Western Colleges, Inc.

Naic, Cavite

INTRODUCTION TO
SPECIAL EDUCATION
Percival T. Loor
Student No. 23-1423
 A. Current Practices for Meeting the Needs of
Exceptional Learners
Exceptional Learners
Is a general introduction to the characteristics of exceptional learners and
their education. (Exceptional is the term that traditionally has been used to refer
to people with disabilities as well as to those who are gifted.) This book
emphasizes classroom practices as well as the psychological, sociological, and
medical aspects of disabilities and giftedness.
Students with disabilities have complex learning needs. It wasn’t until the
2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA)
that federal attention was pointed towards students who are both gifted and have
a disability.
However, this concept, known as twice exceptionality, is a difficult concept
to fully comprehend as the characteristics of these students can be complicated.
Twice-exceptional students as those who have simultaneous characteristics of a
gifted student and a student with a disability.
Students with disabilities are often recognized by their families and
teachers when they are not showing the same academic, social, or
developmental characteristics as same-age peers. In the educational setting,
teachers often target the areas of development that need support when working
with students with disabilities. Students with gifts and talents often stand out to
their families and teachers in other ways; they display strengths, talents, or
interests that differentiate them from same-age peers. Teachers of students with
gifts and talents may work to create advanced programming that appropriately
challenges them.
Practices to Improve Special Education
1. Focus on student outcomes, not inputs

In too many districts, if last year’s efforts didn’t work as well as desired,
the response is to add more staff, more paraprofessionals, more co-
teaching, and more hours of service. These changes seldom help
students and always cost more. Over the past decade, districts constantly
increased the number of special educators and paraprofessionals, and yet
achievement levels have barely budged.

If the current approach isn’t achieving great outcomes, current practices

must be reviewed and modified. The districts that have successfully raised
achievement for students with special needs and other students who
struggle are the districts that keep the focus on results.

2. Effective general education instruction is key

Effective general education instruction is key: higher performance of

general education students correlates to higher performance of students
with disabilities, as shown by the National Assessment of Educational

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 Progress (NAEP). Students with special needs and students who struggle
spend most of their day in the general education classroom; therefore,
core instruction provided by the classroom teacher must meet most of
their needs. In some districts, a culture has emerged where special
education staff take the lead in serving students with disabilities. In many
schools, elementary school children who struggle to read are pulled out of
the core reading block to be taught by a special education teacher or
paraprofessional.

While well-intentioned, these common practices are not what’s best for
students with special needs and students who struggle—students are best
served academically when their general education teacher takes primary
responsibility for their learning. Beyond core instruction, even interventions
are often best provided by general education staff, which is the hallmark of
RTI. Fundamentally, RTI and efforts like it embrace general education as
the foundation for all students’ success.

3. Ensure all students can read

In many districts, up to half of the referrals to special education are, at

their root, due to reading difficulties. Referral rates jump in third through
sixth grades when reading problems make it difficult to learn math,
science, and social studies. An overwhelming majority of students who
have not mastered reading by the end of third grade will continue to
struggle throughout high school and beyond. These students tend to have
increased rates of behavioral problems in later grades and are less likely
to graduate from high school or to enroll in college.

In order to raise achievement for all students who struggle, districts need
to faithfully implement best practices for teaching reading and ensure that
students with mild to moderate disabilities are benefiting from these best
practices.

4. Provide extra instructional time every day for students who struggle

Students who have difficulty achieving grade-level standards often need

more time for instruction in order to catch up and keep up with their peers.
At both the elementary and secondary levels, this additional time can be
used to pre-teach materials, reteach the day’s lesson, address missing
foundational skills, and correct misunderstandings.

In many schools, struggling students are provided extra adults, but not
extra time. Struggling learners may receive additional support from a
teaching assistant, paraprofessional, special education teacher, co-

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 teacher, etc. while staying in the same classroom as their peers for the
same duration. Some schools have specialized instruction in place, but it
is typically not in addition to the regular period. Struggling students, for
example, may be assigned to a “replacement” class, a lower-level general
education class that covers less content with less rigor. Extra “help time”
should not be confused with extra instructional time. It is common for
students with special needs to have a resource room period or a support
period where a special education teacher provides ad hoc help or test
prep across multiple subjects, grades, and courses. This is not the same
as a daily dedicated extra period focused explicitly on math skills, for
example.

Districts that have successfully closed the achievement gap and

significantly raised the achievement of students with and without special
needs provide extra instructional time each day in addition to core content
instruction time.

5. Ensure that content-strong staff provide interventions and support

As standards have risen and the complexity of the content has increased,
staff’s having a deep understanding and mastery of what they teach
becomes even more important. A teacher who has engaged in extensive
study and training in a particular subject is more likely to have a wider
repertoire of ways to teach the material. However, in most districts, extra
instruction is provided either by paraprofessionals, or by special education
teachers, who have expertise in pedagogy but often are generalists
without specialized expertise in teaching subjects such as math, English,
and reading.

Districts that have made the most significant gains among struggling
students have done so by providing these students, whether or not they
have IEPs, with teachers skilled in content instruction during extra
instructional time.

