hNTép Differential Equations of First Order DEFINITIONS (1) A differential equation is an equation which involves differential coefficients or differentials. ay DE Thus (i) ede +e%dy=0 Gi) Ge titra . dy x ayy)” Win yaa Bs oe tiv) (2) w & uy =acospt, & sux =asin pt Wi) Bey ot (vii) ey = 2 2Y are all examples of differential equations. a ae (2) An ordinary differential equation is that in which all the differential coefficients have reference to a single independent variable. Thus the equations (i) to (v) are all ordinary differential equations. A partial differential equation is that in which there are two or more independent variables and partial differential coefficients with respect to any of them. Thus the equations (vi) and (vii) are partial differential equations. (8) The order of « differential equation is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it. The degree of « differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it, after the equa- tion has been expressed in a form free from radicals and fractions as far as the derivatives are concerned. ‘Thus, from the examples above, (iis of the first order and first degree ; ii) is of the second order and first degree ; ‘ } + is clearly of the first order but of second degree ; (& de - and (iv) written as [: -(2) ] a 2 ] is of the second order and second degree. 426‘Diesen, Eausrions or Fast Onoen | 427] PRACTICAL APPROACH TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Differential equations arise from many problems in oscillations of mechanical and electrical systems, bending of beams, conduction of heat, velocity of chemical reactions etc., and as such play a very important role in all modern scientific and engineering studies. The approach of an engineering student to the study of differential equations has got to be practical unlike that of a student of mathematics, who is only interested in solving the differential equations without knowing as to how the differential equations are formed and how their solutions are physically interpreted. Thus for an applied mathematician, the study of a differential equation consists of three phases : ( formulation of differential equation from the given physical situation, called modelling. (Gi) solutions of this differential equation, evaluating the arbitrary constants from the given conditions, and (iii) physical interpretation of the solution. FORMATION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION An ordinary differential equation is formed in an attempt to eliminate certain arbitrary constant from a relation in the variables and constants. It will, however, be seen later that the partial differential equations may be formed by the elimination of either arbitrary constants or arbitrary functions. In applied mathematics, every geometrical or physical problem when translated into mathematical symbols gives rise to a differential equation. Example 111. Form the differential equation of simple harmonic motion given by x= A cos (nt + @). Solution. To eliminate the constants A and « differentiating it twice, we have 2, #% <_nAsinint +a) and ©% =~ n%A cos (nt +a) dt de ths 2 ante=0 ae is the desired differential equation which states that the acceleration varies as the distance from the origin. f DEFER ees ep ic a sheet ar a e Ait Solution. Such a circle ise —h}P+ Q — AF where h and h, the coordinates of the centre, and a are the constants. Differential it twice, we have 2 a-hey-& =0 and 14-8) 22 Then 1 (dy/de @Py/dx dy (2 y a h By dylde | a) an s-he-g-Wdylde= — a Substituting these in (i) and simplifying, we get (1 + (dy/dx)"I8 = a* (d°y/dx??? i) as the required differential equation "2 Wiring Cin the forme DGTP E™ _ d?y/ dx? it states that the radius of curvature of a circle at any point is constant. _ Example 11.3. Obtain Jee lege a econ fi satel iri eine bela Peder 86 weanatiet toad atl chearsahio * 1, 2008),Solution. We have x*+y? + 2ax +e2=0 od) Differentiating w.r.t. x, 2x + 2ydy/dx + 2a =0 ame-s(<+5%) Substituting in (i), x2 +.y?-2 (x + y dy/dux +2 =0 or Day dyldse = 9% — x? + €2 which is the required differential equation. (1) SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION A solution (or integral) of a differential equation is a relation between the variables which satisfies the given differential equation. For example, x= A cos (nt + a) a) A, is a solution of a + nx = 0 (Example 11.11 2) The general (or complete) solution of « differential equation is that in which the number of arbitrary constants is equal to the order of the differential equation. Thus (1) is a general solution (2) as the number of arbitrary constants (A, a) is the same as the order of (2). particular solution is that which can be obtained from the general solution by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants. For example, x= A0cos (nt + W/4) is the particular solution of the equation (2) as it can be derived from the general solution (1) by putting « = w/4, A differential equation may sometimes have an additional solution which cannot be obtained from the general solution by assigning a particular value to the arbitrary constant. Such a solution is called a singular solution and is not of much engineering interest. early independent solution. Tio solutions y,(x) and y,(x) of the differential equation dy dy ae are said to be linearly independent Too, + ¢q¥, = O such that c, = 0 and ¢, Ife, and ¢, are not both zero, then the two solutions y, and y, are said to be linearly dependent. If-y@0 and y{x) any two solutions of (3), then their linear combination cy, + ¢3y where ¢, and c, are constants, is also a solution of (3). Pee Example LA. Find the differential equation whose set of independent solutions is [e, xe" Solution, Let the general solution of the required differential equation be y = c,e* + c,xe* oi) Differentiating (é) w.r.t. x, we get Vy Hey + Cg (e* + xe") ‘ ¥- = = cet oii) ‘Again differentiating (if w.rt. 2, we abtain + ad + aye) y= 0 3) iti) Y-Yy—Oy-%)=0 or y-%,+y,=0 which is the desired differential equation. (2) Geometrical meaning of a differential equation. Consider any differential equation of the first order and first degree afey AD) If P(x, y) be any point, then (1) can be regarded as an equation giving the value of dy/dx (= m) when the values of x and y are known (Fig. 11.1). Let the value of m at the point Ag(x,,.¥) derived from (1) be mg. Take a neighbouring Fig. 1.1| Dirrenewrat Eouarions or Finsr Orpen EE) point A,(x,,9,) such that the slope of A,A, is m,. Let the corresponding value of m at A, be m,. Similarly take a neighbouring point A,(x,,.y,) such that the slope of A,A, is m, and so on. If the successive points Ap, A,, Ag, A, . are chosen very near one another, the broken curve AgA,AyAy.. ates to a smooth curve Cly = 6(x)] which is a solution of (1) associated with the initial point Ag (t9, J). Clearly the slope of the tangent to C at-any point and the coordinates of that point satisfy (1) A different choice of the initial point will, in general, give a different curve with the same property. The equation of each such curve is thus a particular solution ofthe differential equation (1). The equation ofthe whole family of such curves is the general solution of (1). The slope of the tangent at any point of each member of this family and the co-ordinates of that point satisfy (1). Such a simple geometric interpretation of the solutions of a second (or higher) order differential equation is not available. [EERE EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE It is not possible to solve such equations in general. We shall, however, discuss some special methods of solution which are applied to the following types of equations : (@ Equations where variables are separable, (ii) Homogeneous equations, (ii) Linear equations, (iv) Exact equations. In other eases, the particular solution may be determined numerically (Chapter 31). [EBRGH VARIABLES SEPARABLE If in an equation it is possible to collect all functions of x and dx on one side and all the functions of y and dy on the other side, then the variables are said to be separable. Thus the general form of such an equation is fly) dy = lx) dx Integrating both sides, we get Jfordy= Joma: +c as its solution. Solution. Given equation is x (2 log x + 1) dx = (sin y + y cos y) dy Integrating both sides, 2 f (og x.x+x)de= [sin ydy+ J ycos ydy +e or alfee- = bea). cos y+[ysiny~ [sin y.1dy+e]Solution. Given equation is =e Me +x?) or e% dy =(e* 42%) de tte or ea De +) + be, 3 “. dx Integrating both sides, je dy= fet +x de +e or es 2 * os Solution. Putting x + y = f'so that dy/dx = dt/dx—1 dt ‘The given equation becomes 7 1 = sint + cost or dtldx = 1+ sin t + cost . dt Integrating both sides, we get d= | +e 2d0 = {—_8__ ing t = 20) or == | page reso *° {Putting ¢ = 26) 2d0 ben f 20%8 2 cos” 8 +2sin Ocos 0 1+tand = log (1+ tan 0) +e Hence the solution isx= log [1+ ton }ex+ y)] +6. Solution. Putting 4x + +1=1, we get & # at “the given equation becomes $f —4=1? or Basee d0+c Integrating both sides, we get Sten Ju +e Laat 1 of ] or ptan 5 =x+e or —tan s(4x+y+l)| =x+e. 2 2 2 ete or 4x ty 41=2tan x +0) Whens=0,y=1 2 } tart) =eke.e= 2/8. Hence the sation is 9411 dt t-1 ‘Therefore the given equation becomes 2 4-14 £-* <0 Ldt_, t-1_t+2 we v Bear bei wed % = Tt 3 or near (2-735) at Integrating, we get x= 2t-Slog(t+2)+0 or 2242)? Slog G2 +y?