WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CODE TOPIC SUB-TOPIC
1 Workshop -General workshop safety
safety -Causes of accidents
-Industrial safety
-Classification of fires
-Electrical safety
-Workshop layout
2 Materials and -Metals, non-metals and alloys
processes -Properties of materials
-Extraction process
-Finishes and decorative process.
-Electrical materials and application
-Metal forming processes
3 Metal shop -Terms used in measurement
tools and -Marking out techniques.
measurements -Workshop hand tools
4 Joining of -Mechanical joining of metals
metals -Thermal joining
5 Workshop -Workshop machines
machines and -Operation of different types
applications -Safety precautions while using various
machines
6 Sheet metal -Common sheet metals
work -Use of tools
-Forming in sheet metal
-Edge treatment of joints
-Fabrication machines.
MATERIAL PROCESSESNAND WORKSHOP PRACTICE
1. WORKSHOP SAFETY
SAFETY
It is the state of being protected from harm or other non-desirable outcomes.
It can also refer to the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve an acceptable
level of risk.
GENERAL SAFETY RULES
I) Think before you act, ask when in doubt.
II) Concentrate on your work.
III) Be mindful of your safety and the safety of others.
IV) Dress properly for the job to be done.
V) Position yourself properly when carrying out a particular activity.
VI) Avoid playing around in the place of work.
VII) Use the correct tool and machine for the particular job.
VIII) Wear goggles, face shield, gloves or some other safety device when you go
around machine such as grinders or welders or when handling chemicals.
IX) Use only portable electrical equipment that have adequate earth connection.
X) Always alert others when carrying long or sharp objects.
XI) Ask for help if you are carrying heavy objects.
XII) Do not walk blindly, look where you are going .
XIII) Keep work benches and machine tops clean and tidy.
XIV) Always wipe spill oil, grease or water on the floor immediately.
XV) Never leave a running machine.
XVI) Wash hands immediately after work.
PERSONAL DRESSING
In an electrical workshop, it is always important to be properly dressed. This will
provide protection from dangers associated with electricity, moving machine,
tools and materials. The following dressing is hence required:
I) SHOES-It should provide a good rubber grip on the floor and be of
suitable top and if possible reinforce with steel to protect the feet against
injuries from sharp and heavy objects.
II) CLOTHING-Should either be an overall or dustcoat to protect the body.
They should be short sleeve and if long sleeve, they should be roll or
button up. All the buttons should be in place. Necklaces should not be put
one specially when working on machine otherwise one may be got up with
moving parts.
III) HAND GLOVES-Rubber, plastics or leather cloves should be won when
handling acids, other corrosive materials as well as sharp objects.
IV) HELMET-These should be worn in areas where there are dangers of
falling objects. They can also prevent loose hair when controlling
machine.
V) SAFETY GOGGLES-These are eye protective materials which prevent
the eye when grinding and doing lathe. They are always in plastic.
VI) FACE SHIELD-These is a device capable of blocking sparks and
excessive light and heat from reaching the face. It should be worn when
brazing or welding to protect the eyes from permanent damage and face
from serious burns.
VII) BANGLES, RINGS, NECKLACES -These items should not be worn
when working on a machine otherwise one may be gotten by the moving
parts of the machine and cause injuries. If made of metal, they conduct
heat and electricity to the body when in contact with the source.

