Menufiya University

Faculty of nursing
Nursing Administration
Doctoral degree
first semester

Data Collection methods

: Under supervision

Prof /Aida Abdalrazek

/ Preapered by
Hadeer Hamdy
Seham Nassar

2023
 Out Lines:
1. Introduction

2. Definition of Data Collection methods

3. Dimensions of Data Collection Methods

4. Data collection methods

A - Physiologic Methods

B- Observational Methods

C- Interviews Methods

D-Questionnaire

5. IMPLEMENTING THE DATA COLLECTION PLAN

6. References

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 Introduction:

The phenomena in which researchers are interested must be translated into concept
that can be measured, observed or recorded. so data collection method is very
important in the research process.

 Definition of Data Collection methods:

Data-collection methods are defined as ways of gathering the information

needed to carry a research.

 Characteristics of data collection:-

 data will be subjected to data analysis.

 some data collection method require more subjective judgment than other as

pain scale but the researcher try to increase objectivity

 content of method must be accurate ,complete and reflect variables

Sources of Data

In short, the sources of data are physical or digital places where information is
. stored in data table, data object, or some other storage format

Data can be gathered from two places: internal and external sources. The
information collected from internal sources is called “primary data,”for
example (case study, interview, and questionnaire)

While the information gathered from outside references is called

“Secondary data. “For example (journal, books,articles,web pages)

 Data collection methods: -

1 - Physiologic Methods:

Much of medical and nursing researches are oriented towards the physiologic
dimension of health. So it requires measurement of such variables as hand washing,
physical care practices and so on. Not all physiologic variables could be easily
measured so the researcher must be imaginative and creative. It used for measuring
both dependent and independent variables.

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Types of variables to be measured by physiologic methods:

Examples of variables to be measured by physiologic methods are: blood

pressure, cardiac potential, respiratory volume, systemic body temperature,
skin surface temperature, and renal obstructions.

Types of physiologic measures: -

1-In vivo measures are those performed directly within or on living

organisms. Examples on vivo measures include blood pressure, body
temperature, and vital capacity measurement. In vivo instruments are
available to measure all bodily functions, and technological advances
continue to improve the ability to measure physiologic phenomena more
accurately, conveniently, and rapidly.

2- In vitro measures, data are gathered from participants by extracting some

physiologic material from them and subjecting in to laboratory analysis. The
analysis is normally done by specialized laboratory technicians. In vitro
measures include chemical measures ( e.g., the measurement of hormone,
sugar, or potassium levels ); microbiologic measures (e.g., bacterial counts
and identification) and cytology or histology measures (e.g., tissue biopsies)

The advantages of physiologic measures:

1- Physiologic measures are relatively accurate and precise

2- Physiologic measures are objective

3- Physiologic instrumentation provides valid measures of the targeted

variables

4- Low cost

The disadvantages of physiologic measures:

1- The measuring tool may affect the variables it is attempting to

measure.

2- There are normally interferences that create artifacts in physiologic

measures.

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 3- Energy must often be applied to the organism when physiologic
measurements.

2 – Observational Methods

Observational methods have broad applicability, particularly for clinical

inquiries it is most commonly used in medical and nursing research. Also, it is
most common in qualitative research designs. Observation tends to be more
subjective than other types of measurements and seen less credible.
However in many cases it is the only possible way to obtain important data.

Types of variables to be measured by observational methods:

 Characteristics of individual such as sleep patterns, skin integrity, and

mobility.
 Verbal communication, such as wording used or manner of speaking
 Nonverbal communication behaviors, such as facial expressions, and
body movements.
 Activities such as eating habits. And so on.
 Environmental conditions as architectural barriers in the homes of
disabled people.

Types of observational methods:

A- Unstructured observations

In unstructured observation, the researcher records all events, behaviors,

conditions without using a pre- designed observation checklist. It is usually
used in qualitative research. It gives freedom to the observer however;
there is risk of losing of objectivity and a possibility that the observer might
not remember the details of the observed event.

Example of a nonparticipant unstructured observation:

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 Ragneskog, Gerdner, Josefsson, and Kihlren (1998) studied antecedents to
expressed agitation in nursing home patients with dementia. Their analysis
was based on 60 videotaped sequences of nine patients exhibiting agitated.