6. Allow special educators to play to their strengths

Districts that have made strides in improving services for struggling

students have focused on ensuring that teachers are able to play to their
strengths. For example, some special education teachers may have
expertise in specific content areas, while others may be very efficient and
skilled in assessing and managing the IEP process.

It is highly beneficial to leverage these areas of expertise:

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 o Content-Specific Expertise
Teachers who have particular strengths in academic content areas
(e.g. reading instruction, math instruction) should focus on
maximizing their time supporting students in their academic area of
specialization.

o Pedagogical Expertise
Teachers with pedagogical expertise should coach general
education teachers on accommodating the needs of students with
disabilities and on using scaffolding, differentiation, Universal
Design for Learning (UDL), chunking, and other teaching strategies.

o Social-Emotional Expertise
Special education teachers with a strong background in providing
social-emotional or behavior supports to students should focus on
delivering these important supports.

o Case Management Expertise

Some special education teachers are particularly efficient and
effective in managing the IEP process. These teachers should
focus on case management responsibilities and thereby allow other
special education teachers more time to serve students.

Making these shifts in roles enables teachers to focus on applying their

particular strengths to benefit students. Specialization of roles also
simplifies professional development for special education teachers;
teachers can develop deeper skills in one area rather than having to
master many different skills and specialties.

7. Focus paraprofessional support on health, safety, and behavior needs, rather

than academic needs

Across the country, the number of paraprofessionals supporting

students has been steadily increasing in recent years. Paraprofessionals
play a critical role in the lives and education of many students, especially
those with severe needs, autism, or behavior issues, and have helped
expand inclusion. However, paraprofessionals have also been given a
growing role in supporting academic needs.

This seemingly logical, caring effort actually runs counter to many of the
best practices. Students with special needs and students who struggle
need to be receiving instruction from content-strong teachers, and they

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 need to be receiving extra instructional time rather than having additional
support during core instruction. What’s more, the presence of an aide can
actually decrease the amount of instruction a student receives from the
classroom teacher; it is not uncommon for a classroom teacher to feel that
a student with an aide already has 100% of an adult’s time, and therefore
to focus attention on those students without aides. As a result, students
with the greatest needs receive the least attention from a teacher certified
in the subject.

It is important that districts focus paraprofessional support on health,

safety, and behavior needs, and have certified reading teachers, RTI
interventionists, and other trained specialists focused on academic and
other specific needs. Fortunately, most districts can shift their staffing to
better meet the needs of students in a cost-neutral way.

8. Expand the reach and impact of social, emotional, and behavioral supports

Addressing students’ social, emotional, and behavioral needs is critical,

and many districts have responded to a growing need for these services
by adding counselors, social workers, or paraprofessionals but still feel
more is needed. The key is to expand the reach and impact of existing
staff, expand staffing by shifting resources, and partner with others to
provide free or low-cost services.

Some districts have managed to double the amount of student services

delivered by existing staff by streamlining meetings and paperwork. But
even if all non-student work were streamlined, many districts still would be
understaffed. Fortunately, many districts can improve and expand social,
emotional, and behavioral supports within their existing budget by shifting
to having fewer lower-skilled paraprofessionals but more staff with the
highly specialized skills required, such as certified behaviorists. Finally,
some districts further expand social and emotional services by partnering
with local nonprofit counseling agencies, teaching hospitals, graduate
psychology programs, or even insurance-funded mental health
counselors.

9. Provide high-quality in-district programs for students with more severe needs

In the past, many mid-sized and smaller districts decided against providing
in-house special education programs; these districts felt they lacked
sufficient numbers of students at any given grade level to justify the cost of
such services. This needn’t be the case. If a district has at least three
students with similar needs within the same age range, it may be more
cost-effective to establish an in-house program than to place the students

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 in an out-of-district program. Of course, the savings resulting from
decreased tuition payments and transportation costs must be invested in
providing enhanced in-district services.

The key to providing effective and cost-effective programs is to hire staff

with the right skills and training, to adjust staffing levels throughout the
year as enrollment shifts, and to provide dedicated leadership for these
programs.

10. Know how staff spend their time and provide guidance on the effective use of
time

To implement best practices at-scale and in a cost-effective manner,

districts must have a detailed understanding of how staff, including special
educators, related services providers, and RTI staff, are currently serving
students. Then, the district must work collaboratively to establish
expectations regarding the service delivery model and to set guidelines on
the amount of time to be spent with students.

Given the vast range of tasks that staff perform, it is challenging for
districts to develop an in-depth understanding of how staff spend their
time. When districts utilize schedule-sharing technology to gain a deep
understanding of current practices, both staff and administrators are often
surprised at how much time is spent in meetings, how much service is
provided 1:1 or 2:1 even though the IEPs call for small groups, and how
much instruction is provided by paraprofessionals. Armed with a detailed
understanding of current practices, districts can thoughtfully plan what is
the best use of time for each role, grade level, and student need.

Finally, school and district leaders must assist principals and special
education and intervention staff to build thoughtful schedules in
accordance with best practices. Too often, the master building schedule
forces teachers to pull students from core instruction in reading or math,
prevents grouping of students with like needs, or demands attendance at
too many meetings.

