PROPOSITION

The second mental operation in Logic is called judgement and the product of this is the proposition. As a
mental act, it pronounces the agreement or disagreement between two ideas, and then expressed
verbally into proposition (Santiago:2002, 67).Proposition is a sentence in which the two terms (subject
and predicate) are combined so as to assert or negate something (Umali:2006, 19).

Example :
Subject Predicate
Libmanan is a town.

In the above example, the word Libmanan is the subject which we combine to the predicate, a town. Here
we affirm the word Libmanan or we assert something about the subject term Libmanan. Thus, proposition
is a product of judgement that expresses an assertion or negation of something. Such expression may be
an affirmation or negation. It is an affirmation if it affirms the subject, however, it is negation when it
denies the subject.

Affirmation:
Dr. Jaime Hernandez is the founder of UNC.
Camarines Sur is one of the provinces of Bicol.
He praises my good work.
UNCeans are creative and dynamic.

Negation:
Japan is not in Europe.
Oryol in the Ibalon epic is not human.
Nothing is impossible.
The image of the Virgin of Penafrancia is not made of ivory.
The proposition as a sentence can be evaluated as true or false statement based on their truth content. It
is true if it conforms or consistent to what is in reality; however, it is false when it is not consistent to what
is in reality.

Proposition is a declarative sentence.

The proposition as a sentence that affirms or negates something is always a declarative sentence. Since
declarative sentence as a product of judgement expresses judgement. Thus, exclamatory, imperative and
interrogative do not express judgement, because they cannot be evaluated as true or false statement.

Interrogative:
What is your name?
How do you know that you know?
Why are you like that?
Imperative:
Attend to your lesson now.
Always read something that will enrich your vocabulary.
Make your priorities as your goal in life.
Exclamatory:
This is incredible!
I love the type of your music!
Magnificent!
Declarative:
Libmanan is the seat of the kingdom of Handiong in the Ibalon epic.
Most Rev. Santiago Sancho is the first Bicolano archbishop.
UNC is the first university in the Southern Luzon.

ELEMENTS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

The elements of proposition are the following: subject term, copula and predicate term. They are the
material components out of which propositions are made of.
Subject term is the object affirmed or denied in the proposition.
Predicate term is the quality or attribute affirmed or denied by the subject in the proposition.
Copula is the element that links the subject to the predicate. It is the linking verb in grammar like “am,”
“is,” and “are.” The negation “not” is part of the copula.

Examples:
Subject Copula Predicate
Libmananis a town in Camarines Sur.
Handiongisone of the heroes in the Ibalon epic.
Bicolanosarereligiously faithful in their faith.
The Philippines is notpart of the European organization.

PROPERTIES OF PROPOSITIONS: QUALITY AND QUANTITY

To know the nature of the proposition when it comes to the relationship of the terms we use in the
proposition and how they are distributed we need to know the two properties of the proposition. They
are the quality and quantity of the proposition.

QUALITY
To determine the quality of the proposition we need to know the copula we use in the
proposition. If there is an agreement in the proposition by having the copulas is, are, and, am,
the proposition is now affirmative. However, if there is a disagreement by having the copulas is
not, are not, and, am not, the proposition becomes negative.
Examples:
Affirmative Proposition
Rizal is our national hero.
Mango is a tropical fruit.
Negative Proposition
Bonifacio is not a reformist.
Pili is not a fruit tree.

QUANTITY
The quantity refers to the number of the proposition if it is universal or particular. It is universal,
if it pertains to every member of the whole number denoted by the subject term. However, it is
particular, when the subject denoted only to some of its member (Umali: 2006, 23). It is easy to
quantify the proposition if there are quantifiers of the proposition that will tell us the subject
term of the proposition. Here, we do not include the singular proposition in our discussion that
pertains also to the quantity of proposition.
Examples:
Universal Propositions
All scientists are experts in science.
 Every life is sacred.
No human is immortal.
None of us can comprehend the mystery of God.