+ 2) 40=0 be teste yl which is the required solution. [EER HomoceNeous EQUATIONS dy _flsy) svoiok the form. = 1) where f(x, ) and (x, y) are homogeneous functions of the same degree in x and y (see page 205). To solve a homogeneous equation (i) Paty =x, then & =» +x, dx’ (ii) Separate the variables v and x, and integrate. ‘Solution. Given equation =" which is homogeneous in x and y. old ve - eae a, Puty=ex,then 2 av+xS2. +. (becomes +x1-40 4a Yip aired or == paren [Fre or ~ 5 log (1-204) = logx +e or A log x + log (1-20®)=—4e or log x*(1- 202) =~ 4e [Putv=y/a1 or ML 27/2) = = eh Hence the required solution is x(x? ~ 2y2) = c’. Solution. The given equation may be rewritten as 2 tend Ai x. (Zee? tan 2) castle ol) whieh homogeneous oqo. Ping =n, becomes +x = (0 sec? v ~tan v) cos? v or x82 and frac =— fA = tog (2 + 1)=10g ce +11 us JM = geet 1 “ rei ‘Thus the solution of (1) is y(LF.)= fle* (+ 1)(LP.) de +e 1 or gigs Jet aete=se te or y= (Je +e)e+D. Solution. Given equation can be written as 2% 42. = Ai) axe LF. dene Thus slotion of Diny OE JET ~ (LF)de +e ae ae a or ae ~ dr+c or yale deve or ye aoe +e. * See footnote p. 139.Solution. Putting* = 2 and 3y? © = ££, the given equation becomes x2) dz ae: dz 2x71 x1 23) Ft (a? Iz=ax’, or dt ye eel) which is Leibnitz’s equation in 2 unsere f 2x? -1 viii Now f= ae= (2-444 phy) teen tows 3 logo 2) 5 log (1-2) Jog [xy - x71 Le = WP aaa? ‘Thus the solution of @) is ALE) = f (LF) dx +e or taf dx+c=a [ x1-2°)*? de ta) 0-2)" aa x) s =- Ff 2ma-x7 8? detemad-2y"? e ‘Hence the solution of the given equation is prarter fa xox Solution. We hat " enave “dy ylogy y which is a Leibnita’s equation in x -—_" LB. = ¢/ 7087 _ :he0s>) - tog y ‘Thus the solution of (i) is x (LF.) = fharay +e 1 xlogy = [5 logy dy +e= SdogyF +e ie, x= } logy +e (logy. Solution. This equation contains y’ and tan“ y and is, therefore, not a linear in. i ‘it can be written as dx dx 9%) 2 a tanty— dx (sy) Gy starty-x or GF Gy which is a Leibnite’s equation in x. 1 tee J STF? yao 4 ‘Thus the solution isx (LF.)= f ae 2 ¥ (LE) dy +e, Put tan"! y=¢ or ety =/ty Yo Ydy ne ay ¥ 1+y = [te dt+o=t.e'— [i.e dt+e (Integrating by parts) = t.e-e +e=(tan™ y-De™ 2 +e xetanty—1+ celery Solution. Given equation can be rewritten as sin 0 $2+1 (1218) cos@=—r2 PutcosO=y aothat —sin OdDUr = dydr a, = =a Y (orl) y= Then (becomes ~ H+(2-2r) y=-r? or Be (ar—L)yar2 wl) which is a Leibnitz’s equation 2. LF.= of % UP gr? ter 1 gt Tus its solution ny (Le")= fr?" Ldrse or ye Ira} fe ardrvc=be” v6 or 2e" cosO= re" + 2er or r(1+2ce")=2 e086. [EERO BeRNOULUI's EQUATION ‘The equation 3 + Py = Qy" @ where P, Q are functions of x, is reducible to the Leibnite's linear equation and is usually called the Bernoulli's equation’ “Named after the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli (16541705) who is known for his basic work in probability and elasticity theory. He was professor at Basel and had amongst his students his youngest brother Johann Bernoulli (1667— 1748) and his nephew Niklaus Bernoulli (1687-1758). Johann is known for his basic contributions to Calculus while Niklaus had profound influence on the development of Infinite series and probability. His son Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) is known for his contributions to kinetic theory of gases and fluid flow.ca He ATR, To solve (1), divide both sides by y’, so that" & + Py!-"=@ (2) Puty!-" =zsothat (1—n)y* B= de, (2)becomes 74 + Pe=Q or +PA—n)z=QU-m), which is Leibnitz’s linear in z and can be solved easily. * Solution. Dividing throughout by ay, y-° $2 +2 = x2 fi) Puty-5=2,sothat—5y§ 2-4. ()becomes~ 144% =x¢ or 2 5.5 ~_ 5,2 which is Leibnite’s linear in 2. ii) Se = fsa dere or x 8= fC52) x Sdeee Solution. Rewriting the given equation as SE yx a yt and dividing by x, we have eth yeteyt xo) dx _dz ing x-'= ner ted oy Putting x-!=2 so that ~x-* $= 7 (i) becomes 4 +ye=~y" which is Leibnitz’s linear nz. Here LR = 6) 2 the solution is 2(LF.)= f(-y°)(LF.) dy +e ay Put $y? =¢ or 20%? ~ fy? 02” ydyte so that y dy=dt 2feedtse [Integrate by parts} =- Bite fre dtl+e=—2 tee] += (29%) &%? 40 4 or 2=(2-y%)4 ce?” or Ue=(2-y)+ co?”. Note. General equation reducible to Leibnite' linearis f(y) + Phy) =Q lA) where P, Q are functions of x. To solve it, put f(y) = 2.Solution. Dividing throughout by cos? y, sec? y enna ey =x coe weet y & + 2x tan y = x3 which is of the form (A) above. ald) put tan y =z s0 that sec*y 2 = 4 2 (becomes 4 + 2x2 =x, ‘This is Leibnitz's linear equation in 2. - the solution is ze" = fe" x'de+e=$(0" -De" +e. Replacing by tan y, we get tan y= }(2*—1) + ce"** which is the required solution. Solution. Dividing by 2, the given equation becomes 244 Log 2=2 log eF a) Put logz = t so that if dt tle a ms “ ‘This is Leibnite’s linear in v. +. the solution is v.te- fi tacre=Lee x fxx x Replacing v by Vlog 2, we get (elog2y4=a78+e or (log2y!=1+ex which is the required solution.co HIGHER ENcneERiNG MATHEMATICS (EGREBM_EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (1) Def. A differential equation of the form M(x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = O is said to be exact if its left hand member is the exact differential of some function u (x,y) ie., du = Mdx + Ndy = 0. Its solution, therefore, is ulx,y)=c. (2) Theorem. The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 to be exact is aM _aN oy ox Condition is necessary : ‘The equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 will be exact, if Mdx + Ndy = du wf) where u is some function of x any y. But du = Mae + Seay of) ‘equating coefficients of dx and dy in (1) and (2), we get M = & andN= “ aM ay 2, But & (Assumption) a x which is the necessary condition for exactness. Condition is sufficient. if A = 2. then Max + Nady = 0 is exact. Let {Mdx=u, where y is supposed constant while performing integration. a ue, au aM _ aN Then elf Max)= SE, ie, M= SB ye even) mM, Fu W. Zu 2 (a) mg) 2H a ay ayo ax ~ aay ~ Ox | dy ayar ~ Axdy Interating both sides w.r.t. x (taking y as constant). = & 4/09), where isa function of y alone. ld) Mas + Nay = de {% + fo} dy [By (8) and (4)} = {Mare May} + yrdy edu sfoddyed ws Jroveyi (6) which shows that Mdx + Ndy = 0 is exact. (3) Method of solution. By (5), the equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 becomes dlu + [(y)dyl = 0 Integrating uu + J fly)dy=0. But us 5 Mdx and fly) = terms of N not containing x. The solution of Mdx + Ndy = 0 is JMadx + | (terms of N not containing x) dy = (yeons.) ‘ aM _ aN provided oeSolution. Here M=yte™" 4429 and N=2rye”"— ay? HM a aye? +yte™ ey = W ‘Thus the equation is exact and its solution is J,Max + J (terms of N not containing x)dy = Solution. Here M=y(1+U/x)+eosy and N=x+logx-xsiny Marsa - sinys ax ‘Then the equation is exact and its solution is Gyeoany Md# + [terms of N not containing x) dy =e Fon) {1+2)>+00s 9} de=c or (x+logx)y+xc0sy =e. Solution. Here M = 1+ 2xy cosx*—2ry and N= sinx*~x* OM. ea SF = Recast Oe = ‘Thus the equation is exact and its solution is Goycoany MA® + J (terms of N not containing x) = ¢ ie, Giyomay #239 0087 = 2sy)de=e or x+y[ foosx* 2xde— faxde | =e or x+ysinx?—yx? =e. Solution. Given equation can be written as (cosx+siny +y) dx +(sinx +x cosy +x) dy =0. HereM=ycosx+siny+y and N=sinx+xcosy+x. = cosx+ cosy +1= X, ‘Thus the equation is exact and its solution is, J, Max + J (terms of N not containing x) dy ie, JOcsx+siny+ ydx + [Ode=c or ysinx+(siny+y)x=c. ‘peoSolution. Given equation can be written as dy _ 2x? +3y°-7 xdx 3x" + 2y?-8 aye sie B(x? +9? -3) ivi or ae Ser [By componendo & dividendo} oe es 7a ses— 5, Pry-3 oS yd Integrating both sides, we get BEE Re as poe 2ydy + -3 2 1 or log (x? + y2— 3) = 5 log (x?-y?