STORAGE OF TOOLS, MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Tools, materials and equipment in the workshop must be handled and
stored correctly to avoid accidents. Accidents may cause injuries or
damage tools, materials and equipment.
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF TOOLS
Tools are of many forms and sizes, when stored and handled carelessly
can easily cause accidents. To avoid these, storage facilities must be
provided in the workshop.
Tools may be stored in:
i) A tool box
ii) A tool kit
iii) A tool rack
For easy identification, simple sketches of the tools may be painted in the
storage facilities. This quickens the process of returning the tool in the
proper places. It also speeds up the checking of tool. When dealing with
sharp-edged and pointed tools, care must be taken since these tool can
easily injure the user. Some of the tools are: scribers, center punchers,
chisel, and dividers.
We ensure such tools with sharp edge or point should never point to the
receiver. In the store, the tool boxes and tool kits should be kept in such
positions that they cannot obstruct the pathway. Object placed on the
pathways are the main cause of accidents.
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF MATERIALS
Materials used in the workshop may be classified as:
i) Corrosive
ii) Combustible
iii) Non-combustible.
When dealing with any of these materials, care must be taken to avoid
accident associated with them. Examples of corrosive materials are:
sulphuric acids, hydrochloric acids, Zinc chloride spirits.
All acids are dangerous and should be stored and handled with a lot of
care. For example, sulphuric acid causes painful and serious burns if it
gets on the skin. Therefore proper protective clothes such as gloves and
overall must always be used when working with acids. To avoid
explosions, always add acid to water and not water to acid. Other
materials commonly used in a workshop are handling flammable or
combustible such as: methylated spirit, petrol and kerosene. They should
be stored and handled with care so that accidental fires are avoided. They
should be stored in clear containers and possibly with warnings. Fires
from them cause severe burns or deaths to people. Besides, a fire can
destroy the whole workshop including expensive equipment and tools in
the building.
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF EQUIPMENT
To do a job in the workshop, various tools, equipment are used such as
ammeters, ohmmeters, voltmeters, oscilloscopes and power banks. When
storing such instruments, safety precaution and procedures must always
be followed to avoid damage. If incorrectly stored or handled, the
instruments may:
i) Give false reading when in use.
ii) It may be damaged water and dampness.
iii) It may give electric shock due to damage.
iv) May be damaged when incorrectly connected.
The following are some points to remember when storing instruments:
i) Always store in a cool and dry place.
ii) Never stack instruments and tools one on top of each other
iii) Never drop them.
iv) Never switch on power sources before checking the circuit.
Other instruments and equipment found in the workshop include: Lathe
machine, Bench grinder and Drilling machine. The machine and
equipment are dangerous mainly because of their moving parts. Careless
use of these machine can cause a severe injuries to the body and may
sometime kill the user. It is therefore very important to know how to:
i) Start a particular machine
ii) Operate it safely.
iii) Stop it.
When using electric power tools and equipment, the following safety
procedure should be preserved:
i) Do not let loose cable obstruct other workshop users.
ii) Make sure that all electrical connection are safe.
iii) Never switch on an electric source if others are leaning on the
equipment.
iv) Always use s protective gear such as a face shield, goggles and
gloves when welding.
iv) Keep inflammable materials away when using electrical
equipment.
v) Do not use these electrical equipments in a dumpy area.
vi) Electrical equipment with metallic bodies must be earthed.
vii) Always remove the plug from the socket when the equipment is
not in use.
ELECTRIC SHOCK AND FIRE
Faults in electrical circuits can cause two types of accidents:
i) Electrical shocks.
ii) Electrical fires.
A) Electrical shock
These are basically caused by:
1) Poor electric circuit condition which includes: worn-out insulation of
cables or improperly serviced electric circuit and appliances. To prevent
electric shock great care should be done to ensure that:
a) Wires are always properly and firmly connected.
b)They are properly insulated.
c)Worn-out cables are replaced immediately.
d) Appliances are properly attached.
2) Carelessness
This is the act of overlooking safety procedures by being hasty in the
work and not paying attention to or following all the given instructions.
3) Incompetence in handling electric circuit.
4) Fatigue and stress.
5) Working under the influence of impairing drugs such as as alcohol.
B) ELECTRIC FIRE
Three main causes of electric fire are:
a) Circuit overloading.
b) Arcing contacts and heating.
c) Heating appliances within the proximity of combustible materials.
Fire starting from an electric circuit can be categorized as:
(i) Those starting from within the appliance due to a short circuit or
excessive current and spreading out to the area around as general
fire.
ii) Those involving the insulation and contained within the
appliances. Both of these fires are dangerous to life and property.
FIRST AIDS PROCEDURE
First aids is defined as the application of skills and principles in the event
of sudden illness or accident by the use of the reading available materials
until a casualty is taken to the doctor.
IMPORTANCE OF FIRST AIDS
(i)Sustain life
ii)Promote recovery
iii)Prevent the situation from worsening.
The following first aids procedures should be observed when handling
casualty:
a) Switch off the power.
b) Secure release from contact by use of non-conducting materials.
c) Start artificial respiration if the casualty is not breathing well.
d) Send a doctor or an ambulance.
TREATMENT OF CUTS
Wounds can be result on:
i) Bruises-that is under skin or surface injury.
ii) Minor cuts-that is a slightly broken skin with some bleeding.
 iii) Deep cuts-that is a major broken skin and muscles with serious
loss of blood.
In the case of a deep cut:
a) Stop the cut from any further bleeding by applying a pad.
b) Clean the cut and apply a suitable ointment.
c) Take the casualty to the doctor.
Other causes of wounds are through: Burns-These are caused by dry heat
from fire, hot objects or overexposure to the sun.
General rules when dealing with burns:
a) Place the affected parts under slow running water or immerse it in cold
water.
b) Remove any constrictions eg rings, bangles and boots.
c) Cover the affected part with a cleaned cloth.
d) Give small quantities of cold drinks to the victim.
e) Arrange for immediate transport to hospital.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
They are used to put down or out small fire. They are of different type
with each made to deal with a specific class of fire. Below are the types
of fire extinguishers.
a)water extinguisher-used to put out fire on burning solid materials.
b)Foam extinguisher-used to put out fire on burning oil and chemicals.
c)carbon-dioxide-they are used to fight fire on burning gases and vapour.
d)Dry powder-They are used to deal with fires on burning flammable
liquids and some solid eg wood and paper.
How to use a fire extinguisher
i)Hold the extinguisher upright then remove the safety pin.
ii)Direct the nozzle to the base of the flame.
iii)Press the lever or strike the knob.
iv)Spray the base of the fire.
After use, fire extinguishers should be sent back to the manufacturer for refilling. They need to
be inspected regularly to ensure they would be effective when needed. Every workshop should
have fire extinguisher, they should be placed in where easily accessible such as near the door and
where a fire is most likely to start.
Fire fighting procedure
Fires spread fast, however, how quickly it is detected and controlled determine the extent of
damage it causes. Once fire is detected, raise the fire alarm then act first to put it out. If it is big,
evacuate the building and call the fire brigade. There are three classes of fire:
i)Electrical
ii)Chemical
iii)Solid
Each class is controlled using appropriate fire fighting materials.
How to control electrical fires
Electric fires involve the burning of insulation of the conductors. The fires may spread to other
areas if not put out in time. Some elementary steps of fighting the fire are:
i)Switch off the main electrical supply
ii)Spraying the burning material using carbondioxide or dry powder extinguisher.
How to control chemical fires
Burning oil or chemical fires are controlled by spraying them with foam, carbon-dioxide or dry
powder extinguishers. Sand or soil may be also used by powder either on the base of fire.
How to control solid fires
Solid fires include all types of burning wood and other materials. For these, all types of fire
extinguishers may be used although the water is usually preserved. The fires may also be sprayed
with water directly from water hoses or taps. Sand and soil is also used.
Power lines and lighting
Electric accident may occur to people even when they are not dealing with electrical appliances.
There are two types of power lines:
a)Overhead power lines
b)Underground power lines
Overhead power lines
The power company distributes the power throughout the country overhead. The cables are not
insulated, they are supported by tall posts called pylons to reduce the chances of people, animals
and vegetation touching the pair conductors since to do so may cause death.
Safety precaution to be observed to avoid accident from overhead lines
a) Never attempt to climb an electric post.
b) Do not touch broken overhead cables.
c) Avoid climbing trees near overhead power lines.
d) Avoid falling trees near electric lines.
e) Do not throw object at power lines.
f) Never erect a building below power lines.
g) Avoid setting fires near power line.
Underground cables
In towns and housing estates, electricity may not be distributed easily by overhead lines. It is
distributed by insulated cables buried underground. These are called underground cables. Serious
accident may occur if the cable is broken when one is digging the ground. To avoid such
accidents, the following precaution should be observed:
a) Study the electrical distribution in the area.
b) Consult the underground cable layout plans to locate and mark the cable path.
Lightning
Lightning occurs in many parts of the country usually during rainy seasons. Sometime it causes
death to people and animals and destroy trees and building. Understanding the nature of
lightning helps to deal with safety precautions in case of lightning.
An electric discharge between cloud and earth, between clouds or between the charge centers of
the same cloud is known as lightning. Lightning is a huge spark and takes place when clouds are
charged to such a high potential (+ve or -ve) with respect to earth or a neighboring cloud that the
dielectric strength of neighboring medium (air) is destroyed. There are several theories which
exist to explain how the clouds acquire charge. The most accepted one is that during the uprush
of warm moist air from earth, the friction between the air and the tiny particles of water causes
the building up of charges. When drops of water are formed, the larger drops become positively
charged and the smaller drops become negatively charged. When the drops of water accumulate,
they form clouds, and hence cloud may possess either a positive or a negative charge, depending
upon the charge of drops of water they contain. The charge on a cloud may become so great that
it may discharge to another cloud or to earth and we call this discharge as lightning. The thunder
which accompanies lightning is due to the fact that lightning suddenly heats up the air, thereby
causing it to expand. The surrounding air pushes the expanded air back and forth causing the
wave motion of air which we recognize as thunder.
To avoid being struck by lightning, the following may be observed.
a) Avoid taking shade under a tree or a vehicle.
b) Never be the tallest object on the large plain field.
c) Install lightning arrestors.
d) Plant trees in clusters, they share the effect of lighting acting like an arrestor.

MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

Properties of Metals & Non-Metals

Properties of Metals

They conduct heat and electricity.

They have a high melting point.

They are malleable.

They are ductile.

They have shiny surfaces.

They are usually solid at room temperature.

They have high densities.

Properties of Non-metals

They are brittle.

They have low density.

They are not malleable.

They have low melting point.

They are mostly gases at room temperature but can be solid or liquid.

Alloys

Alloys are mixtures of two or more different metals or of a metal and non-metal. Alloys are
formed in order to improve the properties of a metal. This is because the various metals or non-
metals that will be mixed have different properties and all those properties will benefit when they
are mixed together to form alloy.
Examples of alloys, their composition and their use

ALLOY COMPOSITION USES

Bronze Copper and Tin Used for making statues & medals, coins and bells.

Used for making statues & medals, jewels, musical

Brass Copper and Zinc
instruments.

Steel Carbon and Iron Used for making car and machine parts.

Duralumin Aluminium and Copper Used for constructing aircraft.

Solder Lead and Tin Used for joining electrical components.

Importance of Alloys

They have higher tensile strength.

They are cheaper and have more uses.

They are less likely to rust e.g. Steel.

METALS
They are many types of metals in use. They fall into three major groups:
i)Ferrous
ii)Non-ferrous
iii) Alloys
The ferrous are the one that contain irons eg steel, cast iron and wrought iron. The non-ferrous
contain no iron e.g. copper, lead, aluminium, silver and gold. Alloys are mixtures of two or more
metals eg brass, bronze and solder.
1.Ferrous metals; are materials contain iron.
Iron: Iron is the basic material for all ferrous metals. It is produced from the raw material, iron
ore whose major constituents are the oxides and carbon. The ore, when mines always has
impurities which must be separated from it to get iron. The process of separating these impurities
is called smelting. It is carried out in a large blast furnace. The iron so produced is either
redirected straight to steel in molten form or cast to obtain big iron.
STEEL
Are defined as alloys of iron and carbon in which iron and carbon are chemically combined at all
times.
Wrought iron: Cannot be steel because there is not enough carbon present to form the essential
chemical compound.
Cast iron: Has too much carbon present. They break easily.
Plain carbon steel: Has enough carbon to form the compounds.
Types of steel: mild, medium and high carbon steel.
ALLOY STEELS
Is a plain carbon steel to which other metals have been added in sufficient quantity to materially
alter its properties. Most common alloying metal is added to steel are: nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, manganese and tungsten.
2. NON-FERROUS METALS
-Chromium and nickel are also electroplated onto a variety of metals. Both have decorative
finish and give protection against corrosion.
i) Aluminum: It is light, high electrical and thermal conductivity, soft, ductile and low tensile
strength. Used for making cables
ii)Copper: Soft, ductile and has low tensile strength, second to silver in conductivity and much
easier to join by soldering and brazing than all and is corrosion resistant. Used extensively for
electrical conductors and heat exchangers.
iii) Lead: Soft, ductile, very low tensile strength and highly corrosion resistant. Used for
electrical cable sheath.
iv)Silver: Soft, ductile and very low tensile strength and highest conductivity. Used in electrical
and electronic engineering for switch and relay contact.
v)Tin: Corrosion resistant. Used in soft soldering.
vi)Soft, ductile and low tensile strength and corrosion resistant. Used to coat sheath steel to give
galvanized iron.
Non-ferrous alloys: Brasses-are alloys of copper and zinc.
Tin-bronze alloy: alloy of copper, tin and dioxide.

MARKING OUT
It is advisable to mark out a component before commencing to work on it by hand or machine.
Marking out refers to the scribing of lines on a material surface to indicate the profile or outline
of any holes that are to be out in that component and the position of any hole.
Reasons for marking out
i) To provide guidelines which are worked on and provides the only control of size and
shape of the finished component.
ii) To indicate the outline of the component to the mechanist as an aid to setting up and
roughing down.
iii) To determine that adequate machining allowance that has been left on casting and
forging.
Preparation for marking out
In order that the scribe line will show up clearly the metal surface is usually coated in a
contrasting colour.
1) White wash-Usually applied to rough forging and casting which have heavily oxidized
surface.(black scale)
2) Cellulose liquor-is made in a variety of colour and can be applied to any bright surface.
3) Copper sulphate solution-applied on clean plain carbon steel surface.
THE SCRIBER LINER
1) The scriber-is used for scribing clean straight required for accurate work used together
with a ruler or a straight edge. Used for marking or scribing clean fine straight lines
required for accurate work.
2) Dividers-Are used for scribing circular line up to 6 inch diameter.
3) Trammels-Are used for scribing arcs, curves and circles on metal surfaces of diameter
above 6 inches.
4) Hermaphrodite caliper/odd- leg caliper-Used for scribing lines parallel to an edge.
5) Universal surface gauge-Used for scribing lines parallel to a datum surface and checking
parallelism.
6) Centre bunch-for marking the position of the holes to be drilled.
7) Steel rule-for measuring lengths and drawing straight lines on metal surface.
 8) Try square (engineers)-Laying out lines 90 degrees to the references surfaces.
9) The datum surface-Used for accurate marking out.
10) THE USE OF THE VEE BLOCK:-These are primarily used for holding circular
components so that their axis is parallel to the datum surface. The vee-block is standing
upon so as to be drilled, grounded, gauged or marked.
PRESERVATION OF SCRIBED LINES
The position of the scribed lines are marked by making a series of dots along it with a dot punch
or pick-punch.
REASONS
1) So that the lines may be restored if it becomes obliterated.
2) As a witness after removing surplus metals from a component. Half the dots remaining in
the edge of the component are a witness to the accuracy of your work.
SHARPENING OF SCRIBING INSTRUMENTS\
1) Sharpen regularly so that the minimum amount of metal is released.
2) Never use grinding wheel.
3) Always use fine oilstone.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
i) Tensile strength-Ability to withstand stretching load/force without breaking.
ii) Compressive strength-Ability to withstand squeezing loads/forces without breaking.
iii) Shear strength-Ability of a material to withstand offset force /load. Ability to resist
force that can cause a material to slide against itself.
iv) Impact strength-Ability to withstand impact/hammering load/force.
v) Elasticity-Ability of materials to stretch when it is under load, when you release from
its state to its original size when force is removed.
vi) Plasticity-Ability to deform under load and to return to its original shape when load is
removed eg clay.
vii) Ductility-Ability of a material to be bend easily into different shape without breaking.
viii) Malleability-Ability to extend permanently in all directions without rupturing under a
compressive load.
ix) Hardness-To withstand scratching and wear by harder bodies eg marking by a file.
x) Corrosion resistance-Ability to withstand chemical and electrochemical effects/
attacks.
xi) Conductivity-Ability to allow passage of electricity or heat.
xii) Fusibility-Ease with which a material will melt.
xiii) Toughness-Is the ability of a material to withstand and impact load or hammering
load.
xiv) Brittleness -Is the ability of a material to break easily with a sharp blow.
HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS
It is the process of heating carbon steel to a certain temperature and cooling it to give a
desired property. This involves heating and cooling a metal according to time temperature
circles which includes the following:
i) Heating a metal to a desired temperature.
ii) Holding the metal at the above mentioned temperature for a period of time.
iii) Cooling the metal at a certain rate.
TYPES OF CARBON STEEL
i) Mild or low carbon steel (0.05-0.30% carbon content)-Steel containing a small
percentage of carbon, strong and tough.
ii) Medium carbon steel-(0.3-0.6% carbon)-Balances ductility and strength and has good
wear resistance. They are used for large parts, forging and automotive components
iii) Higher carbon steels(0.6-1.0% carbon)-Are carbon steels which can successfully
undergo heat treatment .They are very strong and used for springs, swords and high
strength wires.
iv) Ultra-high carbon steel (3.25-4.0% carbon)-Steels that can be tempered to great
hardness. They are used for knives, axles and punches.