Universal Quantifiers
All, every, any, whatever, wherever, whoever, anything, everything, no,
none, nothing, never and others similar to these

Particular Propositions
Some teachers are writers.
Few mangoes are not sweet.
Several Filipinos are OFW’s.
Not all trees are fruit bearing plants.

Particular Quantifiers
Some, several, few, most, many, at least, not all, majority and others.

PROPERTIES COMBINED IN THE FOUR TYPES OF PROPOSITION

To combine the two properties of proposition which are the quality and quantity we can create
four types of propositions. The combination of the four types of categorical propositions and
their corresponding symbols are the following:
1. Universal Affirmative Proposition: A Proposition
2. Universal Negative Proposition: E Proposition
3. Particular Affirmative Proposition: I Proposition
4. Particular Negative Proposition: O Proposition

A Proposition
Every human is unique.
Jaime Hernandez is the founder of UNC.
Each of us is endowed with freedom.
Everything that is moral is good.
Everybody has the right to due process of law.
The right to life is inalienable.
The child is entitled to the right to education.

E Proposition
No lover of nature is a logger.
Nothing is constant.
All UNCeans are not Ateneans.
 Butanding is not a plant.
None of us is perfect.
Whoever claims to be complete is not honest.
Anyone who discriminates a person is not a good person.

I Proposition
Some Agta are Dumagat.
Several Bicolanos are artists.
Many students are interested to learn.
Herbs are edible.
There are Filipinos who excelled in music.
Most Filipinos are religious.
Six priests are martyrs.

O Proposition
Some UNCeans are not Bicolanos.
A portion of land is not agricultural.
Most corrupt officials are not God-fearing.
Several Bicolanos are not music lovers.
There are paintings that are not acrylic.
Flowers are not ornamental.
Few Filipinos are not hospitable.

Summary:
PROPOSITION QUALITY SYMBOL QUANTITY SYMBOL
A Affirmative + Universal U
E Negative - Universal U
I Affirmative + Particular P
O Negative - Particular P

DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS IN THE PROPOSITION USING THE VENN DIAGRAM

To know the distribution of terms in the proposition is to know the quantity of the subject term and
thepredicate term in the proposition. To use the Venn Diagram in illustrating the distribution of terms
inthe proposition is to use the two overlapping circles that will represent the two terms in the proposition-
the subject and the predicate. An area of a circle that is shaded means that the area is empty or has no
member (since a circle or an area of a circle represents a class which has members), while if there is an
“x” means that area or circle has members.

The distribution of terms in the four categorical propositions:

A- Proposition: All humans are mortal beings.

 Humans Morta_l Beings
_
SP SP SP

The area of the circle S that is not P is shaded since it is empty, because it represents the
human who is not mortal. Thus, the area that is shaded has no member. The quantity of the
subject is universal since we refer to to S (all humans) that is part of P (mortal beings). The
predicate is particular since we are not referring to all P (mortal beings) but only to some of
them who are humans.
 E- Proposition: No dog is a cat.

Do_g C_at
SP SP SP

The area between S and P are shaded since it is dog and cat. Thus, it says that the area of S
and P are common.
The subject and predicate are both universal, since we refer to both of them as not having the same
or common quality.

I- Propositions: Some teachers are poets.

Teac_hers Poets
_
SP SP SP

We put an X to the area that is common to both circle S and circle P, because it represents the teachers
and poets.
The subject and the predicate are both particular.

O- Propositions: Some senators are not lawyers.

Senators Lawyers
_ _
SP SP SP

We put an X to the area of the circle S that does not overlap to the area of the circle P, since it represents
the senators that are not lawyers.
The subject is particular since we refer only to some, while the predicate is universal because it excludes
some members of the subject.