- 1) + loge’ [Writing © = log c’] or x+y? 3a 0! (xy? 18 which is the required solution, EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO EXACT EQUATIONS Sometimes a differential equation which is not exact, can be made so on multiplication by a suitable factor called an integrating factor. The rules for finding integrating factors of the equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 are as follows : (1) LF. found by inspection. In a number of cases, the integrating factor can be found after regrouping the terms of the equation and recognizing each group as being a part of an exact differential. In this connection the following integrable combinations prove quite useful : xdy + ydx = d (xy) opt -a(2) a2 af oe(2)| stan seat yy yxy) 2+ ady~ yds _y( lige 29), Soe -a( Foe E22) SUG IP Sy a Se a iol eT (yetdx —e*dy) + xy dx =0Now we observe that the term 2xy? dx should not involve y?. This suggests that 1/)? may be LF. Multiply- ing throughout by Uy?, it follows RIE 2ede=0 or (£) + 2xdx = 0 Integrating, we get & + 22 = ¢ which is the required solution. y (2) LE. of a homogeneous equation. If Mdx + Ndy = 0 be a homogeneous equation in x and y, then 1/ (Mx + Ny) is an integrating factor (Mx + Ny #0). ‘Solution. This equation is homogeneous in x and y. the 1 —__ 29 SO" Mat Ny (x?y -2xy?) x (8 - Bx yyy xy? ‘Multiplying throughout by U/x"y*, the equation becomes | 2-3) ty = owhich nena the solution is J eau MAE Jeerms of N not containing x) dy = ¢ or . =2logx +3 logy =c. yy (8) LF. for an equation of the type f,(xy)ydx + f,(xy)xdy = 0. {the equation Mats + Nay =O be ofthis form, then 14M ~ Ny) i an integrating factor (M— Ny #0). Solution. The given equation is of the form f,(xy) ydx + f,(xy) xdy = 0 Here M=(1+ay)y,N=(1-ay)x. 1 1 1 Mx—Ny (+ay)yx—-G—xy)xy 2x5? Multiplying throughout by 1/242, it becomes (ase) lara J) c,h nan enact equation. the solution is [ Md+ Jens of N not containing x) dy =e (cont Lr= ay 2/2) Dies 1 or ( 1).3 log x BIE € or tg 22 (4) In the equation Max + Ndy = 0, aM _ aN (if be a function of x only = fix) say, then of {4 is an integrating factor. ye aN _ aM a () if be a function of y only = Fly) say, then _J*0# is an integrating factor.de a get legs a yt Multiplying throughout by 2~4, weiget (4 -fer" Jae dy=0 # which n exact equation. .. the solution is J, (Mdx) + Jeerms of N not containing x) dy =. (yeonet or 2x? 2 +t fer care Otherwise it can be solved as a Bernoulli's equation (§ 11.10) LF, ie =e ay Multiplying throughout by y. it becomes (xy* + y*) dx + (2x%y8 + 2xy + 2y") dy = 0, which is an exact equation. its solution is [| (Max) + Jiterms of not containing x) dy = 0 y or Gnas 084 +9700 + Jerrdy=c or Fatt ents tye Fags y Multiplying the given equation throughout by Ly, it becomes logy de + ; (x-logy)dy=0 which is an exact equation ite solution is [ (Mas) + Jterms of N not containing x) dy =¢ or logy [ae [(“E oe oe logy ~ 3 dog y=. (5) For the equation of the type xty? (mydx + nxdy) + x*y" (m'ydx + n'xdy) = 0, an integrating factor is xty* atht1 _b+hk+l a'ths1_b+kel where = or 7 m n mm w[DieeROMALEoUMioW oF Friern Ea Solution. Rewriting the equation as xy (ydx + xdy) + x*y? (2ydx — xdy) = 0 and comparing with age aly 4” Ini ey 0, we have a = 6 = 1,m=n=1; where Sah et oak ee Lth+1_1tk+ or h—-k=0,h+2k+9=0 Solving these, we get h =k LP. = Vay, Multiplying throughout by Ux’, becomes (4-(S ) =o, which i an exact uation. xy X wy The solution is j sone, M+ Jerms of V not containing ») dy = 6 v1 1 1 or 2(-4) c2togs ogy = or 2logx— logy -Uxy.=e. [11.13 | EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER AND HIGHER DEGREE As dy/dx will occur ‘degrees, it is convenient to denote dy/dz by p. Such equations are of the form higher f(x, y, p) = 0. Three cases arise for discussion : Case. I. Equation solvable for p. A differential equation of the first order but of the nth degree is of the ph +P,p"-' + Pap’? +...+P,=0 A) where Py, Pyy ..P, are functions of x and y. Splitting up the left hand side of (1) into n linear factors, we have b- AG. yl bf Ip -F,{a, 91 = 0 Equating each of the factors to zero, P= AI P= L,I) P= FEY) Solving each of these equations of the first order and first degree, we get the solutions F G2, 9,6) = 0, Fy, ¥4 6) = 0, on F, (24 Y0) = 0.‘These n solutions constitute the general solution of (1). Otherwise, the general solution of (1) may be written as i invite dwt w ai apt Solution. Given equation is p 9 F where p= G, opt +p Factorising (p + y/xXp —xly) = 0. Thus we have p+yle=0 and pxly=0 ii) From (i), B42 <0orxdy +yde=0 d(xy) = 0. Integrating, xy = c. From (i), 2 % =O orsits—yas = 0 Integrating, x” —y® = c. Thus xy = ¢ or x*—y® =, constitute the required solution, Otherwise, combining these into one, the required solution can be written as (xy — Xx? —y?—) = 0. Solution. We have p? + 2py cot x + (y cot x)? = y? + y? cot? x pry cotx=+y cosec x p=y (—cotx + cosecx) wali) p=y (cot x—cosec x) li) From, 2 = y(-cotx + cosees) or © = cosee x eat dx Integrating, we nen =“, ory (1 + cos x)=! iit) , ioe * “ From (ii), y (cotx+cosecz) or YY =—(cotx+coneex) de y Integrating, log y = —log sin x —log tan % + log ¢ = tog ——“—~ a sin xtan 5 y=—— or y1-cosx)=0 liv) 22 2 ‘Thus combining (iii) and (iv), the required general solution is y(1£c08x)=e.| Dirrenewmat EousTionsorFinst Once mu Case II. Equations solvable for y. If the given equation, on solving for y, takes the form y= fx). A) then differentiation with respect to x gives an equation of the form Now it may be possible to solve this new differential equation inx and p. Let its solution be Fix, p,c) = 0. (2) ‘The ellimination of p from (1) and (2) gives the required solution. In case elimination of p is not possible, then we may solve (1) and (2) for x and y and obtain x=F\p,0),9 = F0.0) as the required solution, where p is the parameter. Solution. Given equation is y = 2px + tan“! (xp?) i) 5 a ee dy dp pt + aap SE Differentiating both sides with respect tox, 7 2(pee%), a. a ( 2-8 | 1+] = or ptr Bal per) Pe Oor(p+2xd ) + Be] =° This gives p + 2x dpldx = 0. ‘ i, a dx ‘dp ‘Separating the variables and integrating, we have fee it =aconstant or logx+2logp=loge or logxp?= loge whence xpt=e or p= Vielx) lt) Eliminating p from (i) and (ii), we get y = 2.Vie7x)x + tan-*e 2\(ex) + tan“ ¢ which is the general solution of (i). Caution. Sometimes one is tempted to write (ii) #15 and integrating it to say that the required solution is y= 2y(ex) +c’. Such a reasoning is incorrect. Solution. Given equation is y= 2px +p" Differentiating it with respect tox, we get = BP, yp @ pdeeanpe—t =2p sre Peng to p Se 4 dea —np or =anp"-* ti) 2 ‘his is Leibnit’e tear equation inx and p. Here LP. = dl” web =p?my or x=ep?- iit) nt ‘Substituting this value of x in (@), we get y = eee fio) ‘The equations (iii) and (iv) taken together, with parameter p, constitute the general solution (i). ‘ase IJ, Equations solvable for x. If the given equation on solving for x, takes the form x=fo.P) A) then differentiation with respect to y gives an equation of the form 1_de Now it may be possible to solve the new differential equation in y and p. Let its solution be Fly, p,) = 0. ‘The elimination of p from (1) and (2) gives the required solution. In case the elimination is not feasible, (1) ‘and (2) may be expressed in terms of p and p may be regarded as a parameter. Solution. Given equation, on solving for x, takes the form x = (1-29-08 _y*8p" 2 )-o~y8ot Differentiating with respect to y, #(-4)-4. dy P 2 P or 2p= p~2ypt-aytpt B-y Bayt B or po rpts rips P+ 9 a Oorp (1+ p49 a + Bypt <0, or (p+y92)a+20%-0 This gives p + GE =0.0r Spy) =0. Integrating =e. lO) 2 ‘Thus eliminating from the given equation and (), we get y=2 S++ 59° ory? =2ex +8 which is the required solution.(EERE cairaut’s Equation* An equation of the form y = px + f(p) is known as Clairaut’s equation wo) Differentiating with respect tox, wehavep =p +x 2 4 7*(p) SP or ep on Zao 2 eoorespp=0 ® <0, givesp =e ~@) ‘Thus eliminating p from (1) and (2), we get y = cx + f(c) (3) as the general solution of (1). Hence the solution of the Clairaut’s equation is obtained on replacing p by e. Solution. Given equation can be written as sin”! p = y—xp ory = px + sin“ p which is the Clairaut's equation. <. its solution is y = cx + sine, To find the singular solution, differentiate (i) w.r-t. ¢ giving O=x+ x ii) Te Mii) ‘To eliminate c from (i) and (ii), we rewrite (ii) as c= NG? Dix Now substituting this value of c in (i), we get y= NG? — 1) + sin (NG? — 1} which is the desired singular solution. Solution. Put x? =u andy? =v so that 2xdx = du and 2ydy = dv “After the name of a youthful prodigy Alexis Claude Clairaut (1713-65) who first solved this equation. A French mathema- tician who is also known for his work in astronomy and geodesy.ca HS TOTES) ‘hen the given equation becomes (=F. s—y)(22.yox)=a2 2 a’P Pei v = uP —a°P{P + 1), which is Clairaut’s form. its solution is — ache + 1), ie.,y? = ex -aelle + D. (uP — vXP + 1) = a®P or uP —v = i 1yp\s( 241) <0 or (2 22) 0 fe (5ee)+(eea) es ° o (Freleng This gives are Integrating, =loge-logy, ie. p=cly wali) rr alanine tet cp end Gay watnavastnnlp of carveag¥e ex + 02, ‘Hence the reflector is a member of the family of paraboloids of revolution y? + 2* = 2ex + c*. [EER (1) ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES ‘Two families of curves such that every member of either family cuts each member of the other family at right angles are called orthogonal trajectories of each other (Fig. 12.6).