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Study Unit 1: Part 2

Compiled by: Dr. E.M. Migabo (PhD(CS) & DEng (EE))

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• Explain transfer functions.
• Differentiate between analog and digital control systems.
• Know how process control systems work.
• Know how servomechanisms work.
INTRODUCTION
• Control system = collection of components working together
under the direction of machine intelligence.
• Example: modern automobile.
• Nowadays microprocessor controllers replace analogue
controllers.

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
Introduction and Background
• In modern control system, electronic intelligence controls
physical process.
• E.g.: Control systems are “automatic” in such things as automatic
washing machine.

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• In many cases, machine intelligence is better than human
control because it can:
• be faster or slower
• respond more precisely
• maintain accurate log of system’s performance
• etc.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Introduction and Background (continued)
• Regulator system automatically maintains parameter at
specified value.
• Example: home heating system

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• Follow-up system causes output to follow specified set path.
• Example: industrial robot moving parts from place to place.
• Event control system controls sequential series of events.
• Example: washing machine cycling through a series of
programmed steps.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Introduction and Background (continued)
• Every control system has (at least) controller + actuator.
• Input to controller = set point
• Actuator = electromechanical device that takes signal from

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controller and converts it into physical action.
• Process block = physical process being affected by actuator.
• Controlled variable = measurable result of process.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Introduction and Background (continued)

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Open-Loop Control Systems
• Control systems categories: open- and closed-loop systems.
• Open-loop control system: controller independently
calculates exact voltage or current needed by actuator.

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Closed-Loop Control Systems
• In closed-loop control system, controlled variable is
monitored by a sensor.
• The sensor passes corresponding signal back to controller.

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• ➔ controller can make adjustments necessary to keep output
where it belongs.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Closed-Loop Control Systems (continued)
• Signal from controller to actuator = forward path
• Signal from the sensor to controller = feedback
• Comparator subtracts feedback signal from set point.

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• ➔ system error = difference between “where you are” and
“where you want to be.”
• Zero error means that the output is exactly what set point says
it should be.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Closed-Loop Control Systems (continued)
• Using a control strategy, controller minimizes error.
• Simple control strategy: controller turns actuator on or off
• Complex control strategy: controller adjusts actuator force to

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meet demand.
• self-correcting feature of closed-loop control → preferable
over open-loop
• Disadvantage of closed-loop control : additional hardware.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Transfer Functions
• Each component in system converts energy from one form to
another.
• Example: motor as converts volts into revolutions per minute

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• Transfer function (TF) = Gain (in our context) = mathematical
relationship between input and output of control system
component.
• TF=output/input
CONTROL SYSTEMS
(continued)
Transfer Functions (continued)
• Example: For a temperature sensor, the input is temperature,
and the output is voltage. The sensor transfer function is given
as 0.01 V/deg. Find the sensor output voltage if the
temperature is 600°F.

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL
CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Analogue control system: controller consists of traditional
analogue devices and circuits, i.e. linear amplifiers.
• First control systems were analogue because it was only
available technology.
• In analogue control system, any change in set point or

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feedback is sensed immediately and output is adjusted.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL
SYSTEMS (Continued)
• Digital control system: controller uses a digital circuit.
• In most cases, circuit is a computer, usually microprocessor- or
microcontroller-based.
• Computer executes program that repeats over-and-over.

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• Program instructs computer to read set point and sensor data
and then use these numbers to calculate controller output
(sent to actuator).
ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL
SYSTEMS (Continued)
• The digital system only checks inputs at a certain time in scan
and gives updated output later.
• If input changes just after computer checked it, that change
will remain undetected until next scan.
• Scan time is so short compared with response time of process

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that controller response is instantaneous.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL
SYSTEMS (Continued)
• Physical world is basically an “analogue place.”
• → most control systems are controlling analogue processes.
• → digital control system must first convert real-world
analogue input and output from digital controller must be

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converted from digital back into analogue.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Process control
• Process control = control system that oversees some industrial
process so that uniform, correct output is maintained.
• Example of process control is a closed-loop system

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maintaining a specified temperature in an electric oven
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS (cont.)
• Process control can be classified as batch or continuous.
• Continuous process: there is a continuous flow of material
• Batch process has beginning and end.
• Examples of batch processes: mixing a batch of bread dough

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and loading boxes on a pallet.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS (cont.)
• Direct digital control (DDC): all independent controllers
replaced by single large computer.
• Advantages:
• all local processes can be implemented, monitored, and adjusted
from same place.

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• Computer can make adjustments to enhance total system
performance.
• Drawback: whole plant is dependent on one computer.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS (cont.)
• Distributed computer control (DCC): each process has its own
separate controller.
• These local controllers are interconnected via local area
network
• → they can be monitored or reprogrammed from a single

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supervisory computer.
• → more robust and safe system, because all local processes
will continue to function even if supervisory computer or
network goes down.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS (cont.)
• Sequentially controlled system controls process that is
defined as a series of tasks.
• Each operation is performed:
• either for certain amount of time (time-driven)

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• or until task is finished (event-driven).
• Time-driven sequence is open-loop
• Event-driven task is closed-loop
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS (cont.)
Motion Control
• Motion control is electromechanical system wherein things
are moving.
• Servomechanism = closed-loop electromechanical control

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system that directs precise movement of a physical object
such as radar antenna or robot arm.
• Numerical control (NC) is type of digital control used on
machines that can automatically cut and shape the workpiece
• without a human operator.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS (cont.)
Motion Control (continued)
• Robotics
• Industrial robots are classic examples of position control
systems.

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• Pick-and-place robots, the simplest type, pick up parts and
place them somewhere else nearby.
• Sophisticated robots use closed-loop position systems for all
joints.