Summary of the Distribution of Terms in the Proposition:

Type of Prop. QUANTITY= SUBJECT QUANTITY= PREDICATE
A UNIVERSAL PARTICULAR
E UNIVERSAL UNIVERSAL
I PARTICULAR PARTICULAR
O PARTICULAR UNIVERSAL

LOGICAL FORM OF PROPOSITION

We said in our previous discussions that propositions are sentences and to be specific, they are
declarative sentences. If that is the case, there are sentences that are not expressed accordingly
to what the propositions in logic are being expressed. We call those sentences arranged or
expressed logically as standard form categorical propositions or in the logical form categorical
propositions. To translate propositions into logical form or in the standard form we have to
arrange them by following this pattern:
Quantifier
Subject
Copula
Predicate
The following steps will guide us how to translate the non-standard form into a standard form
categorical proposition:
1. Determine the type of the given proposition.
2. Determine the subject in the proposition that is the one being affirmed or denied in
the proposition.
3. Change the verb to “is” or “are.”
4. Determine the predicate that is affirmed or denied in the proposition.
5. Give the quantifier of the subject of the proposition.
Examples:
a. There are UNCeans who love fiesta.
Quantifier: Some – since the indefinite quantifier ”there are”
refers only to some UNCians.
Subject: UNCeans- it is the object being affirmed in the
proposition.
Copula: are
Predicate: fiesta lovers or persons who love fiesta-
the quality or attribute of the subject being
affirmed in the proposition.

Standard form or logical form:

Some UNCeans are lovers of fiesta.
Some UNCeans are fiesta lovers.
 b. The only animal that lives in a glacier is the polar bear
. Quantifier: all- since the word only refers to universal
Subject: polar bears- since it is the object being affirmed in the
proposition.
Copula: are
Predicate: are animals that live in a glacier-
It is the quality or attribute of the
subject term.
Standard form or logical form:
All polar bears are animals that live in a glacier.
c. No I D, no entry.
Quantifier: No- this is a universal and negative proposition. E
proposition.
Subject: person
Copula: is
Predicate: allowed to enter without an ID –
it is denied in the proposition.
Standard form or logical form:
No person is allowed to enter without an ID.

d. All except herbs are fruit bearing trees.

Quantifier: No- the expression “all except” makes it universal negative
or E proposition.
Subject: herb- the object being denied.
Copula: is
Predicate: fruit bearing tree- quality that is being denied.
Standard form or logical form:
All herbs are fruit bearing trees.

e. If it’s a tree, then it’s a plant.

Quantifier: all- it refers to all. A- Universal and affirmative proposition
Subject: trees- object being affirmed in the proposition
Copula: are- affirmative proposition
Predicate: plants- the quality or attribute being affirmed in the proposition
Standard form or logical form:
All trees are plants.

A. CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION
The propositions in this kind of opposition are opposed in their values since they differ when
it comes to their quantity and quality. One proposition is affirmative while the other is
negative and at the same time one is universal while the other is particular. Propositions are
contradictories when the two opposed propositions cannot be true or false at the same time.
In the square of opposition, A and O ,and E and I are contradictories.
Examples:
 A: All tarsiers are endangered species. True
O: Some tarsiers are not endangered species. False

O: Some Tarsiers are endangered False

A: All tarsiers are endangered. True

Assuming that the value of the A propositions ( like the proposition, “all tarsiers are
endangered “) are true, thus, the statement (O proposition) that opposes the value of an A is
False.

O: Some tarsiers are not endangered species. True

A: All tarsiers are endangered species. False

If it is true that an O proposition, “some rabbits are not endangered species”, it follows that ,
it is false to say that an A proposition, “all tarsiers are endangered species”.

Rules of the Contradictory Opposition

1. If one is true, the other is false.
2. If one is false, the other is true.

A-O O-A TRUTH E-I I-E

VALUE
All S is P. Some S is not P. True False No S is P. Some S is P.
Some S is not P. All S is P. False True Some S is P. No S is P.

B. CONTRARY OPPOSITION
The propositions in this kind of opposition are opposed in their values since they differ when
it comes to their quality only. Propositions in the contrary are both universal when it comes
to their quantity. Propositions are contraries when the two opposed proposition cannot be
both true at the same time, however, they can be both false at the same time, since if the
given is false the other can be undetermined or doubtful (since it can also be true or false).
The contraries are the A and E.