(iene OF Deremenmn Eauwmens oF Finst Onoen ‘The concept of the orthogonal trajectories is of wide use in ap- plied mathematics especially in field problems. For instance, in an electric field, the paths along which the current flows are the orthogo- nal trajectories of the equipotential curves and vice versa. In fluid flow, the stream lines and the equipotential lines (lines of constant velocity potential) are orthogonal trajectories. Likewise, the lines of heat flow for a body are perpendicular to the isothermal curves. The problem of finding the orthogonal trajectories of a given family of curves depends on the solution of the first order differential equa- tions. (2) To find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves F(x, y, ¢) = 0. (i) Form its differential equation in the form fix, y, dy/dx) = 0 by Haas eliminating c. (ii) Replace, in this differential equation, dy/dx by ~ dz/dy, (so that the product of their slopes at each point of intersection is — 1). (iii) Solve the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories ie, f (x, y,-dx/dy) = 0. ti t Solution. Taking the axes as the walls, the stream lines of the flow around the corner of the walls is ay=e oD) Defferentiating, we get, x Brye0 as the differential equation of the given family (i). Replacing, 2g by- = in Gd, we obtain { ~) +y =0 or side —yly = 0 as the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories. Integrating (iii), we get x? —y* =’ as the required orthogonal trajec- tories of (i) i.e., the equipotential lines, shown dotted in Fig. 12.7. SR eK eS | Solution. Differentiating the given equation, we get 2 5 29_4Y <9 a @shde ¥ x y = +h @(dylds) a a yl) Substituting this inthe given equation, we get x ay 2) dy _ , FP tT PM = which is the differential equation of the given family. ‘Changing dy/dx to — dx/dy in (i), we get (a® — x*) dx/dy = xy as the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories. ‘Separating the variables and integrating, we obtain foar- [P= acre or tytsattogx— 1s? ve x 2 2 or a2 $y = 2a? loge +6" e'=20) which is the equation of the required orthogonal trajectories.Solution. The equation of the family of confocal parabolas having x-axis as their axis, is of the form y= dale +a) wali) Differentiating, sali) Substituting the value ofa from (ii) in (i), we get y® = 2y B(«+ty2) " dx 2 de i BY pop i ; a ie, y( $) +2e2_y=0as the differential equation of the family. slit) 2 Replacing wy inti, we obtainy ( %) ~2S—y=0 2 oo (2) +2¢ © _y <0 which is the same a i. Thus we see that a system of confocal and coaxial parabolas is self-orthogonal, i.e., each member of the family (i) cuts every other member of the same family orthogonally. (3) To find the orthogonal trajectories of the curves F(r, 8, c) = 0. () Form its differential equation in the form fir, 8, dr/d®) = 0 by eliminating c. (Gi) Replace in this differential equation, dry ,2d0 ae dr [> for the given curve through Pir, 6) tan 6 = rd@ldr ‘and for the orthogonal trajectory through P tan gf = tan (90° + @) =—cot 6= ‘Thus for getting the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectory ddr a6 fp i8 to be replaced by ~ °F dr de or & is tobe replaced by - 12 | (Git) Solve the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories ie, f(r, @,—r2d6ldr) = 0. Solution. Differentiating r= a(1— cos 6). —_ : wedi) with respect to 8, we get « =asin® it) Eliminating a from (i) and (i), we obtain dr 1__sin@ __ 49 which is the differential equation of the given family. a6 r i-cws6 2 Replacing dr/d® by ~ r? d8/dr, we obtain 1f_,2d0)_. 48 dr an ® d= + 72) cote or + tan do=0 as the differential equation of orthogonal trajectories. It can be rewritten as dr __(sin 0/2)d6 r cos 0/2[Abrican 6 Dirreneknnc Eauarons or mst Oncen ca Integrating, log r = 2 log cos 6/2 + loge or recon? a2 = 5 o(t + c08 0) or r=a'(1+cos @) which is the required orthogonal trajectory. Differentiating w.r-t. @, we have bay logr- Log cos n0 = ae leg (rieswin ey mine log: Gang) or * = cos n6, which is the required orthogonal trajectory. PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS (1) Leta body of mass m start moving from O along the straight line OX under the action of a force F. After ‘any time ¢, let it be moving at P where OP =x, then its velocity @) = lw x i _ dv i) its acceleration (a) = Por “FP or TeIf, however, the body be moving along a curve, then ot P (0 its velocity (v) = dsidt and vos 0 © _ ‘ do dv. d's ty (Gi) its acceleration (a) = Frou or Te ‘The quantity mu is called the momentum. Ye (2) Newton’s second law states that F = 4 (mv). oO. Fig. 129 fm is constant, then F=m 42 =ma, ie, ne force = mass x acceleration, (8) Hooke’s law states that tension of an elastic string (or a spring) is proportional to extension of the string (or the spring) beyond its natural length. ‘Thus Teiell, where ¢ is the extension beyond the natural length / and is the modulus of elasticity. Sometimes for a spring, we write T = ke, where ¢ is the extension beyond the natural length and k is the stiffness of the spring. (4) Systems of units 1. E.PS. {foot (ft.) pound (1b.), second (sec.)| system. If mass m is in pounds and acceleration (a) is in filsec®, then the force F(= ma) is in poundals. IL. C.GS. [centimetre (em.), gram (g), second (sec)] system. If mass m is in grams and acceleration a is in cemlsee? then the force F\= ma) is dynes. II, MKS. [metre (m), kilogram (kg.), second (sec)] system, If mass m is in kilograms and acceleration a in misec®, then the force F(= ma) is in newtons (nt). ‘These are called absolute units. Ifg is the acceleration due to gravity and w is the weight of the body, then ‘wig is the mass of the body in gravitational units. g = 32 f/sec” = 980 cm/sec? = 9.8 m/sec” approx. Solution. Taking the origin at the point from where the boat starts, let the axes be chosen as in Fig. 12.10. At any time t after its start from O, let the boat be at P(x, y), so that daldt = velocity of the current = ky(a ~y) dyldt = velocity with which the boat is being rowed = u. Bw det dx dt dt kay) This gives the direction of the resultant velocity of the boat which is also the direction of the tangent to the path of the boat. ) Now (i) is of variables separable form and we can write it as Fig. 12.10 ya —yMdy = Z de Integrating, we get Sincey=0 — when ence the equation tothe path ofthe boat isx = 2 y%3a~2y) Putting y = a, we get the distance AB, down stream where the boat lands = ka°/6u. ‘Named after an English physicist Robert Hooke (1635-1708) who had discovered the law of gravitation earlier than Newton.Solution. By Newton's second law, the equation of motion of the body is ote =—cx— bo? de or of thet i) This is Bernoulli's equation. :. Put e® =z and 2v duldx = de/de, so that () becomes de Gy t bbe = dex ‘This is Leibnitz’s linear equation and LF. = e™, the solution of (ii) is ze =~ Joene™ deve [Integrate by parts] et et cx ame a. wae 2G fae ]oe= Spelt Cy ete i) or ote pee -F iti) Initially v = 0 when x= 0». 0 = o/26? +c". ‘Thus, substituting c’ = — e/2b? in (iii), we get v? ate ate, F- Solution. After falling a distance s in time t from rest, let v be velocity of the particle. The forces acting on the particle are its weight mg downwards and resistance miv upwards. * equating of motion is sng, [#2 1 Integrating, [oo Jetee or ~ 5 logte—aw)=t+e 1 Sincev=Owhent=0, « ¢=—% lore ‘Thus ele Integrating, Sinces=Owhen¢=0, Thus Eliminating ¢ from () and (i), we get = fog which is the desired relation between s and v. eulii)O f Eb eyes f ‘Solution. If the body be moving with the velocity v after having fallen through a distance x, then its ‘equation of motion is dO sag = B® ao. my T= mg ko* or mv S2 (a? — 0). be mg = hal ..fi) separating the variables and integrating, we get Je5 @ ke or ~ Frog iat v%)= * +e Initially, when x = 0,0 = 0. -. — Floga? =e lift) ‘Subtracting (iii) from (ii), we have 5 log a? — log (a? ~ 02] = haf Solution. According to Newton’s law of gravitation, the acceleration o of the particle is proportional to ‘Ur? where r is the variable distance of the particle from the earth's centre. Thus one Mat a? where v is the velocity when at a distance r from the earth’s centre. The acceleration is negative because v is decreasing. When r = R, the earth’s radius then a =—g, the acceleration of gravity at the surface. te, -g=-wr*, Separating the variables and integrating, we obtain [ude =~ gR* fare ie, ve —— +20 li) On the earth’s surface r= R and v = vp (say), the initial velocity. Then w= 2eR+2, ie, 2eo=w}-2eR Inserting this value of in (@), we get o?= 28 . 