The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of
steel, usually ductility, hardness, field strength or impact resistance. It increases the
strength of the steel. Heat treatment applies only to processes where the heating and
cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties.
HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS
1) Hardening
Only high carbon steel can be hardened and tempered. Hardening involves
heating steel, keeping it at an appropriate temperature until all pearlite is
transformed into austenite and then quenching it rapidly in water, oil or brine.
The maximum hardness obtained depends on:
i) The carbon content of the steel
ii) The speed of heating
iii) The temperature at which the steel is quenched.
iv) The speed of cooling
 Tools such as files, drills and taps are examples of steels that have
been hardened.
2) TEMPERING
It involves heating steel that has been quenched and hardened for an adequate
period of time so that the metal can be equilibrated. The hardness and strength
obtained depends upon the temperature at which tempering is carried out.
Higher temperature will result into high ductility but low strength and
hardness.
Low temperature will produce low ductility but high strength and hardness. It
is done by reheating slowly the hardened steel to a temperature of about 200-
300 degrees.
The metal is held at this temperature for a period of time. These allow time for
necessary changes within the grey structure. Then thereafter the metal is
allowed to cool in air.
3) ANNEALING
Involves treating steel up to a high temperature and then cooling it very
slowly to room temperature so that the resulting microstructure will posses
high ductility and toughness but low hardness. This process is carried out in
steel in order to:
i) Soften the metal so that it can be easily machined.
ii) Relief the metal of internal stress caused by working the steel.
4) NORMALIZING
Involves heating steel and then keeping it at that temperature for a period of
time and then cooling it in air. The resulting microstructure is a mixture of
ferrite and cementite which has a higher strength and hardness but lower
ductility. Normalizing is similar to annealing except that normalized steel is
not as soft as fully annealed steel. Another difference is that normalized steel
is cooled in air and at room temperature while annealed steel is allowed to
cool slowly in a furnace.
5) CASE HARDENING/SURFACE HARDENING
It is necessary to have the surface of the component hard enough to resist wear
and corrosion while maintaining ductility and toughness. In this case, the
outer thin surface layer of the steel is hardened while the inner is left soft. It is
usually applied to low carbon steel/mild carbon steel.
6) CARBURIZATION
Is observed treatment process in which steel or iron is heated to a temperature
below the melting point in the presence of a liquid, solid or gaseous material
which decomposes so as to release carbon when heated to the temperature
used.
CORROSION
It is the process of corroding metal, stone or other metals. The breaking down
or destruction of a material especially a metal through chemical reactions. It’s
a natural process which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable
form such as oxides, hydroxides or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of
materials by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment.
FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION OF METALS
i) The more the reactivity of metal, the more will be the possibility of the
metal getting corroded.
ii) The impurities help in setting up voltaic cells which increase the speed
of corrosion.
iii) Presence of electrolytes in water also increases rate of corrosion.
iv) Presence of carbon dioxide in natural water increase rusting of iron
v) When the iron surface is coated with layers of metals more active than
iron then the rate of corrosion is restarted.
vi) A rise in temperature increases the rate of corrosion.
Iron Extraction Process

In the blast furnace process, the first step on the way towards heavy plate, pig iron is produced
from iron ore.

Burdening

Exact quantities of burdening materials such as sinter, pellets, lump ore, alloys, and coke are
transported alternately via a belt conveyor to the blast furnace head. The materials are then
charged in layers via sluice vessels into the furnace by means of a rotary chute.

Cowper

This supplies the blast furnace with a current of hot air ("blast"), which initiates the chemical
reaction. The refractory checker bricks in the Cowper are heated by the top gas produced in the
blast furnace. The blast, which reaches temperatures of over 1300 °C (regenerator), then flows
through these hot bricks. The energy for the blast heating is thus drawn off from the blast furnace
process - an utmost environmentally-sound method.

Blast furnace

The blast furnace works according to the counter flow principle: the stock column, made up of
ore, coke and additions, slides down towards its conversion, while the top gases rise and heat the
stock column. At the bottom of the furnace the iron ore is chemically reduced. The blast reacts
with the coke; carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are formed at temperatures of up to 2000 °C.
The carbon monoxide removes the oxygen from the iron ore resulting in pig iron production.
Slag is formed from the other ore components and the additions.