Example:
A: All mangoes are sweet. True
E: No mango is sweet. False

E: No mango is sweet. False

A: All mangoes are sweet. Undetermined
 Rules of the Contrary Opposition
1 If one is true, the other is false.
2 If one is false, the other is undetermined.

A-E TRUTH VALUE E-A

A: All s is P. True False E: No S is P.
E: No S is P. False Undetermined A: All S is P.

C. SUB-CONTRARY OPPOSITION
The propositions in this kind of opposition are opposed in their values since they differ when
it comes to their quality like in the contrary. Propositions in the sub-contrary are both
particular in their quantity. Propositions are sub contraries when the two opposed
propositions cannot be both false at the same time, however, they can be both true at the
same time, since if the given is true the other is doubtful or undetermined (since it can also
be true or false). The sub-contraries are the I and O.
Examples:
I: Some flowers are fragrant. True
O: Some flowers are not fragrant. Undetermined

O: Some flowers are not fragrant. False

I: some flowers are fragrant. True

Rules of the Sub- Contrary Opposition

1. If one is true, the other is undetermined.
2. If one is false, the other is true.

I-O TRUTH VALUE O-I

I: Some S is P. True False O: Some S is not P.
O: Some S is not P. Undetermined True I: Some S is P.

D. SUB-ALTERN OPPOSITION
The propositions in this kind of opposition are opposed in their values since they differ when
it comes to their quantity but not in quality. Let say the given is particular the opposed is
universal and vice versa provided that they are both the same in quality. Here the values of
the opposed proposition will not be the same if we will interchange the given and the product
(unlike with the contradictory, contrary and sub-contrary). Let us say, the given is universal
the product therefore is particular and vice versa (but not in their values). Thus, the value of
the product will change if we change the quantity of the given. The subalterns are the A and
I, I and A, and, E and O, and, O and E.
 Examples:
If the given is universal:
All doves are white. True
Some doves are white. True

All doves are white. False

Some doves are white. Undetermined

No dove is white. True

Some doves are not white. True

No dove is white. False

Some doves are not white. Undetermined

In this kind of opposition we have two sets of rules: the rules if the given is universal and the
rules if the given is particular. It is obvious in the subaltern, that, if the universal is true the
particular is also true. This is in the saying that what is true to all will also be true to some.
However, if the universal is false the particular becomes undetermined since it can be true or
false. Therefore, they can also be both false at the same time (since they can be true at the
same time provided that the universal is true).

If the given is particular:

Some doves are white. True
All doves are white. Undetermined

Some doves are white. False

All doves are white. False

Some doves are not white. False

No dove is white. False

In this kind of opposition (if the given is particular), when the particular is true the universal
is undetermined since they can be both true or false. However, if the particular is false the
universal is also false. Thus, what is false to some will be false to all.

Summary of Rules for Universal Propositions:

Rules of the Subaltern Opposition for UNIVERSAL
1. If the universal is true, the particular is also true.
2. If the universal is false, the particular is
undetermined.
 A-I TRUTH VALUE E-O
A: All S is P. True False E: No S is P.
I: Some S is P. True Undetermined O: Some S is not P.

Summary of Rules for Particular Propositions:

Rules of the Subaltern Opposition for PARTICULAR
1. If the particular is true, the universal undetermined.
2. If the particular is false, the universal is also false.

I-A TRUTH VALUE O-E

I: Some S is P. True False O: Some S is not
P.
A: All S is P. Undetermined False E: No S is P..

LOGICAL
EQUIVALENCE

INTRODUCTION
Like the logical opposition, logical equivalence is also a type of immediate inference where we draw our
conclusion from one premise only. However, unlike the logical opposition which has opposed
propositions, logical equivalence has propositions that are equal in value.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module, the students must be able to;
1. Discuss the concept of equivalence; and
2. Identify and distinguish the different types of equivalence.