42 _ogR ‘When v vanishes, the particle stops and the velocity will change from positive to negative and the particle will return to the earth. Thus the velocity will remain positive, if and only if vj 2 2gR and then the particle Projected fron the earth with this velocity will escape from the earth. Hence the minimum such velocity of projection vg = /(@gR) is called the velocity of escape from the earth [See Problem 9, page 454].Solution Lt the figre represent an ail secon ofthe clin ank Fare sting ona parti of ‘mass m at P(x) on the curve, cut out from the free surface of water, are (i the weight mg acting vertically downwards, Gi) the centrifugal force ma? acting horizontally outwards. As the motion is steady, P moves just on the surface of the water and, therefore, there is no force along the tangent to the curve. Thus the resultant R of mg and mx is along the outward normal to the curve. . Reo y=mg and R sin y= mate were Matany af ae aie dee ‘This is the differential equation of the surface of the rotating liquid. Integrating (i, we get fo-€ Jrac+e wx” ie, yee te 2g To find e, we note that the volume of the liquid remains the same in both cases (Fig. 12.11). When x =0 in (ii), OA (= y) =e. Whenx=r in (id, or? =8l +e 2g ‘Now the volume of the liquid in the non-rotational case = 2h, and the volume of the liquid in the rotational case iii) exh [ta mtn 28 fy -oay [From (i)] = mth’ — una w (Seve) (By (iii) Thus wh = 22 (SE +¢] whenwen a SE Gi _@t ost _a sapheome, y= Sah Zl which is the desired equation of the curve. Solution. At any time, let the height of the water level bey and radius ofits surface be r (Fig. 12.12) so that av op pa ath—yih afa i En MTHS 2+ surface area of the liquid = m7? = na® (1 —y/h)? ‘Volume of water drained through the hole per unit time =0.6 J(2gy) Ay =4.8 Jy Ay [te g=32 -. rate of fall of liquid level = 4.8.4, Vy + na%1—y/h¥? ht fic, Sn AA vats taken sine the watar level decreases) dt a?(— y/hP Hence time to empty the tank (=f) a- f° mi d=y/hyP 12 _ gytl2 12 142 » S aa dy= *e So 29? th yh dy ma _|ou2_ 4 32, 2 52)" _pon? wea | aie te [02 Vil Ag: é ‘Solution. Take a vertical column of air of unit cross-section. Let p be the pressure at a height 2 above the ses-level and p + 6p at height 2 +8. Let p be the density at a height 2. (Fig. 12.13) ‘Now since the thin column & of air is being pressured upwards with pressure p and downwards with p + §p, we get by considering its equilibrium; p=p+ dp +gpie. - ‘Taking the limit, we get dp/dz =—gp ond) which is the differential equation giving the atmospheric pressure at height z. (@ When the temperature is constant, we have by Boyle's law*, p = kp + Substituting the value of p from (ii) in (i), we get = -gpk 0 [P=-§ Jaeve ortogn = ttnemea Sea eacs = a api thinie= log py log p — log py =~ $2 ke. log pig = Welk Hence p is given by p = per". (i) When the temperature varies, we have p = kp". Proceeding as above, we shall find that pis given by —" (pj — p-¥/") = gh-l/"2. ae Seve Named after the English physicist Robert Boyle (1627-1691) who was one of the founders of the Royal Society.(EE2GH SIMPL ELECTRIC CIRCUITS We shall consider circuits made up of (@ three passive elements—resistance, inductance, capacitance and Gi) an active element—voltage source which may be a battery or a generator. (1) Symbols ‘*These units are respectively named after the French engineer and physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806); French physicist Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836); German physicist George Simon Ohm (1789-1854); Italian physicist Joseph Henry (1797-1878); American physicist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) and the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745-1827).7. Loop is any losed path formed by passing through two or more elements in series. 8. Nodes are the terminals of any of these elements. (2) Basic relations @ 4 orgs fiae [+ current is the rate of flow of electricity] (ii) Voltage drop across resistance R = Ri {Ohm's Law] ‘Veltage drop scrose inductance L = ia (iv) Voltage drop across capacitance C = 4 (3) Kirchhoff’s laws*. The formulation of differential equations for an electrical circuit depends on the following two Kirchhoff’s laws which are of cardinal importance : I. The algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any closed cireuit is equal to the resultant electromotive force in the circuit. Il. The algebraic sum of the currents flowing into (or from) any node is zero. (4) Differential equations (@R, L series circuit. Consider a circuit containing resistance R and induc- R tance L in series with a voltage source (battery) £. (Fig. 12.15). Let i be the current flowing in the cir.ic at any time ¢. Then by Kirehhoff’s first law, we have sum of voltage drops across R and L = i i ie, Rit LG =E or Ft He ‘This is a Leibnitz’s linear equation. Fig. 12.5 R, Lic, dE. 21 coyt thence: tration in tLE) = JParod+e or fete fF ehh dr ven E Eel! 4 whence = + oR 2) 0, when ¢ = 0, we have c= —E/R. If initially there is no current in the circuit, ie., ‘Thus (2) becomes Fu-em) which shows that i increases with ¢ and attains the maximum value E/R. (ii) R, L, C series circuit. Now consider a circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C all in series with a constant e.m.f. E (Fig. 12.16) If i be the current in the circuit at time ¢, then the charge g on the condenser = fiat, Applying Kirchhoff’s law, we have, sum of the voltage drops across R, L and C= B. ; ve pti, ie, Ris Seok “Named after the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887),124, pt Lara é =B. ‘This is the desired differential equation of the circuit and will be solved in § 14.5. ita Roh bat et bres oes havnt linge Heep meoes vod Ue Rit uf = Esin at. Sirkidannpleddtieaihd adanttiantowiann Bs Fink sina me ‘This is a Leibnite’s equation. Its LF. ada the solution is (LF.) = JP sin oe GPa +e zt © fen? +0?) 5 is sin (ot — 6) + ce where tan 6 = La/R (ne) Initially when t=0;2=0. <. o= —28MCO_ 46; emniy vu? ia a Mata Esin(ot-@) | _Esing meee Tate eon ier = E fell sn ocde +e=% (oe -tan 22) R R? 40°?) is aan Isin (we ~ 9) + sin @ . e*"4] which gives the current at any time ¢. ol)[EEXGI NEwTon’s LAW OF COOLING* According to this law, the temperature of a body changes at a rate which is proportional to the difference in temperature between that of the surrounding medium and that of the body itself. 1f6, is the temperature of the surroundings and @ that of the body at any time f, then ae Fy =~ MO—0)), where h is a constant. Solution. If @ be the temperature of the body at any time f, then ae a =—h(@—40), where é is a constant. a ‘i Integrating, Semap7-* Jett loge, where c is a constant. or log (@-40)=-kt+ loge ie, 6-40=ce* Ai) ‘When ¢ = 0, = 80° and when ¢ = 20,0=60° 2. 40=c, and 20=ce*; k= A log 2. Thus @) becomes 6 40= 4000") When ¢ = 40 min., = 40 + 40e-* 82 = 40 + 40e!#M) = 40 + 40 x 1 = 50°C. HEAT FLOW, ‘The fundamental principles involved in the problems of heat conduction are = (@) Heat flows from a higher temperature to the lower temperature. (ii) The quantity of heat in a body is proportional to its mass and temperature. (iii) The rate of heat-flow across an area is proportional to the area and to the rate of change of temperature with respect to its distance normal to the area. If q (cal/sec.) be the quantity of heat that flows across a slab of area a (cm®) and thickness &t in one second, where the difference of temperature at the faces is 87, then by (iii) above == hadTidx tA) where k is a constant depending upon the material of the body and is called the thermal conductivity. “Named after the great English mathematician and physicist Sir Issac Newton (1642-1727) whose contributions are of i laws, invented Calculus alongwith Letbnit2 (see footnote p. 139) and problems. He became professor at Cambridge in1699, but his ‘Math- ‘ematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’ containing development of classical mechanics had been completed in 1687.Solution. Let g cal,/sec. be the constant quantity of heat flowing out radially through a surface of the pipe having radius xem. and length ‘1.em (Fig. 12.18). Then the area of the lateral surface (belt) = 2rx. the equation (A) above gives a= kam or are Integrating, we have T= — Slog, x +e Since T'= 160, whenx=10. 2. 150=~54- log, 10+ ‘Again since T = 40, when x = 15, 40 — phy lnee +e Subtracting (ii) from (i), 110 = 2 log, 1.6 itt) Let 7 =t, when x = 12.6 t= — sh tog. 12.546 oD) ‘Subtracting (i) from (iv), t— 150 = ~ gee 1.25 sal) 50 10. 1.25 | whence t= 89.5°C. Dividing (v) by (iii), > mis RATE OF DECAY OF RADIO-ACTIVE MATERIALS This law states that disintegration at any instant is proportional to the amount of material present. of material at any time f, then ‘hu, where h is a constant.‘Hiren Enoncenina MATHEMATICS ‘Solution. Let the mass of uranium at any time t be m grams. ‘Then the equation of disintegration of uranium is = =m, where jis a constant. Integrating, we get [aan fae +0: or lngmse—pe Ai) Initially, when =M (say) so that c=logM -. (i) becomes, ut = log M — log m hii) Also when t= 7, m=M, and when t= 7,,m=M, From (ii), we get uT, = log M - log M, UT, = log M ~ log M, Subtracting (it) from (iv), we get Jog (My/Ma) h-hh 1 MT, ~T,) = log M, — log My = log (M,/M,) whence = Let the mass reduce to half its initial value in time T- ie., when t = 7, 2 4+ from (ii),we get T= log M — log (M12) = log 2. 