MINCS pickog!l Littell cena AATIONAL CONsutTING BUREAU Abu Dhabi Gas Industries (GASCO) 5- Day Intensive Course in Control Valves Abu Dhabi, May 29- June 2, 2004 BE gg et el — peebignd = FUT aye = VRP: ul = TOME: gees. Tel. : 6658200 - Fax : 6853303 - P.O. Box : 26356 - Abu Dhabi - United Arab Emirates- wmINCS pick Licttll cite AATIONAL CONSULTING BUREAU Table of Contents Page * Control Responses 1 * Introduction and Terminology 32 Control Valves 33 Valve Capacity 36 Body Designs 39 Flow Characteristics 51 Trim Design 54 Mechanical Features 60 Actuators 63 Positioners 68 Control Valve Accessories 75 Flow Regulation 79 Valve Materials 102 * Control Valve Sizing 4 * Valve Noise 161 * Control Valve Selection 185 * What Moves the Valve 233 * How to prevent Valve Failure 265 * Case Studies 285 + Pressure Relief Valves 309 + Safety Valves 360 Ba Sy ell Lat = eg i= FON: go = VORP: yu Sid = WAS og Tel. : 6658200 - Fax : 6653303 - P.O. Box : 26356 - Abu Dhabi - United Arab EmiratesControl ResponsesControl Responses During the 1940s and 1950s, much of the control theory was developed that governs the makeup of automatic controllers today. In this period, the nature of Processes was studied and anlayzed rather extensively. Their dynamic characteristics were defined by predicting and observing their behaviour with respect to time, Their behavior under steady state conditions was noted. These conditions were also related to the mechanics of the system-resistances and capacities-and control principles were advanced and used which are so common. today. Application of these principles were backed not only by mathematical analyses but also by actual experimentation, and both confirmed the soundness of the principles. During this period the control responses (or modes) that are still recognized as meeting most of the requirements to today’s sophisticated Processes were put into use. In addition to the two-position or on-off control Tesponse, there are proportional, reset (integral), rate (derivative) and combinations of proportional, reset and rate responses. Sine these responses are prevalent today and basic to the understanding of automatic control principles, it is imperative that they be understood. Two-Position Control The simplest form of automatic control used is the two-position or on-off type control. The term on-off may be a misnomer in that it is possible to have two- position control without having the positions either on or off. However, since most two-position control systems are on or off, the term is normally applicable. Two-position control is normally used when the controlled process variables need not be maintained at precise values. Typical examples are oven controls or alarm and shutdown functions. Another familiar example is the common house furnace which is set at a desired temperature. When the house gets cold, the thermostat tums the heat on. When enough heat is supplied to warm the house, the thermostat turns the heater off. Temperature variations from the cyclic effect of such a system usually go unnoticed because their magnitude is small (compared to the thermal capacity of the house). The same is true in industrial systems; two-position control is often used when large capacities are involved and energy inflows or outflows are small compared to the system capacity. Controller outputs that have valves, heater elements, etc., in the fully on or fully off positions provide control close enough to be acceptable in many cases,li Cs) —S. Fut Pilot Light ta) Open Closed Valve Position Figure 3.4. Schematic b shows a simpla two-position (on-ot!) ‘control system. The temperature curva in b shows the cycile ‘effect of on-olf contro! in which the measured variable, T, ‘cycles above and below the sat point. “T>sp — T Figure _ 43 The cage in the valve body is ported to control flow as the plug position varies. It also guides the plug. , i Yarway’s Turbo-Cascade valve (Figure 44) and Masoneilan’s 10,000 Series labyrinth, Lo-db trim valves (Figure © 45) accomplish about the same result through the dissipation of mass flow energy within the valve itself. Fisher Controls’ E-Body Series has similar characteristics. Control Components, Inc. has produced a unique design in cage valves with its “drag” valve concept (Figure * 46). It utilizes a multiple disc technique to divide the incoming flow stream into a series of smaller streams igure 47). Each small flow stream is then directed through individual passages, making a series of right angle turns to control both pressure and velocity. A predetermined (engineered) grouping of discs (with flow passages etched) are stacked and Positioned around a valve plug. Flow is controlled by plug Position as its movement opens or closes flow passages along its travel. 58Figure - .45. Labyrinth lo-db cage trim is Figure 46._-—“-Drag valves with another energy absorbing trim for high pressure multiple plates to form trim use the drop applications, + cage trim and guide principle, 59Figure 47. Stacked discs of the drag valve removed from the valve body.’ Mechanical Features Discussions to this point on control valves have centered around features affecting flow control of fluids through the valves, Mechanical aspects have been discussed only as they related to the control problem . Features are listed below which must be considered for proper mechanical functioning of the valve. Some of the features listed are not pertinent to all body designs discussed in the preceding part of the chapter. End Connections The most common methods of installing valve bodies in pipelines are screwed pipe threads, bolted flanges and weld ends (Figure 11.48), ‘There are other methods among which are tubing fittings, Grayloc fittings and special high pressure types for ratings of 5,000 psi and above. Tubing connections are sometimes used for sizes under 1 inch; screwed connections are most common from 1/2 through 1 1/2 inches, Flanged and welded types are used extensively on 2-inch and larger lines, The piping specifications usually determine the type connection to be used. Bonnet Assembly A bonnet assembly is the part of the valve through which the valve plug stem moves and is the means for sealing against leakage along the stem. Figure 49 shows a typical bolted flange bonnet with a standard packing box. This type bonnet is good for temperatures from 0° to 450°F. 60FlatFace Flanges mA a Lorre Raised Face Flanges 4 ee a oe Ring-Joint Flanges SEES NY exe, a sxe, Ui Bult Weld, 5 End: : Screwes Ends Figure — 48 End connection methods used for installing valves in piping systems. Figure 49. Bolted flange bonnet with a standard packing bonnet. 