Scheduling is both an art and a science, and effective scheduling is key to

ensuring that student needs are best met. There is no reason to believe
every teacher or principal is an expert scheduler; even if they are, their
schedule is impacted by dozens of other people’s schedules, so efficient
and effective schedules cannot be built in a vacuum. Coordinated
scheduling is essential to ensure that time is being used most effectively.

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Implementing these best practices is not easy or quick, but it is worth the effort

While implementing these best practices can have a significant positive impact,
to say that implementation is easy would be misleading. It takes time and hard
work to effect large-scale shifts in service delivery, staffing, scheduling, and roles
and responsibilities. It takes time, much communication, and attentiveness to
foster buy-in and ensure fidelity of implementation. It requires participation from
leaders across all functions of the district as well as dialogue with key
stakeholders such as parents. Clear goals, careful planning, and lots of
communication can help to pave the way.

Taking a close look at current practices and taking a systems-thinking approach

to implementing best practices can make a significant difference in student
outcomes. It is hard work, and a time-consuming process, but well worth the
effort to improve the lives of students with special needs and students who
struggle.

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b. Multicultural and Bilingual Aspect of Special
Education

1. Multicultural

What are the Challenges of Diversity?

One of the first issues of special education is identification of deficits.

Children with different racial, ethnic or language backgrounds may have difficulty
understanding classroom instruction and may not actually have special needs.
The system, however, contains more of these children than would be anticipated
by the proportion their demographic represents in society.

Assessing special needs is difficult in part because of inherent racial

biases and cultural differences. Behavioral problems in the classroom, for
instance, may not be the result of special needs, but of a culture that does not set
strong boundaries for its children. In children with correctly identified special
needs, those cultural and language differences may make creating a safe and
challenging learning environment for them more difficult.

What are the Goals of Special Education in Cultural Diversity?

Too often we deal with cultural differences by having cultural celebrations
once a year. While teaching children to be accepting of difference and teaching
culturally diverse students to take pride in their diversity is important, it involves
more than that. Culturally relevant special education must start with the teachers.
They must be given an increasing awareness of global issues and they have to
recognize that history can be viewed from more than one perspective. Schools
once taught that Christopher Columbus was an American hero who discovered
America. That view ignores the native people who were already here. It also
minimizes the fact that conquering races brought illness to the native peoples,
virtually exterminating some groups.

This kind of second look at history is important to take when addressing

any diverse group, but vital for teaching special needs individuals. Teachers have
to deal with their own biases so that they can teach their students to be tolerant
and accepting. Parents of children from other cultures may not have the same
values as the culture that is assimilating them. That can mean that they will not
support homework, counseling or other issues involved in their children’s
education. It is imperative that each child is viewed not only through his disability
but through the lens of how his culture affects that disability.

This is a complex issue and one that universities are addressing with new
degree programs and concentrations. Curriculum creators are also wrestling with
the challenge of building programs to teach Multicultural Special Education.

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2. Bilingual

How Many Students are Both Disabled and Bilingual?

Based on 1980 Census and Immigration and Naturalization Service’s

records, it is estimated that there are 79 million school-age language minority
children in the United States. This bilingual population is distributed throughout
the United States with heavier concentrations in the southwest and northeast.
The highest concentration is in the large urban areas.

Considering the overall population with limited English proficiency (LEP) in

the United States, a critical question for bilingual special educators is how many
of these students also have disabilities. According to the U.S. Office of Special
Education, an estimated 948,000 children may both be linguistically different and
have disabilities—a substantial population who could benefit from bilingual
special education services.

Although over-representation is an issue in some school districts, a new

problem of under-representation has also emerged in some areas because many
LEP students with disabilities are being placed in bilingual education as an
alternative to special education.
How Can Special Education and Bilingual Education be Combined?
Developers of bilingual special education programs need to weigh three
factors for each student: degree of disability; level of language proficiency in both
English and the primary language; and intellectual capacity. The student's
placement on each of these three continuums will determine the nature of
instruction and the educational placement.

Students' degree of disability must be considered for program design,

along with their intellectual capacities and their proficiencies in English and their
other languages. For example, a student of average intelligence who has a high
level of language proficiency in Spanish, a minimal level of ability in English, and
limited visual acuity will require curricular services and placement different from
those of a student who is linguistically limited in both languages, exhibits lower
intellectual performance, and is severely language delayed.
What Variables Should Influence Placement Decisions?
Program placement should be the best fit between the student's needs
and the available resources. Placement decisions for the bilingual exceptional
student should reflect the type and nature of instruction to be provided, the
language of instruction, the conveyor of instruction, the duration of instruction,
and the student's learning needs and style. The following special education
variables and bilingual factors should be addressed in identifying placements:

 Student's age.
 Type and degree of impairment or disability.
 Age at which disability occurred.