1 (Tz ~T log 2 ‘Thus T= — log 2=—2—1 2. pee og (iy /Me) CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND SOLUTIONS A type of problems which are especially important to chemical engineers are those concerning either chemical reactions or chemical solutions. These can be best explained through the following example : Example 12.21. A tank initially contains 50 gallons of fresh water. Brine, Containing gallon of salt, flows into the tank at the rate of 2 gallons per minute and the mixture ke ‘runs out at the same rate. How long will it take for the quantity of salt in the tank to | pounds ? Solution. Let the salt content at time ¢ be u Ib. so that its rate of change is du/dt =2gal. x 2b. =4 Ib/min. IfC be the concentration of the brine at time ¢, the rate at which the salt content decreases due to the out-flow = 2gal. x Cb. = 2C Ib/min, -20 i) du a Also since there is no increase centration the volume of the liquid, the eon- © 1./el = u/50. Fig. 12.19 du u i at, ot (i) becomes: a a Separating the variables and integrating, we have du Jat=25 [apgmgth or t=—25 log, (100-u) +k Mii) Initially whent=0,u=0 -. 0=~25log, 100+k Eliminating & from (i) and (iii), we get t = 25 loge ia ‘Taking ¢ =, when u = 40 and ¢ = ¢, when u = 80, we have 100 100 t,= 25log, “Go and t, = 25log, + ‘The required time (t,~t,) = 25 log, 5 — 25 log. 5/3, = 25 log, 3 = 25 x 1.0986 = 27 min. 28 sec.‘Acruicanons oF DirrenemA, Eauanions or First Onoen 469 SER 1. The number NV of bacteria in a culture grew at a rate proportional to NV. The value of N’ was initially 100 and. inereased to 332 in one hour. What would be the value of V after 14 hours? (Nagarjuna, 2008 ; J.N.T-U., 2003) 2 Tho rate at which bacteria multiply is proportional to the instantaneous number present, If the original number doubles in 2 hours, in how many hours will it triple (Andhra, 2000) 8. Radium decomposes at rate proportional to the amount present. Ifa fraction 7 ofthe original amount disappears in 1-year, how much will remain at the end of 21 years ? 4. {€80% of radio active substance disappeared in 10 days, low long will it take for 90% of it to disappear ? (Madras, 2000 8) 5. Under certain conditions cane-sugur in water is converted into dextrose at a rate which is proportional to the ‘amount unconverted at any time. [fof 75 em. at time f = 0, 8 em. are converted during the first 30 minutes, find the amounteonverted in 14, hours. 6. In achemical reaction in which two substances A and B initially of amounts a and b respectively are concerned, the velocity of transformation dx/dt at any time fis known to be equal to the produet (a —x)(b—x) of the amounts of the ‘two substances then remaining untransformed. Find ¢ in terms of x if@ = 0.7, 6 = 0.6 and x = 0.8. when f = 300 seconds. 7. A tank contains 1000 gallons of brine in which 500 It. of salt are dissolved. Fresh water runs into the tank at the rate of 10 gallons /minute and the mixture kept uniform by stirring, runs out at the same rate. How long will it be before only 50 It. of salt is left in the tank ? [Hiint. If be the amount of salt after t minutes, then du/dt ~~ 10u/1000,) 8. A tank is initially filled with 100 gallons of salt solution containing 1 Ib. of salt per gallon. Fresh brine containing 2 Ib, of salt per gallon runs into the tank at the rate of 6 gallons per minute and the mixture assumed to be kept ‘uniform by stirring, runs out at the same rate. Find the amount of salt in the tank at any time, and determine haw Tong it will take for this amount to reach 150 Ib. BERG OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS PEER Fil up the blanks or choose the correct answer in the following problems : L, Ife coll having @ resistance of 15 ohms and an inductance of 10 henries is connected to 90 volts supply then the current after 2 s9¢s is... 2. A tennis ball dropped from a height of 6 m, rebounds infinitely often. Ifit rebounds 80% of the distance that it falls, then the total distance for these bounces is... 3. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount present. If 5% of the original amount disappears in 50 ‘years then .....% will remain after 100 years. 4, ‘The curve whase polar subtangent is constant is ‘5. ‘The eurve in which the length of the subnarmal is proportional to the square of the ordinate, is. 6. ‘The curve in which the portion of the tangent between the axes is bisected at the point of contact, is 7. Ifthe stream lines of @ flow around a corner are xy =€, then the equipotential lines are... ‘The orthogonal trajectories of x system of confocal and coaxial parabolas i 8. When a bullet is fired into a sand tank, its retardation is proportional to (velocity) .1Fit enters the sand tank with ‘velocity uy it will come to rest after .... seconds. 10, The rate at which bacteria multiply is proportional to the instantaneous number present. Ifthe original number doubles in two hours, then it will triple after... hours. LL. Ram and Sunil order coffee and receive cups simultaneously at equal temperature. Ram adds a spoon of eald cream, ‘but doest't drink for 10 minutes, Sunil waits for 10 minutes and adds a spoon of cold cream and begins to drink. ‘Who drinks the hotter coffee ? 42, The equation y ~ 2x =e represents the orthogonal trajectories of the family Wy =ae* iP +2%=6 Git) =a Ww) 2+ 2y=0.DEFINITIONS Linear differential equations are ¢hose in which the dependent variable and its derivatives occur only in the first degree and are not multiplied together. Thus the general linear differential equation of the nth order is of the form ton for + +t py =X, Ger Pi gget Pegs tot PY =X where p,, Poy «.p, and X are functions of x only. Linear differential equations with constant co-efficients are of the form ay, fy, e, ta thay eX Co Tey oa thy whore hy, yy», are constants. Such equations are most important in the study of electro-mechanical vibra- tions and other engineering problems. (1) THEOREM. If, are only two solutions of the equation ay Ty 4g ey thas then ¢,y, + €3¥2 (= w) is also its solution. Since y = y, and y = y, are solutions of (1). an, in : at Mat th a thy =0 AD) (2) and 3) Ife, ¢, be two arbitrary constants, then Ay, + C92) |, A GY + ey) SE hy SEE ton thle #599) anHohn EnoneEnING MATHEMAMOS (dy, ay "yep eye ) = — wt hy [Sort he +h thon = on +c,(0)=0 [By (2) and (3)] ely ie, gfe +4 tut h,y=0 (A) ‘This proves the onan, (2) Since the general solution of a differential equation of the nth order contains n arbitrary constants, it follows, from above, that ify.) 55 -~+)q» are n independent solutions of (1), then ¢,y, + ¢,)p +... +¢,y, (=u) is its complete solution. (3) Ify =v be any particular solution of a as tn thy off (6) then oh a + thveX (6) tue) au +v) Adding (4) and (6), we have +4 +o th,(u +0) = This shows that y =u +v is the a solution of (5). The part u is called the complementary function (C.F.) and the part v is called the particular integral (P.L.) of (5). the complete solution (C.S.) of (5) is y= C.F. + PL. Thus in order to solve the question (5), we have to first find the C.F., i.e., the complete solution of (1), and then the P.L, ie. a particular solution of (5). BEEN OPERATOR D Denoting 4, £, @ ote, by D, D®, D® ete, so that dx?’ dx® =Dy, & = Dy, #x = Diy ete., the equation (5) above can be written in the symbolic form (D* + kD"! + ae sb ie, fDy=X, where f(D) =D" + k,D*~1 +... + hy ice, a polynomial in D. Thus the symbol D stands for the operation of differentiation and can be treated much the same as an algebraic quantity ie., f(D) ean be factorised by ordinary rules of algebra and the factors may be taken in any order. For instance @ dy rae ~ By = (D? + 2D - 3) y = (D + 3XD ~ Ly or (D- 11D +3) y. FER) RULES FOR FINDING THE COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION a. a ar. . a a To solve the equation et hy ta thy =0 AD) where k’s are constants. ‘The equation (1) in symbolic form is (D" +k,D™1 + kD"? +... +k, y= 0 AQ) Its symbolic co-efficient equated to zero i.e. 2 DY + kiD*-" + kyDP-? +. +k, =O is called the auxiliary equation (A.E.). Let my, may .... m,, be its roots. Case I. If all the roots be real and different, then (2) is equivalent to (D—m,)(D—m,)...(D—m,)y =0 (3)‘Now (3) will be satisfied by the solution of (D — m,)y = 0, i.e., by 2 =m,y=0. ame ‘This is a Leibnitz’s linear and LF. = ¢ its solution is. ye" =c,,4e.,y =¢,e™" Similarly, since the factors in (3) can be taken in any order, it will be satisfied by the solutions of (D-m,)y=0,(D—m,)y =O ete. ie, by y= c,e"™", "= ese ete. Thus the complete solution of (1) is y = ce" + cge"* +... + 6,0 a) Case IL. If two roots are equal (i.e., m, = m,), then (4) becomes Yale, tele™ +ese™ +. 