61Extension Bonnet In cryogenic or low temperature services, the packing box is kept at reasonable temperatures by extension bonnets (Figure 50). The bonsiets may be cast or fabricated and are supplied in any required length. They may be insulated, if necessary. Finned Bonnet Many packing materials are limited to temperatures of 450 °F or less. In services with higher temperature requirements, high temperature packings are used, or finned bonnets (Figure 51) are added to provide a large heat radiating area. This may increase the temperature range for standard packing by several hundred degrees, Bellows Seals Figure 52 shows a bonnet assembly used on applications where no leakage along the stem can be tolerated. Bellows seals are used on installations where the process fluid is pyrophoric, toxic, explosive, highly expensive, or difficult to contain, such as hydrogen gas. Two types of packless sealing are made: one in which process fluid is sealed inside the bellows and one in which fluid is sealed outside the bellows. Figure 50. Extension ‘Figure 51, Firmed bonnets. —_Figure._.52. Bellows sealed bonnets are used in low provide heat radiating surface bormets assure leak-free service temperature services to isolate 10 protect the valve operator _for valves in toxic or explosive ‘the valve operator from line _from hot line temperatures, applications. temperature conditions. 62Packing and Lubrication A standard type of packing box, shown in Figure '.53, includes a lubricator and isolating valve. Successful functioning of the control valve requires free movement of the stem through the packing box with little friction; yet the packing must be tight enough to prevent objectionable leakage. Certain types of packing require lubrication. Valve lubricants are usually furnished as sticks which are placed in the lubricator and forced through the passage with the screw. Standard packing materials include Teflon, Teflon-impregnated asbestos and graphited asbestos. For temperatures above 450°F, semimetallic packing is available. However, it causes considerable friction, and valve stems should be hardened or chrome plated to prevent excessive scoring and wear. Lubrication is required. Figure 53. Standard packing box with lubricator and isolating valve. Actuators Control valve actuators may be operated pneumatically, electrically, hydraulically, manually or by a combination of electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic forces. Pneumatic operation is the most widely used method. The forces actuators must overcome are the unbalanced force caused by the pressure drop across the valve, friction between and weight of moving parts and stem unbalance (insignificant except for high pressure drops). The discussion here is limited to actuators for modulating services and therefore excludes solenoid valves and other electrical and mechanical operators used primarily for on-off service, Pneumatic Types Pneumatic operators may be classified into two basic types-spring:and diaphragm and springless (cylinder or piston), The spring and diaphragm is the most frequently used type. : 63Spring and Diaphragm Spring and diaphragm operators may be direct acting or reverse acting. A direct acting operator (Figure 54) is designed so that air pressure (usually 3-15 psi) on the top of the diaphragm moves the stem downward, closing the valve. This action is termed fail-open (air-to-close). This force is opposed by compression of the spring, and loss of the operating medium (usually air) allows the compressed spring to open the valve. on a reverse acting diaphragm actuator, air pressure below the diaphragm moves the stem up, opposing the spring action (Figure 55). This action is termed fail-closed (air-to-open). On air failure the spring closes the valve. Diaphragms shown in Figure ~ .54and_ 55 are not reversible. Some designs are made so that the diaphragm can be reversed to obtain the desired action (Figure 56). Air-to-Close Alr-to-Opan Figure 55. Reverse ‘Figure. 56. Reversible dlaphragm acting spring and actuator. At left, air to top of diaphragm actuator. diaphragm opens valve. When the Increasing signal pulls stem diaphragm is reversed, applied alr upward. ‘opens the valve. : 64Springless Springless operators include Saunders-Type valves and pinch valves whose closures are obtained by compressing elastic diaphragms. However, this section is intended to cover pneumatic cylinder or piston operators. Cylinder or piston operators are increasing in usage because of the need for increased power and fast action. Increased power results from their ability to use higher pressure supply air. These operators sometimes include built-in valve positioners. Figure 57 shows how the ITT Hammel Dahl/Conoflow Cylinder Conomotor operates. It derives its power from differential pressure across the piston. The piston is forced upward by a constant pressure from a reducing regulator, adjustable to suit the stem load. The chamber above the piston is dynamically loaded through a positioner which operates on the force-balance principle. In the top loading, direct action positioner form (illustrated), an increase in instrument air pressure increases the pressure in the chamber above the piston, moving it downward. This extends the range spring until the positioner forces are brought back into balance, at which point the positioner stabilizes the pressure on top of the piston to hold the new position. A decrease in instrument air pressure reverses the procedure. Higher supply pressures provide greater power and faster stroking speeds. To provide fail-closed or fail-open modes, cylinder operators can be furnished with spring-retum features. For fail-safe operation on electric power loss and for air supply loss, bottled gas with appropriate regulators and trip valves is sometimes employed. Valves are sometimes required to maintain the position they were in when supply pressure or signal is lost. Such a state is known as “fail-last position,” and can be accomplished by trapping the last signal pressures within the cylinder or piston assembly. - Electric Types Electric operators with proportional or infinite positioning control have limited use in the process industries. Their primary use has been in remote areas, such as tank farms and pipeline stations, where no convenient air supply is available. Slow operating speeds, maintenance problems in hazardous areas and economics have prevented wide acceptance for throttling applications. However, several companies have offered electrically powered units. Figure 58 shows an electrically operated butterfly valve which can be supplied with an automatic amplifier-relay control package for use with a remote command potentiometer, The remote potentiometer is part of a Wheatstone bridge arrangement with the feedback potentiometer in the actuator. Changes in the command potentiometer cause the actuator to reposition to a point where bridge balance is reestablished. 65