B - Structured Observations:

Are the systematic selection, observation and recording of conditions,

behaviors, activities, and so on using an observation checklist. First the
researcher has to define carefully what he needs to observe, then think about
how this observation to be done, Recorded and coded.

Recording of observations:

Observations are recorded in so many ways. However, the most common

types are the checklist and the rating scale.

 The checklist:

It is a technique of indicating whether or not a behavior occurred. The Tally

marking are placed on a data collection form each time a behavior is
observed.

 Rating scales:

Rating scale can be used for observation as well as self report. It allows the
researcher to rate the behavior or event on a scale such as:

1. Very relaxed - Relaxed- neither relaxed nor tens - Tens-

very tens

2. Done completely - partially done - not done

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3- Interviews Methods:

Interviews involve verbal communication between the researcher and the

subject, during which, information is provided to the researcher. Interviews
can be structured or unstructured.

Structured interview:

Structured interview includes strategy that provides increasing amount of

control by the researcher over the content of the interview. Questions asked
during the interview are pre prepared by the researcher, and the order of the
questions is specified.

Unstructured interview:

The researcher wants to understand how the subjects view the event or
behavior and express it in their own words. It could be the first step to develop
a structured observation checklist usually used in exploratory study.

Example of a study using unstructured interviews:

Leidy and hasse (199) explored the meaning of functional performance in

patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The interviews, which
were tape-recorded, began by asking the 12 respondents to describe a typical
day. Respondents were encouraged to self-direct the content of the interview.

1-Personal interview: In this way meet person face to face and secure
information from them.

 Advantages:

 Personal interview are regarded as the most useful method of collecting

survey data because of the quality of the information they yield
 Few people refuse to be interviewed in person.

Disadvantages: -

 It costly

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 Require considerable planning and interview training.
 Involve a lot of personal time.

2. Telephone interview: collect data from person through telephone.

 Advantages:

1. Less costly.

2. Telephone can be convenient method of collecting information quickly if the

interviewer is short specific.

Disadvantages: -

1. Less effective

2. When the interviewer is unknown the respondent may be uncooperative

and Unresponsive in telephone situation especially if the interviews long.

4- Questionnaires: -

1. It differ from interviews, questionnaires is self-administered.

2. The respondent read the questions on a form and gives an answer in

writing

Example of a study using questionnaires:

Graninger and McCool (1998) studied nurse-midwives' use of and attitudes

toward epidural analgesia. Questionnaires were mailed to a stratified random
national sample over 2,500 nurse midwives. A total of 1,605 Questionnaires
(60.7%) were returned.

 Advantages:

1. Question easy distributed by E-mail.

2. It is economical.

Disadvantages: -

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1. Questionnaires not appropriate for surveying certain population e.g. (child,
elderly).

2. The question takes time to prepare to be simply, clearly, unambiguous.

Self-administered questionnaire:

Is a series of pencil and paper questions to collect information by asking all

participants in a sample?

Advantages:

 Easy.
 Large numbers covered.
 Good response to sensitive questions.
 No observer bias.
 Simple method of obtaining data.
 Rapid & efficient method of gathering data
 Ability to gather data from a wide sample.
 Are inexpensive to distribute.
 Data from close ended items relatively easily tabulated.
 Can remain anonymous.
 It is a simple procedure for exploring a new topic.
 Questions can be flexible concerning the type& order of items.
 Don't necessarily require the presence of the researcher.
 Can be used without any person to person contact.

Disadvantages;

 Not suitable for illiterate.

 High non-response rate.
 Unable to measure a topic in depth.
 The respondent may omit any item without giving an explanation.
 Some items may force the respondent to select responses that are not his
actual choice.
 The amount of information gathered is limited by respondent's available
time.

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 Printing may be costly if the question is lengthy or printed on high quality
paper.
 Some items may be misunderstood.
 The samples limited to those who are literate.
 The researcher cannot observe the respondent's nonverbal cues.
 There is no possibility of follow up when the respondent is promised
anonymity.

Interviewing questionnaire:

It is the same questionnaire except the interviewer verbal asks question to the
respondent.

Types: structured, semi-structured, open / individual, group.

Advantages:

 Combines the advantages of questionnaire and observation.