Propositions can be expressed in various ways but still they have the same value or meanings. These
propositions are called equivalence: the conversion, obversion, and contraposition.

A. CONVERSION
In conversion, to maintain the original meaning of the given proposition, we just interchange the
position of the subject and the predicate without changing their quality (or copula). There are two
types of conversion: partial conversion and complete (or full) conversion.

Rules of Conversion:
1. Interchange the subject and the predicate in the converse (the product or conclusion).
2. Retain the quality of the convertend (the original or given proposition) in the converse.

a. Partial Conversion
This type of conversion happens in an A proposition as the given proposition, since if we
maintain the quantity (universal) of the given proposition in the converse, the meaning of the
two propositions will not be equal. Let us observe this in these examples:
 Invalid conversion:
Convertend: A: All dogs are animals.
Converse: A: All animals are dogs.

Convertend: A: All herbs are plants.

Converse: A: All plants are herbs.

In these invalid examples, the predicate in the convertend becomes universal in the converse and
this is invalid since the quantity of the subject is universal in an A proposition. This is called
overextension since the predicate in the convertend becomes universal in the converse.

The only way to convert an A proposition (universal) is to reduce or partially

convert it to an I proposition (particular).

Convertend A: All dogs are animals.

Converse: I: Some animals are dogs.
Convertend: A: All herbs are plants.
Converse: I: some plants are herbs.

A full conversion of A to A proposition is only accidental in equivalence. This is in the case of

definition. Let us say:

Convertend: Naga City is the heart of Bicol.

Converse: The heart of Bicol is Naga City.

Convertend: All squares are polygons that have four equal sides.
Converse: All polygons that have four equal sides are squares.

b. Simple or Full Conversion:

This type of conversion happens between I to I and E to E propositions. This is possible since we
maintain the quantity of both terms (subject and predicate) in the converse. Let us observe this
in the examples:

Convertend: I: Some nurses are teachers.

Converse: I: Some teachers are nurses.

Convertend: I: Some pets are birds.

Converse: I: Some birds are pets.
Convertend: E: No tabios is butanding.
Converse: E: No butanding is tabios.

Convertend: E: No corruption is good act.

Converse: E: No good act is corruption.

In the case of an O proposition, there is no converse generally, since if we convert it the converse
will become invalid. Let us observe this in the example:

Invalid conversions:

Convertend: O: Some plants are not herbs.

Converse: O: Some herbs are not plants.

Convertend: O: Some humans are not nurses.

Converse: O: Some nurses are not humans.

There are however an O proposition that can be fully converted and we call this conversion as an
accidental conversion in an O proposition. Let us observe it here in the example:

Convertend: O: Some poets are not teachers.

Converse: O: Some teachers are not poets.

Convertend: O: Some herbs are not edible.

 Converse: O: Some edible things are not herbs.

Summary Formula:
Convertend Converse
A: All S is P. I: Some P is S. (partial)
E: No S is P. E: No P is S. (simple)
I: Some S is P. I: Some P is S. (simple)
O: Some S is not P. Invalid conversion

B. OBVERSION
This type of equivalence we change the quality of the given proposition in the obverse. If the given
is affirmative we make it negative and vice-versa provided that we don’t interchange the subject
and the predicate by contradicting the predicate in the obverse.

Rules of Obversion
1. Retain the position of the subject.
2. Change the quality of the proposition. If the given is negative make it affirmative in the
obverse and vice-versa.
3. Contradict the predicate.

Examples:
Obvertend: A: All charitable acts are humane.
Obverse: E: No charitable act is inhumane.

Obvertend: E: No pornographic material is decent.

Obverse: A: All pornographic materials are indecent.

Obvertend: I: Some CP- calls are limited.

Obverse: O: Some CP- calls are not unlimited.

Obvertend: O: Some canned goods are not sweetened.

Obverse: I: Some canned goods are unsweetened.

Obvertend: A: All herbs are plants.