Casting bay

The hot metal is filled into torpedo cars via the blast furnace tap hole, launder lined with
refractory material, and transported to the steel plants of AG der Dillinger Hüttenwerke and
Saarstahl AG. The silicon content of between 0.3 % and 0.5 % is already adjusted to steel plant
and rolling mill requirements. A modern dust extractor prevents dust from escaping during
tapping. The slag obtained in the blast furnace process which floats on top of the hot metal in the
launder, due to its low specific gravity, is separated from the metal and poured into slag dumps
where it solidifies or is immediately granulated with high-pressure water. The solidified slag is
used as road building material, whereas the granulated material is supplied to the cement
industry.

LATHE MACHINE
A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the work-piece on its axis to perform various operations
such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are
applied to the work-piece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.

SAFETY

All lathe operators must be constantly aware of the safety hazards that are associated with using
the lathe and must know all safety precautions to avoid accidents and injuries. Carelessness and
ignorance are two great menaces to personal safety. Other hazards can be mechanically related to
working with the lathe, such as proper machine maintenance and setup. Some important safety
precautions to follow when using lathes are:

 Correct dress is important, remove rings and watches, roll sleeves above elbows.
 Always stop the lathe before making adjustments.
 Do not change spindle speeds until the lathe comes to a complete stop.
 Handle sharp cutters, centers, and drills with care.
 Remove chuck keys and wrenches before operating
 Always wear protective eye protection.
 Handle heavy chucks with care and protect the lathe ways with a block of wood when
installing a chuck.
 Know where the emergency stop is before operating the lathe.
 Use pliers or a brush to remove chips and swarf, never your hands.
 Never lean on the lathe.
 Never lay tools directly on the lathe ways. If a separate table is not available, use a wide
board with a cleat on each side to lay on the ways.
 Keep tools overhang as short as possible.
 Never attempt to measure work while it is turning.
 Never file lathe work unless the file has a handle.
 File left-handed if possible.
 Protect the lathe ways when grinding or filing.
 Use two hands when sanding the work-piece. Do not wrap sand paper or emory cloth
around the work-piece.
Explanation of the standard components of most lathes:

• Bed: Usually made of cast iron. Provides a heavy rigid frame on which all the main
components are mounted.
• Ways: Inner and outer guide rails that are precision machined parallel to assure accuracy of
movement.
• Headstock: mounted in a fixed position on the inner ways, usually at the left end. Using a
chuck, it rotates the work.
• Gearbox: inside the headstock, providing multiple speeds with a geometric ratio by moving
levers.
• Spindle: Hole through the headstock to which bar stock can be fed, which allows shafts that
are up to 2 times the length between lathe centers to be worked on one end at a time.
• Chuck: 3-jaw (self centering) or 4-jaw (independent) to clamp part being machined.
• Chuck: allows the mounting of difficult workpieces that are not round, square or triangular.
• Tailstock: Fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide towards any position the headstock
to fit the length of the work piece. An optional taper turning attachment would be mounted to it.
• Tailstock Quill: Has a Morse taper to hold a lathe center, drill bit or other tool.
• Carriage: Moves on the outer ways. Used for mounting and moving most the cutting tools.
• Cross Slide: Mounted on the traverse slide of the carriage, and uses a handwheel to feed tools
into the work-piece.
• Tool Post: To mount tool holders in which the cutting bits are clamped.
• Compound Rest: Mounted to the cross slide, it pivots around the tool post.
• Apron: Attached to the front of the carriage, it has the mechanism and controls for moving the
carriage and cross slide.
• Feed Rod: Has a keyway, with two reversing pinion gears, either of which can be meshed with
the mating bevel gear to forward or reverse the carriage using a clutch.
• Lead Screw: For cutting threads.
• Split Nut: When closed around the lead screw, the carriage is driven along by direct drive
without using a clutch.
• Quick Change Gearbox: Controls the movement of the carriage using levers.
• Steady Rest: Clamped to the lathe ways, it uses adjustable fingers to contact the work-piece
and align it. Can be used in place of tailstock or in the middle to support long or unstable parts
being machined.
• Follow Rest: Bolted to the lathe carriage, it uses adjustable fingers to bear against the
workpiece opposite the cutting tool to prevent deflection.

Various Types of Operations Performed on Lathe Machine

As we know that the lathe machine is used for producing basically cylindrical and conical shape
jobs with the help of various tools. Different shapes are produced by different operations. Some
of operations are as follows:
Turning

Turning is the operation when the metal removal takes place from the surface of the cylindrical
work piece. In this process the tool is fed along the axis of the spindle. Turning is the removal of
metal from the outer diameter of a rotating cylindrical work piece. Turning is used to reduce the
diameter of the work piece, usually to a specified dimension, and to produce a smooth finish on
the metal. Often the work piece will be  turned  so  that  adjacent  sections  have  different
diameters.
Shoulder Turning
A shoulder is a point at which the diameter of the work piece changes with no taper from one
diameter to the other. In other words, there is a 90 degree face moving from one diameter to the
other. To get a nice square edge it must be machined with a tool having sharp point. It should be
ground to an angle of less than 90 degrees so that it can work right down into the corner of the
shoulder. To get a nice square face on the shoulder it will be needed to make a facing cut. While
doing so the carriage should be locked. This gives the best result. Face of the shoulder should be
cleaned up by locking the carriage until it is square. While using sharp pointed tool it will needed
to use fairly high RPM, say 1500, and advancing the tool slowly otherwise it will get little
grooves from the pointed tip instead of a nice smooth finish. Finally, sharp corners are to be
removed by using a file to make a nice beveled edge on outside edge of the shoulder and on the
end of the work piece.
Facing

Facing is the process of making flat surfaces

on a lathe. The job is held on a faceplate or chuck and the tool is fed at right angles to the bed to
obtain flat surfaces. Most often, the work piece is cylindrical, but using a 4- jaw chuck you can
face rectangular or odd-shaped work to form cubes and other non-cylindrical shapes. To safely
perform a facing operation the end of the work piece must be as close as possible to the jaws of
the chuck. The work piece should not extend more than 2-3 times its diameter from the chuck
jaws unless a steady rest is used to support the free end.
Boring
The process of removal of stock from a hole in the workpiece is called boring. Holes are bored
by single point cutting tools. The cutting tool shaves off a thin layer of material to an accurate
size. Tapered holes are bored in the same manner as in the case of taper turning. The boring
processing is said to be difficult for some of the following reasons:
(a) It is hard to see the processing surface.
(b) The scraps are kept in the hole. When the scraps are kept, the surface cannot be finished to
high roughness.
(c) Because we cannot see the bottom of a deep hole, it is hard to stop the boring bar at the
bottom location. We must depend on the scale of the lathe and the sound.
(d) Especially the case of a small hole, the backside of the boring bar touches the material. We
must set the height of the edge suitably.
(e) Because a boring bar is long, the tool has vibrations easily. It is dependent on the rigidity of
the boring bar.
Drilling