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 Level of language involvement because of the disability.
 Level of academic achievement.
 Entry level language skills (upon entering school).
 Measured intellectual ability.
 Method and language used in measuring academic achievement and
intellectual ability.
 Level of adaptive behavior.
 Time spent in United States.
 Current cultural home setting.
 Social maturity.
 Level of language proficiency in English and other language.
 Amount and type of language input received in the home environment.
 Speech and language capabilities in both languages.
 Presence of multiple handicaps.
 Ambulation or mobility.
 Success in past and present placements.
 Wishes of students and parents.
What is Needed to Get Started?
Operationalizing bilingual special education requires the creation of an
instructional social system that involves active teaching of cognitive skills and
includes the development of language skills while focusing on the acquisition of
English. All instruction is prescribed in a manner that accommodates and
remediates the student's exceptionality. Students must understand the directions
and the nature of the tasks. Instruction must be provided within a relevant cultural
context so that expectations can be understood by the student. Because
language is the primary conveyor of instruction, the student's stronger language
must be employed.

Based on the assumption that students learn best in their preferred language,
bilingual special education is operationalized at each local level with each
individual student in mind. The common thread is to provide for all student’s
educational experiences that develop lifelong learning skills.
What are the Basic Elements of an Individualized Education Program (IEP)
for These Children?
IEPs for exceptional bilingual students should include the following elements:

1. The child's current educational status, including all service programs the
child is receiving.

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 2. Goals, including adaptation to acculturation and growth in both the first
and second language. The goals must be realistic in regard to the time
necessary; years could be involved.
3. The sequence of short-term instructional objectives leading up to each
goal.
4. A list of instructional and service requirements including a balance
between the first and second language, as well as delineation of who will
assist with acculturation needs.
5. An indication of how much and what aspects of the program will be in the
mainstream.
6. The program's duration.
7. IEP's Realistic criteria and a schedule for evaluation of the IEP's
effectiveness.
8. A statement of the role of the parents.
9. Specification of changes to be made in the physical, social, and
instructional realms, including the first and second languages and cross-
cultural adaptation.
What are the Steps in Developing a Comprehensive Curriculum?
The four major partners in bilingual special education curriculum development
are the parents, the mainstream teacher, the bilingual teacher, and the special
education teacher. The following steps should be undertaken by this team:

1. Meet as a team to begin the planning process. Outline planning steps.

2. Become familiar with the culture and language background of the child.
3. Become familiar with the special learning style and education needs of the
child.
4. Prepare an individual instructional plan with short- and long-term goals (in
some cases this may be an IEP).
5. Develop individualized lessons and materials appropriate to the child's
exceptionality.
6. Modify individualized lessons and materials using a "cultural screen" and
sensitivity.
7. Refer to resource people for assistance and cooperation in instruction;
coordinate services.
8. Evaluate the child's ongoing progress and develop a new individual plan
(IEP), materials, and so forth, as needed.
9. Start the cycle over

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What Should Be Considered in Selecting Materials for Bilingual Exceptional
Children?
The following guidelines represent some of the many consideration’s teachers
should bear in mind when evaluating, selecting, adapting, or developing
materials:

1. Know the specific language abilities of each student.

2. Include appropriate cultural experiences in material adapted or developed.
3. Ensure that material progresses at a rate commensurate with student
needs and abilities.
4. Document the success of selected materials.
5. Adapt only specific materials requiring modifications, and do not attempt to
change too much at one time.
6. Try out different materials and adaptations until an appropriate education
for each student is achieved.
7. Strategically implement materials adaptations to ensure smooth transitions
into the new materials.
8. Follow some consistent format or guide when evaluating materials.
9. Be knowledgeable about particular cultures and heritages and their
compatibility with selected materials.
10. Follow a well-developed process for evaluating the success of adapted or
developed materials as the individual language and cultural needs of
students are addressed. (Hoover & Collier, 1989, p. 253)
How Can Materials Be Adapted?
Several guidelines for adapting commercial materials or developing
teacher-made materials are discussed in the literature (Harris & Schultz, 1986;
Lewis & Doorlag, 1987; Mandell & Gold, 1984). The following list is not designed
to be all inclusive; variations may be required in order to meet individual needs.

 Adjust the method of presentation or content.

 Develop supplemental material.
 Tape-record directions for the material.
 Provide alternatives for responding to questions.
 Rewrite brief sections to lower the reading level.
 Outline the material for the student before reading a selection.
 Reduce the number of pages or items on a page to be completed by the
student.
 Break tasks into smaller subtasks.
 Provide additional practice to ensure mastery.

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 Substitute a similar, less complex task for a particular assignment.
 Develop simple study guides to complement required materials.


c. Parents and Family

Parent and guardian participation in the special education decision-making

process is vitally important. The most important thing parents of disabled kids
can do is take an active role as a member of the Individual Education Program
(IEP) team that determines a student's path.

The IEP team is charged with making educational decisions for students, and
addresses issues such as eligibility, evaluation, program development, and
placement of a child in special education or gifted programs.1 Parents and
guardians know their kids better and should be very involved in the IEP process.
1. The Importance of the IEP Team
Despite their importance in educational decision-making, guardians
sometimes feel overwhelmed by the IEP team process. They may believe team
members perceive them as less knowledgeable about teaching or as
obstacles to the decision-making process, especially if they disagree with the
educators.
Don't let school personnel intimidate you in this process. Your role as
an advocate for your child is paramount.
2. Guardians Provide Critical Input

Parents and guardians have a more complete understanding of a child's

physical, social, developmental, and family history. They are the only adults in
the educational process who have been and will be deeply involved throughout
the child's school career. That continuity is very valuable.