 Suitable for illiterate.
 Data are usable.
 Misunderstanding can be minimized when question are explained by the
researcher.
 Some topic can be pursued in depth although not include initially.
 No items are emitted accidentally or purposely.
 Great flexibility.
 The subject is not needed to be literate.
 Verbal &nonverbal cues can be noted.
 The interviewee's time may be saved.
 The interview is a suitable technique for revealing facts & investigating
emotions.
 Useful for developing a questionnaire.
 A higher percentage of response is possible.

Disadvantages:

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 Needs more time and resources
 Response might be affected by the presence of the interviewer
 Difficulty with sensitive questions
 Interviewer bias might be present
 Difficult analysis of open-ended questions.

Open-ended questions:

The open-ended questions allow the respondent to answer the questions with
an appropriate response in his/her own words.

Frequently they ask why, what, how?

Enough space must be left for the respondent to write down his answers.

Advantages

 The respondent speaks in his own way & without influence from the
researcher
 It is more realistic & truthful
 Allow the respondent to give some details & depth to express his feeling

Disadvantages

 Difficult to tabulate
 It is analysis is time consuming
 May be misunderstood

 The respondent may write something not important

Ex: what did you do when you discovered you had AIDS?

What is your occupation?

Close- ended questions:

 In close - ended questions the respondent’s answers are limited to the

choices offered them.
 The list of answers should include all possibilities.

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 The number of option or answers should be short from 2-answers
 The respondent has no opportunity to express an opinion
 Choices may include ascending or descending scales, quantity and
quality, a variety of opinions or yes or no

Ex: have you ever been hospitalized yes ( ) no ( )

Advantages

 Answers can be given &recorded quickly.

 Easily analyzed and evaluated.
 The some question can be used in the different settings

Ex: what is your present marital status?1-married 4-single

2- divorced 5- separated
 List may contain important items which respondent might not remember.

Disadvantages

 The list of answers may be unsuitable or do not express the respondents

opinion
 Sometime it is difficult to select the right answer because the answers
give the same meaning with little difference.
 Care must be taken to offer realistic choices

 The respondent may be influenced by the answers, in the list of question.

Measuring:

Tools: all kinds of lab tests and other investigations.

Advantages:

Generally have high degrees of objectivity, reliability and validity.

Disadvantages;

 Availability.

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 Cost.

 Expertise.

 Acceptability.

 Harmful effects.

IMPLEMENTING THE DATA COLLECTION PLAN

In addition to selecting methods of data collection, researchers must develop

and implement a plan for gathering the data. This involves decisions that
could affect the quality of the data being collected.

 One important decision concerns who will collect the data. In many
studies, the researcher hires assistants to collect data rather than doing it
personally, the critical issues are whether the people collecting data might
have introduced any biases and whether they were able to produce valid
and accurate data. In any research endeavor, adequate training of data
collectors is essential.

 Another issue concerns the circumstances under which data were

gathered. For example, it may be critical to ensure the total privacy to
participants. In most cases, it is important for the researcher to create a
nonjudgmental atmosphere in which participants are encouraged to be
candid or behave naturally. Again, you as a consumer must ask whether
there is anything about the way in which the data were collected that could
have introduced bias or otherwise affected data quality.

 In evaluating the data collection plan of a study, then you should critically
appraise not only the actual methods chosen but also the procedures used
to collect the data.

Critique to Data Collection methods:

Essential to the critique is a description of how the data was collected.

Questions about this element include the following:

■ What steps were taken to collect the data?

■ How often was data collected and for how long?

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■ What instruments or tools were used?

■ Who designed the tools?

■ Are the tools valid and reliable?

■ Are the tools adequately described for you to understand

what the score means?

■ Were data analysis procedures appropriate?

■ Data collection gives information about the research question or hypothesis.

■ Data is often collected by a survey mechanism that provides

a score for analysis. As a result, a clear understanding of how and where the
data was collected, the description of the instrument (tool) that was used, and
how the results were analyzed statistically is essential.

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 References
1. Polit D, (2003), Nursing Research, 6th edition, Lippincott Company,
New York, P.P (260-297).
2. Leedy, Paul and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod (2004). Practical research:
Planning and design (8th Edition). A leading text.

3. Boswell.C and Cannon.S, (2011),Introduction to Nursing Research,2 nd

edition, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, United States, P.P(292-316)

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