This is the process of making holes in the work-piece with the help of drills. The drill is held in
the tailstock and the drilling operation is carried out by advancing the drill in the work-piece by
rotating the handle of the tail stock. On a lathe, drilling is generally done in the centre of the
work-piece. Before drilling into the end of a work-piece, face the end. The next step is to start
the drill hole using a center drill. If you try to drill a hole without first center drilling, the drill
will almost certainly wander off center, producing a hole that is oversized and misaligned.
Reaming

It is the process of enlarging holes to accurate sizes. Reaming is always carried out after drilling.
It is similar to the drilling process - the reamer is held in the tailstock to carry out the reaming
operation. Two broad categories of commercial reamers are generally available; these are hand
reamers and machine reamers. As the name suggests, for use in machine tools the latter are more
suitable. Machine reamers, especially the larger diameters, tend to have taper shanks for
mounting in the mandrel of machine tools. Machine reamers will remove a greater amount of
metal and the lack of taper results in cutting occurring nearer the front edge of the tool, shavings
are usually pushed forwards and do not pack the flutes to the same extent. If the shavings are not
removed from the flutes regularly and they become packed the reamer will likely seize in the
bore and irreparable damage will be done to the work. Even if this doesn't happen, packed chips
in the flutes will cause the reamer to cut oversize, off-line, or both.
Milling

Milling is an operation of removing material from a work piece with multi point rotating cutter.
The lathe is a practicable method of performing milling operations in the absence of a true
milling machine. On a lathe, the milling cutter is held in the headstock and the work piece is
clamped in movable vice. The milling operation is carried out by a cutter revolving against the
work piece. This process is used for milling small work pieces only, where a milling machine
cannot be used. The most common way of milling in the lathe is to use a vertical slide with a
small machine vice attached. The only drawbacks are that the lathe needs to be converted for
milling operation each time. Also, unless the lathe is particularly large the rigidity is going to be
less than that of a milling machine designed for the job. Most slot and channel milling will be
done with small end mills or slot drills (up to 1/2" diameter or so). Although between-center bars
are available for mounting side and face cutters, these are not really convenient to work with as
the work needs to be clamped to the cross-slide and requires shimming up to the correct height
for machining. It is difficult to do with the accuracy. End milling of work held in a small
machine vice bolted to the vertical slide is a much more practicable solution.
Grinding

This is a process of removing material by means of rotating abrasive wheel for finishing
operations. On a lathe, the work piece is held between the centres and the grinding operation is
carried out by mounting the tool post grinder on the compound slide. The grinding operation is
carried out after rough turning, to provide an accurate finish to the work piece by removing a
small amount of material.
Counter boring

The process of boring a hole to more than one diameter on the same axis is known as counter
boring. Counter boring is needed for receiving the head of a socket head cap screw. This
operation is also carried out with a boring tool.
Knurling

The process of rendering rough the surface of a work piece by making a series of indentations or
depressions on it is known as knurling. The knurling tool which is held in the tool post is pressed
against the job to carry out the operation. The indentations are generally of a criss– cross pattern
and can be classified into three categories -coarse, medium and fine.  Another form of
indentation is known as straight knurling and is not used extensively.
Eccentric Turning

The process of performing turning operations at various axis in a single setting job is known as
eccentric turning. Many different methods can be employed for such work. The most vital factor
is the number of jobs to be made. Such jobs can be best machined with the help of well designed
fixtures and proper tools, but their use requires a lot of economic considerations. Where a large
number of similar jobs are to be machined, such that a quicker and larger production will
compensate for the cost of production of the said fixtures and tools, it is always advantageous to
use fixtures. However, if only a few pieces are to be machined it would certainly be
uneconomical to have the use of fixtures. In such cases, other methods of eccentric turning are
used. A very common method of eccentric turning, using a mandrel having two sets of centres.
For such machining, special fixtures are designed and are mounted on face plate for supporting
the work during the operation.
(a) Crank Shaft
(b)  Eccentric Bush
Thread Cutting

Threading is the process of creating a screw thread. There are many methods of generating
threads. Thread cutting on lathe is an operation that uses a single-point tool to produce a thread
form on a cylinder or cone. The tool moves linearly while the precise rotation of the work piece
determines the lead of the thread. The process can be done to create external or internal threads
(male or female).  In external thread cutting, the piece can either be held in a chuck or mounted
between two centers. With internal thread cutting, the piece is held in a chuck. The tool moves
across the piece linearly, taking chips off the work piece with each pass. Usually 5 to 7 light cuts
create the correct depth of the thread.
Taper Turning

An operation performed on a lathe that feeds a tool at an angle to the length of the work piece in
order to create a conical shape. Taper turning falls  into three categories, short tapers of relatively
obtuse angles generally turned with the top-slide, longer tapers of a more acute angle produced
either by setting the tailstock over or by use of a taper turning attachment, and internal taper.
This operation will be taught in detail in further classes.
Recessing

Recessing is a process of producing narrow slot on a cylindrical job. It is also called as grooving
or necking. So the recessing tools are sometimes called necking tools. Recessing tools may be
either straight or bent shank types. As the recess is usually narrow, the cutting edge is kept
narrow. It is relieved by 1O to 2O on each side towards the shank. The sides are relieved to make
the tool free cutting. The rake angle should be decreased or the face should be made hollow to
the radius. The tool should be set exactly in centre. If tool is set below or above the centre, it will
break.
Chamfering

Chamfering is the operation of beveling the extreme end of a work piece. This is done to remove
the burrs, to protect the end of the work piece from being damaged and to have a better look. The
operation may be performed after knurling, rough turning, boring, drilling. Chamfering is an
essential operation before thread cutting so that the nut may pass freely on the threaded work
piece.
Parting Off
Parting-off is the operation of cutting a work piece after it has been machined to the desired size
and shape. The process involves rotating the work piece on a chuck or faceplate at half the speed
to that of turning and feeding by a narrow parting off tool perpendicular to the lathe axis by
rotating the cross slide screw by hand. Before the operation starts, the carriage is locked in
position on the lathe bed and the cutting tool is held rigidly on the tool post with the compound
slide set parallel to the lathe axis. The tool should be fed very slowly to prevent chatter. The feed
varies from 1.7 to 0.15 mm per revolution and the depth of cut is equal to the width of the tool.
In parting off, a work of very large diameter, cuts are made in stages. The parting off tool is first
fed through a certain depth, and then withdrawn and two more cuts are made at the two sides of
the central groove. The tool is next fed into the central groove until the work is cut off in two
parts.
Lathe machine cutting tools
DRILLING MACHINE
a machine for drilling, reaming, counterboring, and tapping holes; especially : a power machine
for drilling holes in metal (as a drill press or radial drill. Drilling is a cutting process that uses a
drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary
cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the
workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.
What are the operations carried out by Drilling Machine?