Parents may not be educators themselves, but they bring their years of
experience in other professions and aspects of life to the process, along with
their experience with their own child.

3. Parents Often Know Their Children Better

While kids attend school about six hours a day, they may only have a few
minutes of a teacher's undivided attention in a class. Many guardians and
parents have the opportunity to sit side-by-side with their children, working
through homework and other learning activities for extended periods.

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 They may be the only adults who closely observe students' work and get
feedback from their children. Consequently, no one else has the perspective of a
guardian or parent in a meeting.

It's also critical for parents to be well-versed in district, state, and federal laws
governing special education. Sadly, not all school administrators follow the rules,
and parents need to be prepared to ask for what their kids need. 

4. The Role of the Parent on the IEP Team

Guardians are vital to the IEP team process. They provide information on the
child's strengths and weaknesses at home, background information on the child's
history and development, and information on any family factors that may affect
the child's learning.

Parents and guardians should be prepared to offer insight into whether

current strategies and instruction are helping the child learn (even when not
specifically asked), and provide suggestions for change and improvement.

This back-and-forth communication—listening to your child's educators so

you can practice at home, and having the educators hear your thoughts so they
can follow through at school—will be less confusing to your child. And it will
reinforce efforts on both sides.
5. Guardians Provide Insight on Transitions
Transition meetings are held to discuss movement from one school level to
another, from one program to another, or to a postsecondary program, job, or
assisted living program.

Only the parent or guardian accompanies the child throughout these

important school and life transitions. Their input at each transition can ensure
that appropriate services and supports are in place and increase the chances of
the child's success in the new program.

6. Parents Are Their Child's Best Advocate

There is no one as interested in and motivated to see a child succeed and

thrive than their own guardian, and this alone places them in a crucial role on the
IEP team. How can you advocate for your child?

 Correspond with teachers and other professionals in writing whenever

possible, and hang on to these communications so that you can refer back
to them.
 Keep careful records of your child's education, including any testing and
any IEP reports. Find a way to file these carefully so that you have them
on hand readily if needed.
 Learn as much as you can about your child's disability.

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 Observe your child's learning styles. Despite the specialized tests which
attempt to discern how children learn best, parents are in the best position
to watch this in action every single day.

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 d. Learners with Intellectual and Development
Disabilities
1. About Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDDs)
What are IDDs?
IDDs are differences that are usually present at birth and that uniquely
affect the trajectory of the individual’s physical, intellectual, and/or emotional
development. Many of these conditions affect multiple body parts or systems.
Intellectual disability starts any time before a child turns 18 and is characterized
by differences with both:
 Intellectual functioning or intelligence, which include the ability to learn,
reason, problem solve, and other skills; and
 Adaptive behavior, which includes everyday social and life skills.
The term "developmental disabilities" is a broader category of often lifelong
challenges that can be intellectual, physical, or both
"IDD" is the term often used to describe situations in which intellectual
disability and other disabilities are present.3
It might be helpful to think about IDDs in terms of the body parts or
systems they affect or how they occur. For example:
Nervous system
These disorders affect how the brain, spinal cord, and nervous system
function, which can affect intelligence and learning. These conditions can also
cause other issues, such as behavioral disorders, speech or language difficulties,
seizures, and trouble with movement. Cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, Fragile X
syndrome, and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are examples of IDDs related
to problems with the nervous system.
Sensory system
These disorders affect the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell)
or how the brain processes or interprets information from the senses. Preterm
infants and infants exposed to infections, such as cytomegalovirus, may have
reduced function with their eyesight and/or hearing. In addition, being touched or
held can be difficult for people with ASDs.
Metabolism
These disorders affect how the body uses food and other materials for
energy and growth. For example, how the body breaks down food during
digestion is a metabolic process. Problems with these processes can upset the
balance of materials available for the body to function properly. Too much of one
thing, or too little of another can disrupt overall body and brain

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functions. Phenylketonuria (PKU) and congenital hypothyroidism are examples of
metabolic conditions that can lead to IDDs.
Degenerative
Individuals with degenerative disorders may seem or be typical at birth
and may meet usual developmental milestones for a time, but then they
experience disruptions in skills, abilities, and functions because of the condition.
In some cases, the disorder may not be detected until the child is an adolescent
or adult and starts to show symptoms or lose abilities. Some degenerative
disorders result from other conditions, such as untreated problems of
metabolism.
The exact definition of IDD, as well as the different types or categories of
IDD, may vary depending on the source of the information.
For example, within the context of education and the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a law that aims to ensure educational services
to children with disabilities throughout the nation, the definition of IDD and the
types of conditions that are considered IDD might be different from the definitions
and categories used by the Social Security Administration (SSA) to provide
services and support for those with disabilities. These definitions and categories
might also be different from those used by healthcare providers and researchers.

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 e. ADHD Learners
ADHD and classroom challenges

If you’re a teacher, you know these kids: The one who stares out the
window, substituting the arc of a bird in flight for her math lesson. The one who
wouldn’t be able to keep his rear end in the chair if you used Krazy Glue. The
one who answers the question, “What body of water played a major role in the
development of the Ancient Egyptian civilization?” with “Mrs. M, do you dye your
hair?”