6,0 y=Ce™ ses +. tee (> ¢, +e, = one arbitrary constant C] It has only n — 1 arbitrary constants and is, therefore, not the complete solution of (1). In this ease, we proceed as follows : ‘The part of the complete solution corresponding to the repeated root is the complete solution of (D — m,) (D-myy=0 Putting (D ~ m,)y =z, it becomes (D - m,)z = 0 or a —myz=0 ‘This is a Leibnitz’s linear in 2 and LF. its solution is ze"™* =e, or z=ee™ ‘Thus D-myy=z=0e" or B my =ce™ 5) Its LF. being e”"™ , the solution of (5) is ye = Jee de tep=er te, oF y= (oye + eq)e™ ‘Thus the complete solution of (1) is y = (cx +c,)e™" +c,e™ +... +607" If, however, the A.E. has three equal roots (i.e., m, = my = m,), then the complete solution is Y= (cx? Hegre tg) e™ Heye™ +... + 6,0 Case IIL. If one pair of roots be imaginary, ic.,m, = «+ iB, my = o~éB, then the complete solution is y= cee 4 cee 4 oe 4. 40,0 =e (c,e!B + 0,68) + ege™ +. He, = e™{c,(cos Bx + i sin Br) + ¢, (cos Bx i sin Bx)] + cge"™ +... 40,07" by Euler's Theorem, e® = cos @ + i sin 0) =e (C, cos ix + C, sin Bx) + c,€""" Case IV. If two points of imaginary roots be equal the complete solution is y= eMl(c,x + ¢,) cos fix + (cgx + ¢,) sin Br] +... +e,07™ i cE eg “ sai apron ip ae BO TPR aa Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D* + 5D + 6) x = 0. Its AE. is D? + 5D +6=0,i.., (D +2)(D+3)=0 whence D =~ 2,~3. CS. isx= eye + ee" and EE 2 00-% Boye x = 0. O=c,+¢5 @ deidt =15 +. 15=—2c,-3e, Adi)Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D® + 6D +9) =0 AE. isD?+6D+9=0, ie, (D+3)*=0 whence D =-3,-3. Hence the 08. isx=(c, + eye. Solution. Here the A.B. is D?+D*+4D+4=0 ie, (D'+4)(D+1)=0 + D=-1,#2i. Hence theCS.is _-y-=c,e* +e" (c, cos 2x +c, sin 2x) ie, y= cy" + Cy cos 2x +c, sin Be. Solution. (i) The A.B. equation is D*—4D?+4=0 or (D?-2%=0 # DP=2,2 fas D= eis + v2. Hence the C.S. is (c, +ex)e™ +(e, +exe™) [Roots being repeated) (i)The AE. equation is (D? + 1° = 0 ’ D=+i,si,ti. Heads the CB.ii)~ 0 le, wc eg eoaa +lo, Hage e gaa ie, ys ley eg eg ant ley oz eye sins Solution, Given equation in symbolic form is (D* + 4) so AB is Dt+4=0 or (D*+4D?+4)-4D?= or (D? +2)-(2D =0 or (D? + 2D + 2)(D?—2D + 2)=0 . either D?+2D+2=0 or Dt-20+2=0 erbieiss p= PACD ang 2#VED jo, = suede, Hence the required solution is x = e~ (¢, cos t + ¢, sin #) + e"(c, cost +¢, sin t).Linea Dirrenetcnat Eouarions 7 FERGM INVERSE OPERATOR 1 (1) Definition. FD* is that function of x, not containing arbitrary constants which when operated upon by f(D) gives X. 1 Len, (D) |X} =X ro {Ax} Thus aot satisfies the equation f (Diy = X and is, therefore, its particular integral. Obviously, f(D) and 1/f (D) are inverse operators. @) Let elf) ,, dy byD, >= Operating by de Integrating both sides w.r.t.x,y = [ X dx, no constant being added as (i) does not contain any constant. 1 ‘Thus pks [xa 1 Cs =, (a) poakt* [xe*ax. 1 Let X= lit pkey Mii) 1 Operating by D ~ a, (D ~a) . 5X =(D—aly. or = &~ay, ie, 2 —ay=X which is a Leibnitz’s linear equation de se Baye equation. LF. being e*%, its solution is yeme frends, no constant being added as (ii) doesn’t contain any constant, Xayae™ [Xemdx. [EEGGIL RULES FOR FINDING THE PARTICULAR INTEGRAL | ty tly gt 2y Consider the equation + hy Ty + hy Saat yy =X which is symbolic form of (D" + kyD"! + kaD*? + ... + ky =X. Pi. Case I. When X = e* Since De = ae Drew (D* + kD 4... +h, = (a + ha" +...+h,e, ie, f(Diet = faleHicies Encieenine Maroeuarics wiz i 2 = f(a) ie f(D)e" “lm or et =f ape 1a Operating on both sides by 75. =p 1 jw ™ provided f(a) #0 wD) If fla) = 0, the above rule fails and we proceed further. Since a is a root of AE. f(D) =D" + kD"! +... +k, =0. D~a isa factor of f(D). Suppose f (D) = (D —a) 9 (D), where ¢ (a) # 0. Then 1 1 Lhe = et = = [By (1) D-a' 4D” D-a' Ha) Fra 1 me xa Fe ede [By $13.5) 1 a 1 oe =x] gu 2) =e Je Sat te aD Fe f(D) =(D ~ a)(D) +1. KD) F(a)=0x Ha. * Ha) e*, provided fla) #0 AB) If f(a) = 0, then applying (2) again, we get 1 _gax *D) and soon. _ Example 13.6. Find the P.1. of (D® + 5D + 6)y = é. Solution, — PL.=__!__,s [PutD=1) = + D?+5D+6 +5146 Example 13.7. Find the Pl. of (D + 2) (D -U®y se 4 2sinh x. — ‘ Fe tue Solution, = PL. = ——1 __e* 4.2 sinh x]= 1 __fe* +e" 0") (D+2XD-1? (D+ 2XD-1? Let us evaluate each of these terms separately. and (14 2X-1-17 xl +e tre. 6° 4 Case II. When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax + b). Since Dsin (ax + b) =a cos (ax +b) D? sin (ax +b) =~ a? sin (ax +b) D? sin (ax +b) =— a cos (ax +b)_ Linear Dirrenentian Eousnons: D4 sin (ax + 6) = a4 sin (ax + 6) ie, D? sin (ax + b) = (— a?) sin (ax + 6) (D*? sin (ax +b) = (—a*? sin (ax +b) In general (DY sin (ax +b) = (~ a2Y sin (ax + 6) & f(D®) sin (ax + b) = f(— a?) sin (ax +6) Operating on both sides Uf (D*), 1 f(D?) sin (ax +b) = ; 1 f(a?) sin (ax +d) f(D") (D*) or sin (ax + 6) =f(-a?) anes) Dividing by f(—a®) ra sin (ax + b) = aH sin (ax + b) provided f(-a*) #0 wel) If f(- a?) = 0, the above rule fails and we proceed further. Since cos (ax + 6) + i sin (ax +b) =e" (Euler's theorem} 1. 1 : (ax +6) =LP. of peu) [Since f(-a2)=0 by (2) aon inert ot ince f(a! y = LP. of xt eliar+b) where D? =~ a? ro) 1 1 + ‘ * — sin (ax +b) =x ‘sin (ax + b) provided f(-a*) +0 AB) 00?) f(a) If f'(—a*) = 0, ay sin (ax + b) = x* rod jin (ax + b), provided f"(— a”) # 0, and so on. Similarly, —4- cos (ax +b) = 1 _ cos (ax +b), provided f(a) #0 £(D?) f(-a*) Iff-a)=0, 5 (ax+b)=x. man (ax +b), provided fa?) +0. TPa)=0, oa 08 (ax +b) =x* aT cos (ax +b), provided f”(—a?) # 0 and so on. Example 13.8. Find the PLL of (D°-+ Uy =cos (2x~ 1, fie eae ne Solution. P.I. a ‘cos (2x — 1) [Put D? = -2? =-4] 1 it = Peart cos (2x — 1) [Multiply and divide by 1 + 4D] (1+4D) 1 = ———__—— __ -1) =(1+4D) (2x — 1) [Put D? = - 2? 4 aabya + aby 1) =(1+4D) jae ) 0 H feos (2x ~ 1) + 4D cos (2x - 1)] 1 = gy loos (2x 1-8 sin (x DI. a bbe Pa Btmple 189. Find te PI. of © y% = sin 2. ‘ { Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D? + 4D\y = sin 2xHicnen Encineenne MareMarics 22 D2 +4 =0 for D?= Apply (5) 471 d ; + gplD* +4DI= 3b? +4 2 =a] Case IIT. When X = x", Here 7p Expand [f(D)I- in ascending powers of D as far as the term in D” and operate on x” term by term. Since the (m + 1)th and higher derivatives of x are zero, we need not consider terms beyond D". . j ia Lae Example 13,10. Find the PI. of 9-2 y. 2 238 2x44. 4 phate 7 ae / { Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D? + Diy =x? + 2x + 4. 5a + DYN? +2044) L pa-D+ dD - Na? + 2x44) = Pl + Bet dr +2) +2) +4x, Case IV. When X = e** V, V being a function of x. Ifw is a function of x, then Dieu) = e*Du + acu + OAD + ade Deu) = a™ Du + 2ae“Du + au = e™(D +aPu and in general, D'(eu) = e*(D + a)"u F(DXe™u) = & f(D + au Operating both sides by 1/f (D), 1 1 aa. DXeu) = 7D f(DXe™u) Foye FO +a 1 jax eu Fle" D+ am) 1 1 Lax FDra Ot Da’ Fe Now put f(D+alu=V, ie.,u= ie, (6) Sed eae 4 [Replace D by D +1] 1 =~, —_____ 08 [Put D?=-1?=-1) (D+1P -AD+ +4 2 1 cos x = Fe" cos x.Case V. When X is any other function of x. 1 Here pi-—yx, 7o* It f(D) =(D~m,\D ~ ma) ... (D ~m,), resolving into partial fractions, = Ane [Xe dx + Ape [Xe dx +t Ae [XE de (By $13.5 .13)] WORKING PROCEDURE TO SOLVE THE EQUATION av ty ws ay dy . woth tent bya Eo hy =X of which the symbolic form is (D" +D") +...+k, D+, )y=X~ Step I. To find the complementary function (i) Write the AB. ie, Di +k" +... +h, :D +k, =0 and solve it for D. (ii) Write the C.F. as follows : ‘Step IL. To find the particular integral . _ 1 From symbole form P= aS a py () When X= 1 Pi. = pe» putD =a, (fa) #01 1 a =x Fe PUD =a, [f(a)=0, f(a) #01 1 = (a) =0,F% Fay PatD =a, If'@) = 0, fa) +0] and soon. where f(D) = diff. coeff. of f(D) w.rt. D £"D) = diff. coeff. of f (D) w.r.t. D, ete.(ii) When X = sin (ax + 6) or cos (ax +b). PL= Gm N+ Bor ens ae + BY, put D8 =? I-02) #0) = Fin M+ Por as a+), put DP = = x? 1 _ sin (ax +b) for cos (ax + 5)), put D?=—a? [oC 0) 20, 6-0?) 401 yD?) [o- 4%) = 0, ¢(—a?) +0) and 80 on. where —-(D®) = diff. coeff. of (D2) w.r-t. D, (iii) When X = x", m being a me integer. [= xm ayn aE ai = ‘To evaluate it, expand [/(D)I-! in ascending powers of D by Binomial theorem as far as D” and operate on x” term by term. (iv) When X = eV, where V is a function of x. ie ge Phe FeV = “TDs” and then evaluate V as in (i), (ii), and (iii). 7D+a (v) When X is any function of x. Pl=7—Xx 1 f(D) Resolve =~ rc ‘py iste partial fractions and operate each partial fraction on X remembering that Daa X20" [xe ax. Step III. To find the complete solution Then the CS. isy = CF. + PI. Solution. Given equation in eymbolic form is (D? + D + Ly = () To find CF. ItsAE. isD?+D+1=0, « D F014 8) Tur C.=0% [a om Fae sin Bs] (ii) To find P.L. 1 1 PL = ———(1- 2e* + e**) = ——__¢¢' DP+D+1 D?+D+1 — i OF +041 Peied | +241 (ii) Hence the CS. isy =e? {a axe Pie egsin sore reSolution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D? + 4D + Ay = 3 sin x +4 cos x (i) To find CF. Its AE. is (D+ 2)?