Though drilling machine is designed to make straight and accurate holes, it is used for many
other operations. Major operations that are carried out on a drilling machine are explained below:
(a) Drilling. The operation of drilling consists of producing a hole in an object by forcing a
rotating drill against it. The same result is carried out in some machines by holding the drill
stationary and rotating the work as on the lathe.
(b) Boring. It is the operation of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled or bored with a
single point tool. It also rectifies the error of drilling, if any.
(c) Counter Boring. It is the operation of enlarging one end of a drilled hole. The enlarged hole
is connected to the original one and it is flat at the bottom. It is done to set bolt head and nuts
below the surface.

(d) Spot Facing. To finish off a small surface around a drilled hole is known as spot facing. It is
carried out to give a proper seating to bolts and nuts.
(e) Counter Sinking. The top of the drilled hole is beveled to accommodate the conical seat of a
flat head screw and counter sunk rivets; the operation is called counter sinking.

(f) Reaming. It is the operation of enlarging a machined hole to proper size to a smooth finish. A
reamer is an accurate tool and is not designed to remove much metal.  Allowance for reaming
should not exceed 0.015 inches.

(g) Tapping. It is the operation of forming internal threads by means of a tool called tap. To
withdraw the tap, the arrangement is made by either a reversible motor or tapping attachment.
(h) Trepanning. It is the operation of producing a hole by removing metal along the
circumference of a hollow cutting tool. This operation is performed for producing large holes.
Fewer chips are removed and much of the material is saved while the hole is produced.

(i) Grinding. This operation may be performed in a drilling machine to finish a hardened hole.
The grinding wheel is made to revolve with the spindle and is fed up and down. A suitable
grinding wheel may be selected for surface grinding operation. Grinding can also be done to
correct out of roundness of the hole. The accuracy in grinding operation is quiet high about ±
0.0025 mm.
(j) Lapping. It is the operation of sizing and finishing small diameter hole already hardened by
removing a very small amount of material by using a lap. There are many kinds of lapping tools.
The copper head laps are commonly used. The laps fit in the hole and are moved up and down
while it revolves.

Classification of Electrical Engineering Materials

1. Conductors
2. Semiconductors
3. Insulators
4. Magnetic material
Conductors
Conductors are the materials which have very high conductivity. The number of free electrons
are very high in conductor at room temperature, which is basic reason of high conductivity of
conductors.
Examples: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum etc.
The number of free electrons are very high in silver, which makes the silver a best conductors of
electricity. The binding force on these free valance electrons by nucleus is very low. Due to
which these electrons can be easy freed from the nucleus and can participate in flow of
electricity.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are have the conductivity between conductors and insulators. Semiconductors
are the elements of group-III, group-IV and group-IV elements. Semiconducting materials are
having covalent bond. At normal temperature the conductivity of semiconductors is very low.
With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductors increase exponentially.
Example: Germanium, Silicon, Gallium Arsenic etc.

Insulating Materials
The conductivity of insulating materials is very low. These material are having very high
resistivity which makes them very suitable to insulate the current carrying parts from earthed
metallic structure. In insulating materials the elections are tightly bounded with nucleus. Due to
which that cannot be freed for movement in materials. Due to which the resistivity of insulating
materials is very high.
Example:- Plastics, Ceramics, PVC etc.

Magnetic Materials
These materials play an important role for existence of various electrical machines. The magnetic
materials having high permeability are used for building the core to from the low reluctance path
for magnetic flux. Magnetic materials can be further divided in following categories

 Ferromagnetic materials
 Paramagnetic material
 Diamagnetic materials
 Antiferromagnetic materials
 Ferrites

Ferromagnetic Materials
These materials are having very large and positive susceptibility to external magnetic field. They
are having a strong attraction to external magnetic field and are able to retain magnetism even
after remove of external magnetic field. This property of materials is called magnetic hysteresis.
Example: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel.

Paramagnetic Material
These materials are having very small and positive susceptibility to external magnetic field. In
the presence of external magnetic field, these materials attains very small magnetism. Example:
Aluminum, Platinum, oxygen, Air etc.

Diamagnetic materials
These materials are having very weak and negative magnetic susceptibility to external magnetic
field. On application of external magnetic field these are repelled slightly by external magnetic
field. These materials does not retains the magnetism after removal of external magnetic field.
Mostly all metals i.e. silver, copper, gold, hydrogen etc. are diamagnetic materials.

Antiferromagnetic materials
These materials are having very small and positive susceptibility to external magnetic field. In
the presence of external magnetic field these materials get slightly magnetized in the direction of
external magnetic field. In these materials, atoms are having mixed parallel and anti parallel
aligned magnetic dipole movement.
Example: Cr, MNO, FeO, CoO, NiO, Mn etc.
Ferrites
These materials are having very large and positive magnetic susceptibility like ferromagnetic
materials. These materials are generally compound which are having more complex crystal
structures than a pure material. As compare to ferromagnetic materials, ferrites are having lower
magnetic saturation.
Example: Fe3O4, BaO.6Fe2O3 etc.

Properties of aluminium

Weight

One of the best known properties of aluminium is that it is light, with a density one third that of
steel, 2,700 kg/m3. The low density of aluminium accounts for it being lightweight but this does
not affect its strength.

Strength

Aluminium alloys commonly have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa. The range for
alloys used in extrusion is 150 – 300 MPa. Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not become
brittle at low temperatures. Instead, its strength increases. At high temperatures, aluminium’s
strength decreases. At temperatures continuously above 100°C, strength is affected to the extent
that the weakening must be taken into account.

Linear expansion

Compared with other metals, aluminium has a relatively large coefficient of linear expansion.
This has to be taken into account in some designs.

Machining

Aluminium is easily worked using most machining methods – milling, drilling, cutting,
punching, bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during machining is low.

Formability

Aluminium’s superior malleability is essential for extrusion. With the metal either hot or cold,
this property is also exploited in the rolling of strips and foils, as well as in bending and other
forming operations.

Conductivity

Aluminium is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An aluminium conductor weighs

approximately half as much as a copper conductor having the same conductivity.
Joining

Features facilitating easy jointing are often incorporated into profile design. Fusion welding,
Friction Stir Welding, bonding and taping are also used for joining.