Students who exhibit ADHD’s hallmark symptoms of inattention,

hyperactivity, and impulsivity can be frustrating. You know the brainpower is
there, but they just can’t seem to focus on the material you’re working hard to
deliver. Plus, their behaviors take time away from instruction and disrupt the
whole class.

Students with ADHD may:

 Demand attention by talking out of turn or moving around the room.

 Have trouble following instructions, especially when they're presented in a
list, and with operations that require ordered steps, such as long division
or solving equations.
 Often forget to write down homework assignments, do them, or bring
completed work to school.
 Often lack fine motor control, which makes note-taking difficult and
handwriting a trial to read.
 Have problems with long-term projects where there is no direct
supervision.
 Not pull their weight during group work and may even keep a group from
accomplishing its task.

Think of what the school setting requires children to do: Sit still. Listen quietly.
Pay attention. Follow instructions. Concentrate. These are the very things kids
with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD) have a hard time
doing—not because they aren’t willing, but because their brains won’t let them.
That doesn’t make teaching them any easier, of course.

Children and teens with ADHD often pay the price for their problems in low
grades, scolding and punishment, teasing from their peers, and low self-esteem.
Meanwhile, you, the teacher, feel guilty because you can’t reach the child with
ADHD and wind-up taking complaints from parents who feel their kids are being
neglected in the classroom. But it doesn’t have to be this way. There are
strategies you can employ to help students with ADHD overcome learning
challenges, stay focused without disrupting others, and succeed in the
classroom.

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What teachers can do to help children with ADHD

So how do you teach a kid who won't settle down and listen? The answer:
with a lot of patience, creativity, and consistency. As a teacher, your role is to
evaluate each child's individual needs and strengths. Then you can develop
strategies that will help students with ADHD focus, stay on task, and learn to their
full capabilities.

Successful programs for children with ADHD integrate the following three
components:

1. Accommodations: what you can do to make learning easier for students

with ADHD.
2. Instruction: the methods you use in teaching.
3. Intervention: How you head off behaviors that disrupt concentration or
distract other students.

Your most effective tool, however, in helping a student with ADHD is a

positive attitude. Make the student your partner by saying, “Let's figure out ways
together to help you get your work done.” Assure the student that you'll be
looking for good behavior and quality work and when you see it, reinforce it with
immediate and sincere praise. Finally, look for ways to motivate a student with
ADHD by offering rewards on a point or token system.

Dealing with disruptive classroom behavior

To head off behavior that takes time from other students, work out a
couple of warning signals with the student who has ADHD. This can be a hand
signal, an unobtrusive shoulder squeeze, or a sticky note on the student's desk. If
you have to discuss the student's behavior, do so in private. And try to ignore
mildly inappropriate behavior if it's unintentional and isn't distracting other
students or disrupting the lesson.

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 f. Learners with Emotional and Behavioral Disorder
Emotional and Behavioral Disorder is an umbrella term under which
several distinct diagnoses (such as Anxiety Disorder, Manic-Depressive
Disorder, Oppositional-Defiant Disorder, and more) fall. These disorders are also
termed "emotional disturbance" and "emotionally challenged." According to the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), children with emotional and
behavioral disorders exhibit one or more of these five characteristics:

1. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory,

or health factors.
2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships
with peers and teachers.
3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal
circumstances.
4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with
personal or school problems.
IDEA guarantees students access to a Free and Appropriate Public
Education (FAPE) in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) possible. As such,
students diagnosed with emotional disorders (ED) are often included in general
education classrooms. However, severe cases often require students to be
taught in special education "cluster units," self-contained programs, or even
separate schools.

Under the umbrella term of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, there are
two categories: Psychiatric Disorders and Behavioral Disabilities.

Psychiatric Disorders

This category encompasses a wide range of conditions. Psychiatric

disorders are defined as mental, behavioral, or perceptual patterns or anomalies
which impair daily functioning and cause distress. Some of the most common
examples of these diagnoses include:

 Anxiety Disorder
 Bipolar Disorder (aka Manic-Depressive Disorder)
 Eating Disorder (such as anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder)
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
 Psychotic Disorder
From a teacher's perspective, psychiatric disorders present a profound
challenge for a number of reasons. For one, schools are not hospitals, and
teachers cannot be expected to "treat" these disorders. Students who struggle
with these sorts of challenges are often undergoing treatment and may be
receiving medication. Medication can affect people in unexpected ways and,
because medical information is confidential, teachers may be unaware why

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students are acting the way they are. This makes it difficult to respond
appropriately to certain behaviors. Additionally, students suffering from these
conditions may be simply unable to meet academic and behavioral expectations.
In such cases, students need to receive special education interventions of some
sort, and may need to be moved into a special education classroom.

Behavioral Disabilities

Children with behavioral disabilities engage in conduct which is disruptive

to classroom functioning and/or harmful to themselves and others. To be
diagnosed as a behavioral disability, the behaviors must not be attributable to
one of the aforementioned psychiatric disorders.

There are two categories of behavioral disabilities: oppositional defiant

disorder and conduct disorder.