Obverse: E: No herb is non-plant.

Obvertend: E: No tabios is a mammal.

Obverse: A: All tabios are non-mammals.

Obvertend: I: Some mammals are tamarao.

O: Some mammals are not non-tamarao.
Obvertend: O: Some vehicles are not cars.
Obverse: I: Some vehicles are non-cars.
 Summary Formula:
Obvertend Obverse
A: All S is P. E: No S is non-P.
E: No S is P. A: All S is non-P.
I: Some S is P. O: Some S is not non-P.
O: Some S is not P. I: Some S is non-P.

C. CONTRAPOSITION
This type of equivalence is a combination of the rules of conversion and obversion. There are two
kinds of contraposition: partial and complete contraposition.

Rules of Partial Contraposition

1. Obvert the given proposition (contraponend).
2. Convert the obverse (the product).

Examples:
Contraponend: A: All humans are mortal.
Obverse: E: No human is immortal.
Converse: E: No immortal being is human.

Contraponend: E: No abortion is moral.

Obverse: A: All abortions are immoral.
Converse: I: Some immoral acts are abortions.

Contraponend: O: Some acts are not legal

Obverse: I: Some acts are illegal.
Converse: I: Some illegal things are acts.

The I proposition in contraposition has no partial contraposit because it will become an invalid
contraposit if we will convert the obverse O proposition (invalid conversion).

Summary Formula:
Contraponend Obverse Converse
A: All S is P. E: No S is non-P. E: No non-P is S.
E: No S is P. A: All S is non- P I: Some non- P is S.
I: Some S is P. O: Some S is non- P. Invalid
O: some S is not P. I: Some S is non P. I: Some non-P is S.

Rules of Complete Contraposition

1. Obvert the contraponend.
2. Convert the obverse.
3. Obvert the converse.
 Examples:
Contraponend: A: All dreams are possible to realize.
Obvert : E: No dream is impossible to realize
Convert: E: No impossible to realize is a dream.
Obvert: A: All impossible to realize are non-dreams.

Contraponend E: No abortion is moral.

Obvert : A: All abortions are immoral.
Convert: I: Some immoral acts are abortions.
Obvert: O: Some immoral acts are not non-abortions.

Contraponend: O: Some proposals are not decent.

Obvert : I: Some proposals are indecent.
Convert: I: Some indecent acts are proposals.
Obvert: O: Some indecent acts are not non-proposals.

CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
A categorical syllogism is a mediate inference which has conclusion that is derived from two premises.
Hence, it is a mediate inference that consists of three related categorical propositions that has aconclusion
and two premises.

Example:

Major premise: All humans are living beings;

Minor premise: But, UNCeans are humans;
Conclusion: Therefore, UNCeans are living beings.

The first two given propositions are called the premises of the syllogism: the first is the major premise and
the second is the minor premise. The product or the consequent is the conclusion.

TERMS IN THE CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

The categorical syllogism consists of three terms. These three terms have their own role or
function depending on how they are used in the syllogism. They are:

Major Term - it is the term found in the major premise and at it serves as the
predicate of the conclusion.

Minor Term – it is the term found in the minor premise and it serves as the subject
of the conclusion.

Middle Term – it is the term found in both premises which serves as the common
term that links the major term and the minor term in the conclusion.
More Examples:

All humans are living

beings; But, all UNCeans
are humans;
Therefore, all UNCeans are living beings.

Major Term :living being(predicate of the conclusion and found in the major
premise)Minor Term: UNCeans(subject of the conclusion and found in minor
premise)
Middle Term: humans (common term found in both premises)

No dog is a cat;
But, some cats are tamed animals;
Therefore, some tamed animals are not
dogs.

Major Term: dog

Minor Term: tamed
animalsMiddle Term:
cat

All heroes are brave;

But, some heroes are
Bicolanos;Ergo, some
Bicolanos are brave

Major Term: brave

Minor Term:
Bicola
nosMiddle Term:
heroe
s