=Owhere D=-2,-2 2. CB.=(c,+¢,2e%. ii) To find PI. Ph = py sins +4 con) =ripa sins +4eae) AD-3 2 = (Bsinx +4 cosx) 16D? -9 FF (Bld cos.x—3 sin x) +4(-4 sin x —3 6089) = (iii) CS. is.y =(c, + ¢,) + sin x ‘When x , s l=e Also y’ = ce + (¢, + cpxX-2)e* + c08 x. ‘When x = 0,9’ =0, O=c,~2e, + 1,0, ¢y= Hence the required solution is y = (1 +x) e® + sin x. ga Solution. (i) To find CF. Its AE. is (D- 2? D=2,2. ‘Thus CF. =(e, + exe. (30) To find PI. es ane low we *D- oe snare [> by putting D = 2, (D— 2)" = 0, 20D -2)= 0} 1 2x = —_,—— sin 2x ore 4D+4— 4x70 + cos 2x + Qe? + dx + 3. (ey + 65x) e% + 42%e™ + c08 De + De? + Ax + 3. Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D? ~ 2D + 2) (i) To find CF. Its AE. is D2-2D+2=0 2 D 228) oY ‘Thus C.F. =e" (¢, cos.x +c, sinx) =1si,ca He iene Marenams (Gi) To find PL. PA 1 1 5 ———— €* cos x) BPaap +2 DP 2p +3 * a py)" 1 i-(2-3]) + Oya -aps2 “i Bae wi {Case of failure] pa 1 d xe* 1 xe* = gt1- Ore se gpasx = Frye Joosaxdx=5 c++" >-sinx ii) Hence the CS. is y = ec, cos x +, sin x) + Feerns sine. oe 2 1 Solution. Given equation in symbolic form ie OF — SD + 2y = xe™ + sin 2e (i) To find CF. Its AE. is D?-3D+2=0 or (D-2\D~1)=0whence D = 1,2. ‘Thus C.F. = ce" + eye (ii) To find PI. P= Rag ae + sin 20) = Fp (4 sin 2) <* oe «2 lpg enn lee 28m =F (1-82) xed one 2e—20in 2m = 2 (2-3) +1 on 2e—ain 2) x 3 5-5) ap Pome sin 2x). (To find C.F. Its A.E. is D?— 4 = 0, whence D = + 2. ‘Thus CF. = 6% + eye (i To find Pl. PL=(ii) Hence the C8. isy = ee% + eye — % sinh x ~Z cosh x. Example 18.18. Solve (D*—Dy=xsin$e-+coex ed se ye Solution. (i) To find C.F. Its AE. is D?-1=0, whence D=+1. ~ CF. =ce™+c,0* (ii) To find P.I. [Replacing D by D + 3i) [Expand by Binomial theorem] 2 1 3 aS cos 3 cos x 5 (iii) Hence the CS. is y = ce + ¢e* — Fp Or sin Be + 3 cos Be + 25 e082). WEY r ory 5 mone tau Solve Tee. (S.V.TU,, 2007 ; J.N.TU,, 2006 ; UP.TU., 2005), ‘Solution. Given equatian in symbolic form is (D® — 2D + 3) = ze" sin x (i) To find C.F. Its AE. isD?-2D+1=0, ie, (D-1%=0(ii) To find PL. Pi.= @ xsinx=e.— 1 __xsinx (D- FF (D+1-1P =F xsinsae E [xsin de Lintegrate by parts] DP = oT [ xt cosa)- f1.(-c08 2) de ]=e* fx 08 x+sin ald = &'[-{xsin x— [1.sin x dx}—eos x] =e{—x sin x— cos x—cos 2] =-e%(x sin x + 2 cos x). iii) Hence the CS. eae e(x sin x + 20s). Solution. () To find C. Its A.B. is (D? + 1)* = 0 whose roots are D = i, #i ‘ (cy + €x) c08 x + (cy +0.) sin x =-—1 -_1 4 = war* oar F (Re-P. of e*) | enero lo 5A a etl (D+? +1P Solution. (i) To find CP. Its AE. is D?-4D+4=Oie,(D-2?=0. ~ D=2,2 i) To find PI. —1 (2? sin 2) (D+2-27 = we Ngan anne} ota2 4 = eae = Jeol { fin ao 25] = wef conte Sainte 28d = | Eo} sna fea a wo (pda S4 1 wot |[f-Z soa 25g 2 = e®((3 — 2r*) sin 2x — 4x cos 2x} ) Hence the CS. is y = e* [e, + ep + (8 — 2x2) sin 2x — 4x cos 2x]. Sa Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D? + aly = sec ax. @ To find CF. ItsAE.isD'+a?=0 «. D=sia. ‘Thus CF. =o, cos ax + ¢, sin ax. i) To find PI. 1 1 a a ie PL= Pad "Draw [Resolving into partial fractions] Now jax (cos ax—isin ax 2 OO ea Changing i to—i, we have a d= de f.—itan oxide e+ 4 tg ot ax) Deia ‘Thus (iii) Hence the OS. is y =¢, cos ax +0, sin ax + (1/a)x sin ax + (1/a®) cos ax log cos ax.(EEE Wo OTHER METHODS OF FINDING I. Method of variation of parameters. This method is quite general and applies to equations of the form y+ py tqy=X () where p, q, and X are functions of x. It gives P.I. = — yy PX ars ye pax . 2) where y, and y, are the solutions of y" + py’ + qy = 0 8) and W= a x is called the Wronskian* of y,,¥»- Proof. Let the C.F. of (1) bey = e,y, + ¢%2 Replacing ¢,, ¢, (regarded as parameters) by unknown functions u(x) and v(x), let the PI. be Y= UY, +02 ferentiating (4) w.r-t. x, we get y" = uy’, + uy’, +u'y, + UY, *Named after the Polish mathematician and philosopher Hoene Wronsky (1778-1853).uy! +09 on assuming that u’y, + v'y, = Differentiate (4) and substitute in (1). Then noting that y, and y,, satisfy (3), we obtain wy, + yf =X mn) Solving (6) and (7), we get Solution. Given equation in symbole form is (D? + 4y = tan 2. (To find CF. Its AE. is D?+4=0, . D=£2i Thus CF is y=c, cos 2e+e, sin 2x. (Gi) To find PL. Here y, = cos 2x, y, = sin 2x and X = tan 2x weft 22[_| c82* sin 2x “ly 96|° |-2sin 2x 2 cos 2x 2X nX ‘Thus, PL=—y [op de tye [op ar =cut poPR OO ae vin ae fOPENE AE ae =~ Pens 2x flcec 2x — cos 2nide + sin 2x Join 2x dx =~} cos el log (see 2x + tan 2e)—sin 2et 4 sin 2x 608 2x =~} eas 2 logisee Be + tan 2x) Hence the CS. is y= ¢, es 2e + ep sin 2x — + cos 2x log (see 2x + tan 2x). Solution. Given equation is D?-1= 2/0 +e) AE.isD?-1=0,D=+1, 2. CF.=cet+ce* Here y, = ¢, y= e* r X=m1 +e Bab fe ‘Thus = on ft dx+ yo pax ae wre ale eres =e lef £ ered we [octslnge4 1) -elag(1 +e) 2-1 +etboglens 1)-elog te) HenceCS.is y= ce" + ee*- 1+ €€ log (e* + 1) —e* log (e+ 1).Solution. Given equation is (D® 6D + 9)y = ex? AE. is D?-6D+9=Oie. (D-3"=0 +. CF.=(¢,+ege" Here y, =e,yp=xe" and X= ex? eat 1 yo] ‘Thus =e [Eve fet ae =e dogs + 0 Hence C.S.is y= ley segnet— ~e (log x + 1). Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is (D?- 2D + 1) y =e logx (i) To find CF. Its AE. is(D-1)?=0, ~ D=1,1 Thus CF isy =(c, + oe" (i) To find P.l. Here y, =e, yp= xe" and X= e* loge wn de | le e& Hoel let ane oo Pipaes o Pig de xe". e* loge ee loge yo Fas aot [ae =e fetogs a +22" flog x dx @ (Fre . Salen. e * (tog x fixes) o (ms Hence CS. is y = (c, + ¢_x) + } x%e'(2 logx - 8). ‘Thus . Je= © («log x)= a%e @ loge -3) IL. Method of undetermined coefficients To find the P-L. of f(D) y = X, we assume a trial solution containing unknown constants which are deter- mined by substitution in the given equation. The trial solution to be assumed in each case, depends on the form of X. Thus when (i) X = 2e*, trial solution = ae", (ii) X =3 sin 2r, trial solution =a, sin 2c + a, cos 2 (iii) X = 2:3, trial solution = a,2° + a,x? + ax +a, However when X = tan x or sec x, this method fails, since the number of terms obtained by differentiating X = tan x or sec x is infinite. ‘The above method holds so long as no term in the trial solution appears in the C.F. If any term of the trial solution appears in the C.F., we multiply this trial solution by the lowest positive integral power of x which is large enough so that none of the terms which are then present, appear in the C.F.Solution. Here C.F. = e* (c, cos 8x +0, sin /3x) Assume PLL as yeas? say +a, sae* Dy = 2ayx + ay ~a,e~* and D¥y = 2a, + aye" Substituting these in the given equation, we get 4a,x° + (4a, + 4a,) x + (2a, + 2a, + day) + Sa,e* = 2x? + Se* ‘Equating corresponding coefficients on both sides, we get. oem Bet tag Wot Rt Seg ‘Then a= £,a,=- Foay=0,0= 1. Thus PA. = 2 xt Sever CS. isy =e*(c, cos Bx +c, sin VBx) + ba deve Solution. Here C.F. = ¢, cos x +c, sinx ‘We would normally assume a trial solution as a, cos x + a, sin x. However, since these terms appear in the C.F., we multiply by x and assume the trial P-L. as (a, cos x +a, sin x) r Dy =(a, +4.) cos x + (a, ~ a,x) sin x and D?y = (2a, — a,x) cos x ~ (2a, + a,x) sin x Sabstitutiligthioss in the given equation, we get 2a, cos x — 2a, sin x= sinx Equating corresponding coefficients, 2a,=0, -2a,=1 sothata,=0,a, j nz vei CS. isy=c, cos +e, sinx~ 5 xsinz. Solution. ItsA.E.isD°-1=0, . D=+1 Thus C.F. = ce" + 07 Assume PI. as y = e™ (c, cos 2x + ¢, sin 2x) —e*(c, cos 3x + ¢, sin 3x) 2 = e ((Be, + 2c,) c0s 2x + (3c, ~ 2e,) sin 2x} — e* (2c, + Be,) cos Bx + (2c, —Be,) sin Bx} and ty =e ((5e, + 12¢,) c08 2x + (Be, ~ 12c,) sin 2x} — e* ((12c, — 5e,) cos Ax — (Se, + 12c,) sin ax} ‘Substituting these in the given equation, we get e ((4e, + 12c,) cos 2x + (4c, ~ 12c,) sin 2x} — e* ((12e, ~ 6e,) cos Ax ~ (6c, + 12c,) sin Bx) =e* cos 2x—e* sin 3x Equating corresponding coefficients, 4e, + 12¢, = 1, de, ~ 12¢, = 0; 12c,— 6c, = 0, 6c, + 12c, = whence c, = 1/40, ¢, = 3/40, c, = 1/15, c, =~ 1/30 Thus PLL = 2 2 (cos 2x +3 sin 2x) + Ze (2 eas Bx + sin Bx) Hence CS. isy= ce +g" + 2. (2.08 Be + sin Bx) + > & (cos 2x +3 sin 2).[EEEEM EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS Now we shall study two such forms of linear differential equations with variable coefficients which can be reduced to linear differential equations with constant coefficients by suitable substitutions. I. Cauchy’s homogeneous linear equation*. An equation of the form PEL ye Ty thas breX A) where X is a function ste ated Cie So homogmneoestievor equi, ‘Such equations can be reduced to linear differential equations with constant coefficients, by putting xee or t=logx. ThenifD= 2 ye dtd te de dt de dt'x' “*" “dy fy_4 (a) rasa) 1 dy, 1d?y dt 5 (ee ®) woes edt xdtld) de” Pat xa de Plae at ie, of. = D(D - 1)y. Similarly, x* 2 = DW - 1) (D -2)y and so on. trang atta ve aN way Ca in ca ct, can be solved as before.