Oppositional defiant disorder is characterized by extreme non-compliance,

negativity, and an unwillingness to cooperate or follow directions. Children with
this condition are not violent or aggressive, they simply refuse to cooperate with
adults or peers.

Conduct disorder is much more severe. This disorder is characterized by

aggression, violence, and harm inflicted on self and others. Students with
conduct disorder typically need to be taught in special education classrooms until
their behavior has improved enough to allow contact with the general education
population.

Strategies for Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

As with other conditions, students with emotional and behavioral disorders

need a positive, structured environment which supports growth, fosters self-
esteem, and rewards desirable behavior.

Rules and Routines

Rules need to be established at the beginning of the school year, and

must be written in such a way as to be simple and understandable. The wording
of rules should be positive: "Respect yourself and others" is a better rule than
"Don't hurt anyone." Keep it simple: 6 rules or less.

Consequences for breaking rules should also be established at the

beginning of the school year, and applied consistently and firmly whenever the
rules are broken. The consequences must be consistent and predictable. When
administering consequences, provide feedback to the student in a calm, clear
manner. That way, the student understands why the consequence is necessary.
Try to avoid becoming emotionally reactive when rules are broken. Emotional

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reactivity gives the student negative attention, which many children find very
rewarding. Remain calm and detached, be firm yet kind. It's a difficult balance to
achieve, but crucially important for positive results.

Routines are very important for classroom management. Students with

emotional and behavioral disorders tend to struggle with transitions and
unexpected change. Going over a visual schedule of the day's activities is an
effective way to start the day, and helps the students feel grounded.

Techniques for Supporting Positive Behavior

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders often need to receive

instruction in a special education setting because their behavior is too
maladaptive for a general education classroom. Here are a few ideas to guide
and support growth towards more positive, adaptive behavior:

 Token Economy - Students earn points, or tokens, for every instance

of positive behavior. These tokens can then be used to purchase
rewards at the token store. In order for a token economy to be
effective, positive behavior must be rewarded consistently, and items
in the token store must be genuinely motivating for the student. This
takes a fair amount of preparation and organization, but has proven to
be quite effective.
 Classroom Behavior Chart - A chart which visually plots the level of
behavior of every student in the classroom. Students who are
behaving positively progress upwards on the chart; those who are
behaving negatively fall downwards. This makes every student
accountable, and helps you monitor and reward progress. This won't
work if difficult students perpetually stay on the bottom of the chart.
Focus on the positive to the fullest degree possible, and keep them
motivated.
 Lottery System - Similar to the token economy, students who behave
in positive ways are given a ticket with their name on it. These tickets
are placed in a jar, and once or twice a week you draw one out. The
winner of the lottery is rewarded with a prize.
 Positive Peer Review - Students are asked to watch their peers, and
identify positive behavior. Both the student who is behaving positively
and the student who does the identifying are rewarded. This is the
exact opposite of "tattle-telling," and fosters a sense of teamwork and
social support in the classroom.

Teaching children with emotional and behavioral disorders can be

extremely challenging. Remember: fostering and rewarding positive behavior has
proven to be vastly more effective than attempting to eliminate negative behavior.
Punishment and negative consequences tend to lead to power struggles, which
only make the problem behaviors worse. It is not easy to remain positive in the

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face of such emotionally trying behaviors, but don't give up. Your influence could
mean a world of difference to these students who are struggling with an
incredibly difficult condition.

g. Learners with Communication Disorder

1. What are communication disorders in children?
A child with a communication disorder has trouble communicating with
others. They may not understand or make the sounds of speech. The child may
also struggle with word choice, word order, or sentence structure.

There are several types of these disorders. They are:

 Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder. A child has developmental

delays and problems understanding spoken language and speaking.
 Expressive language disorder. A child has developmental delays and
problems speaking.
 Speech-sound disorders. A child has a hard time expressing words clearly
past a certain age.
 Childhood-onset fluency disorder. This is also known as stuttering. It starts
in childhood and can last throughout life.
 Social communication disorder. A child has trouble with verbal and
nonverbal communication that is not caused by thinking problems.
2. Classroom Strategies
Children with language difficulties can find it difficult to cope in the busy
nursery/classroom environment. This help sheet aims to give you, the adult, an
introduction to language difficulties and ways that you can help a child in your
class who has been identified as having speech or language difficulties. If you
have any concerns about a child in your class who you think may have
unidentified speech, language or communication difficulties please contact the
speech and language therapy department for advice.
Children who have difficulties understanding
• There are several reasons why children may have difficulty in listening and
understanding in the classroom environment.
• They may find it difficult to pay attention over the background noise of the
classroom.
• They may have difficulty taking in and remembering instructions.
• They may not understand question words such as ‘who’ ‘what’ ‘where’ ‘why’ or
‘how’.
• They may not understand new vocabulary (words) or may have difficulty
categorizing words.
• They may not understand words that can have more than one meaning.

