 55◦
and 72◦ , respectively. The points A and B are 2.2 miles apart, and the airplane is east
of both points in the same vertical plane. Find the altitude of the plane.

13.2 Law of Cosines

13.2.1 Introduction
Two cases remain in the list of conditions needed to solve an oblique triangle—SSS and
SAS. If you are given three sides (SSS), or two sides and their included angle (SAS), none
of the ratios in the Law of Sines would be complete. In such cases, you can use the Law of
Cosines.

Law of Cosines

Standard Form Alternative Form

b2 + c2 − a2
a = b + c − 2bc cos A
2 2 2 cos A =
2bc
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B a2 + c2 − b2
cos B =
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cosC 2ac
a2 + b2 − c2
cosC =
2ab
13.2 Law of Cosines 167

Example 13.8 Find the three angles of the triangle in Figure 13.6.

Figure 13.6

Do you see why it was wise to find the largest angle first in Example 13.8 ? Knowing the
cosine of an angle, you can determine whether the angle is acute or obtuse. That is,

cos θ > 0 for 0◦ < θ < 90◦ Acute

cos θ < 0 for 90◦ < θ < 180◦ Obtuse

So, in Example 13.8, once you found that angle B was obtuse, you knew that angles A
and C were both acute. If the largest angle is acute, the remaining two angles are acute also.
Example 13.9 Find the remaining angles and side of the triangle in Figure 13.7.

Figure 13.7


 168 Chapter 13. Additional Topics in Trigonometry

13.2.2 Application
Example 13.10 The pitchers mound on a womens softball field is 43 feet from home plate
and the distance between the bases is 60 feet, as shown in Figure 13.8. (The pitchers mound
is not halfway between home plate and second base.) How far is the pitchers mound from
first base ?

Figure 13.8

Example 13.11 A ship travels 60 miles due east, then adjusts its course northward, as shown
in Figure 13.9. After traveling 80 miles in that direction, the ship is 139 miles from its point
of departure. Describe the bearing from point B to point C.

Figure 13.9


 13.2 Law of Cosines 169

13.2.3 Herons Area Formula

The Law of Cosines can be used to establish the following formula for the area of a triangle.
This formula is called Herons Area Formula after the Greek mathematician Heron (c. 100
B.C.).

Herons Area Formula

Given any triangle with sides of lengths a, b, and c, the area of the triangle is
√
Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

where s = (a + b + c)/2.

Example 13.12 Find the area of a triangle having sides of lengths a = 43 meters, b = 53
meters, and c = 72 meters.

You have now studied three different formulas for the area of a triangle.

1
Standard Formula: Area = bh
2
1 1 1
Oblique Triangle: Area = bc sin A = ab sinC = ac sin B
2 2 2
√
Herons Area Formula: Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

13.2.4 Exercises
1. Use the Law of Cosines to solve the triangle. Round your answers to two decimal
places.

(a) a = 11, b = 15, c = 21 (d) B = 10◦ 35′ , a = 40, c = 30

(b) a = 75.4, b = 52, c = 52 (e) B = 125◦ 40′ , a = 37, c = 37
(c) A = 120◦ , b = 6, c = 7 4
(f) C = 43◦ , a = , b =
7
9 9
2. Determine whether the Law of Sines or the Law of Cosines is needed to solve the
triangle. Then solve the triangle.

(a) a = 8, c = 5, B = 40◦ (c) A = 42◦ , B = 35◦ , c = 1.2

(b) A = 24◦ , a = 4, b = 18 (d) a = 160, B = 12◦ , C = 7◦
170 Chapter 13. Additional Topics in Trigonometry

3. Use Herons Area Formula to find the area of the triangle.

(a) a = 8, b = 12, c = 17 (c) a = 12.32, b = 8.46, c = 15.05

(b) a = 2.5, b = 10.2, c = 9 1 3
(d) a = 1, b = , c =
2 4
4. A boat race runs along a triangular course marked by buoys A, B, and C. The race starts
with the boats headed west for 3700 meters. The other two sides of the course lie to
the north of the first side, and their lengths are 1700 meters and 3000 meters. Draw a
figure that gives a visual representation of the situation, and find the bearings for the
last two legs of the race.
5. To approximate the length of a marsh, a surveyor walks 250 meters from point A to
point B, then turns 75◦ and walks 220 meters to point C (see figure). Approximate the
length AC of the marsh.

6. A triangular parcel of ground has sides of lengths 725 feet, 650 feet, and 575 feet. Find
the measure of the largest angle.
7. Two ships leave a port at 9 A.M. One travels at a bearing of N 53◦ W at 12 miles per
hour, and the other travels at a bearing of S 67◦ W at 16 miles per hour. Approximate
how far apart they are at noon that day.
8. On a map, Orlando is 178 millimeters due south of Niagara Falls, Denver is 273 mil-
limeters from Orlando, and Denver is 235 millimeters from Niagara Falls (see figure).

(a) Find the bearing of Denver from Orlando.

(b) Find the bearing of Denver from Niagara Falls.
9. On a baseball diamond with 90-foot sides, the pitchers mound is 60.5 feet from home
plate. How far is it from the pitchers mound to third base ?
10. To determine the distance between two aircraft, a tracking station continuously deter-
mines the distance to each aircraft and the angle A between them (see figure). Deter-
13.2 Law of Cosines 171

mine the distance a between the planes when A = 42◦ , b = 35 miles, and c = 20 miles.

11. Q is the midpoint of the line segment PR in the truss rafter shown in the figure. What
are the lengths of the line segments PQ, QS, and RS ?

12. In a process with continuous paper, the paper passes across three rollers of radii 3
inches, 4 inches, and 6 inches (see figure). The centers of the three-inch and six-inch
rollers are d inches apart, and the length of the arc in contact with the paper on the
four-inch roller is s inches. Complete the table.

d (inches) 9 10 12 13 14 15 16
θ (degrees)
s (inches)

13. The lengths of the sides of a triangular parcel of land are approximately 200 feet, 500
feet, and 600 feet. Approximate the area of the parcel.
14. You want to buy a triangular lot measuring 510 yards by 840 yards by 1120 yards. The
price of the land is $2000 per acre. How much does the land cost ?
(Hint: 1 acre = 4840 square yards)