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What you can do to help a child in your class
Attention and Listening
If a child has difficulty listening to instruction or is easily distracted here
are some things to try:
• Make sure you have the child’s attention before speaking to them.
• Remind the child to use good “listening skills” and praise them when they do.
• Give instructions before an activity rather than during it where possible,
particularly if doing practical exercises.
• Encourage the child to repeat back instructions to ensure that they have heard
you. Understanding of Spoken Language
Some children find it difficult to take in and remember large amounts of
information:
• Speak slowly and pause between key phrases.
• Use short, simple sentences. Be concise and clear for example, “Pencils down”.
• Emphasize key words when giving information for example, “red group stop
working.”
• Slow down your rate of talking. Research shows this is a very effective strategy
for children with comprehension difficulties.
• Use clear visual support such as gesture or pictures when giving them
information.
• Some children need extra time to process information. Leave a pause if the
child does not immediately respond.
• Encourage the child to be aware of their understanding difficulties and ask for
help if they don’t understand. Explain that it’s ok if they haven’t understood.
Suggesting they say “sorry, I didn’t understand that” may be useful.
• Praise children for asking for help when needed.
• If a child hasn’t understood you try repeating what you’ve said rather than
rephrasing. Re-phrasing can increase the language load for a child with
difficulties.
• Use closed rather than open questions that is, questions that only have a
choice of two or three answers.
• During literacy teaching, revise and summarize stories. Encourage the child to
retell what happened in a story to check their understanding.
Some children can have difficulties interpreting implied or ambiguous
meanings:

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• Think about the language you use in the classroom and try to avoid using
language or phrases which might be misinterpreted or have several meanings.
Use unambiguous talk where possible. Some children can have difficulties
understanding relationships between associated words:
• Introduce new vocabulary carefully and model it frequently in sentences. Try to
limit the amount of new vocabulary introduced at one time to a minimum and use
visual support where possible.
Use of Spoken Language
Children who have difficulties with spoken language are generally easier
to identify than children who have difficulty understanding. Here are some ways
that you can help children who have difficulty speaking in class.
Some children can find it difficult to produce grammatically correct
sentences:
• If a child says a sentence using incorrect grammar repeat back their sentence
modeling the correct grammar to be used for example, child- “the boy eated his
lunch”, teacher- “that’s right, the boy ate his lunch”. This allows the child to learn
what they should have said without feeling embarrassed or under pressure.
• If a child is inconsistently using correct grammar that is, they will use pronouns
correctly on one occasion but not on others, let them hear that they have made a
mistake and provide them with the opportunity to give a correct answer, for
example:
• Child- “he went swimming”
• Teacher- “if it’s a girl do we say ‘he’ or ‘she’?”
• Child- “she”
• Teacher- “that’s right, so we would say ‘she went swimming’ when talking about
a girl.
• Only do this if you are sure that the child is able to select the correct answer
when given a choice between two.
Some children can have difficulties with naming items or finding right word
at times:
• If you know what the word is provide the child with forced alternatives to help
them find it for example, “is it a giraffe or a leopard?”
• You could also cue the child by giving them the beginning sound of the word for
example, “It’s a llll…”
• If you don’t know the word, ask them questions to help establish the word they
are trying to find for example, “Is it an object or is it alive?”, “what does it do?”,
“what does it look/sound/taste/smell/feel like?”, “what sound does it start with?”

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 Some children find it difficult to sequence their thoughts to produce
coherent sentences/stories:
• Ask the child questions to clarify what they are talking about- who, what, where,
why, how.

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 H. Learners Who Are Deaf and Blind
Teaching Students with Deaf-Blindness
There are many teaching strategies you can use to ensure effective and
productive learning environments and experiences for all students, including
those with disabilities. Accessible Education is the process of designing courses
and developing a teaching style to meet the needs of people who have a variety
of backgrounds, abilities and learning styles. Just as there is no single way to
teach, people learn in a variety of ways; using different instructional methods will
help meet the needs of the greatest number of learners.

What does it mean if someone has deaf-blindness?

A person who has deaf-blindness has a greater or lesser extent of hearing
and vision loss. This results in difficulties accessing information.

Persons with deaf-blindness use different communication methods.

Persons with deaf-blindness may be accompanied by an intervenor, a
professional who is trained in tactile sign language. This sign language involves
touching the hands of the client using a two-handed, manual alphabet, also
known as finger spelling.

Other persons with deaf-blindness may use American Sign Langauge

(ASL) or Langue des signes québécoise (LSQ), or they may require small
window interpreting (signing within a restricted range of vision). Some persons
with deaf-blindness have some sight or hearing, and others have neither.
Persons with deaf-blindness will probably let you know how to communicate with
them. If you are unsure, ask.

Suggested tips on teaching a person with deaf-blindness

 Patience, respect, and a willingness to find a way to communicate are

your best tools.

 When you approach a person with deaf-blindness, identify yourself

and speak directly to them.

 Ask permission before touching the individual, unless it is an

emergency.

 A service animal may accompany a person with a visual disability.

Service animals are working and should not be distracted.

 Speak directly to the person, not to the intervenor.

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  If you are not sure what to do, ask, “Can I help?”

Accommodating a student with deaf-blindness

As an educator, you have a responsibility to accommodate students with
disabilities. Requests for accommodation are made on an individual basis by
students through the Office for Students with Disabilities and require medical
and/or formal documentation.

The following are common academic accommodations that may be

required for students with deaf-blindness. This list is not exhaustive and is not
intended to replace the official request for academic accommodations as
communicated by the Office for Students with Disabilities.

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