Reflectivity

Another of the properties of aluminium is that it is a good reflector of both visible light and
radiated heat.

Screening EMC

Tight aluminium boxes can effectively exclude or screen off electromagnetic radiation. The
better the conductivity of a material, the better the shielding qualities.

Corrosion resistance

Aluminium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an extremely thin layer of oxide. Though it
is only some hundredths of a (my)m thick (1 (my)m is one thousandth of a millimetre), this layer
is dense and provides excellent corrosion protection. The layer is self-repairing if damaged.

Anodising increases the thickness of the oxide layer and thus improves the strength of the natural
corrosion protection. Where aluminium is used outdoors, thicknesses of between 15 and 25 ¥ìm
(depending on wear and risk of corrosion) are common.

Aluminium is extremely durable in neutral and slightly acid environments.

In environments characterized by high acidity or high basicity, corrosion is rapid.

Further details are given in Corrosion Resistance.

Non-magnetic material

Aluminium is a non-magnetic (actually paramagnetic) material. To avoid interference of

magnetic fields aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices.

Zero toxicity

After oxygen and silicon, aluminium is the most common element in the Earth’s crust.
Aluminium compounds also occur naturally in our food.

METAL JOINING PROCESSES

Joining includes welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding of materials.

•They produce permanent joint between the parts to be assembled.
•They cannot be separated easily by application of forces.
•They are mainly used to assemble many parts to make a system.
•Welding is a metal joining process in which two or more parts are joined or coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by suitable application of heat or/and pressure.
• Some times, welding is done just by applying heat alone, with no pressure applied
•In some cases, both heat and pressure are applied; and in other cases only pressure is applied,
without any external heat.
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate coalescence.

Advantages of welding:
•Welding provides a permanent joint.
•Welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a proper filler metal is used that has
strength properties better than that of parent base material and if defect less welding is done.
•It is the economical way to join components in terms of material usage and fabrication costs.
Other methods of assembly require, for example, drilling of holes and usage of rivets or bolts
which will produce a heavier structure.

1.WELDING
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining
techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal.

Disadvantages of welding:
•Labour costs are more since manual welding is done mostly.
•Dangerous to use because of presence of high heat and pressure.
•Disassembly is not possible as welding produces strong joints.
•Some of the welding defects cannot be identified which will reduce the strength.

Types of welding:

Welding processes can be broadly classified into:

(i) fusion welding, and
(ii) solid state welding
Fusion welding: In fusion welding processes, heat is applied to melt the base metals. In many
fusion welding processes, a filler metal is added to the molten pool during welding to facilitate
the process and provide strength to the welded joint. When no filler metal is used, that fusion
welding operation is referred to as autogenous weld.
Types:
Arc welding, Resistance welding, Oxyfuel gas welding, electron beam welding, laser welding

Arc welding: In this operation, electric arc is used to produce heat energy
and the base metal is heated. Sometimes, both pressure and heat are
applied.
Resistance welding: In this operation, electric resistance is generated to the flow of current that
generates heat energy between two contacting surfaces that are held in pressure.
Gas welding: Oxyfuel gas welding is a welding operation in which heat is generated by a hot
flame generated mixture gas of oxygen and acetylene. This heat is used to melt base material and
filler material, if used.
Solid State Welding: In this method, joining is done by coalescence resulting from
application of pressure only or a combination of heat and pressure. Even if heat is used, the
temperature in the process is less than the melting point of the metals being welded (unlike in
fusion welding). No filler metal is utilized.
Diffusion welding: Two part surfaces are held together under pressure at elevated temperature
and the parts join by solid state diffusion.
Friction welding/Stir welding: Joining occurs by the heat of friction and plastic deformation
between two surfaces.
Ultrasonic welding: Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an oscillating
motion at ultrasonic frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces.

Types of Welding Flames

There are three basic flame types: neutral (balanced), excess acetylene (carburizing), and
excess oxygen (oxidizing).
A neutral flame is named neutral since in most cases will have no chemical effect on the metal
being welded.
A carburizing flame will produce iron carbide, causing a chemical change in steel and iron. For
this reason a carburizing flame is not used on metals that absorb carbon. 
An oxidizing flame is hotter than a neutral flame and is often used on copper and zinc.

2. Brazing
-form, fix, or join by soldering with an alloy of copper and zinc at high temperature.
• It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action
between the faying (contact) surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
• Base material does not melt in brazing; only the filler melts.
•In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature (liquidus) above 450°C, but below the
melting point (solidus) of base metals to be joined.

Advantages of brazing
•Brazing can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals
•Pieces of different thickness can be easily joined by brazing
•Thin-walled tubes & light gauge sheet metal assemblies not joinable by welding can be joined
by brazing.
•Complex & multi-component assemblies can be economically fabricated with the help of
brazing.
•Inaccessible joint areas which could not be welded by gas metal or gas tungsten arc spot or
seam welding can be formed by brazing.
Brazing fluxes
Characteristics of a good flux include,
(1) low melting temperature,
(2) low viscosity so that it can be displaced by the filler metal,
(3) facilitates wetting, and
(4) protects the joint until solidification of the filler metal.

On the basis of method of heating, various brazing process are:

Torch Brazing
• Flux is applied to the part surfaces and a torch is used to direct a flame against the work in the
vicinity of the joint.
• After the workpart joint areas have been heated to a suitable temperature, filler wire is added to
the joint, usually in wire or rod form.
• Fuels used in torch brazing include acetylene, propane, and other gases, with air or oxygen.
•Torch brazing is often performed manually, and skilled workers must be employed
Other types: Furnace brazing, Induction brazing, Resistance brazing, Dip brazing, Infrared
brazing.
3.SOLDERING
Soldering is similar to brazing and can be defined as a joining process in which a filler metal
with melting point (liquidus) not exceeding 450°C is melted and distributed by capillary action
between the faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined. As in brazing, no melting of the base
metals occurs, but the filler metal wets and combines with the base metal to form a metallurgical
bond. Filler metal, called Solder, is added to the joint, which distributes itself between the
closely fitting parts.
SOLDER: Alloys of Tin and Lead. Tin is chemically active at soldering temperatures
and promotes the wetting action required for successful joining.

4.FLUXING
-a flux is a chemical cleaning agent, flowing agent, or purifying agent. Fluxes may have more
than one function at a time. They are used in both extractive metallurgy and metal joining. When
soldering, you often need to use a flux to create proper joints. There are many types of flux, and
they can be found in liquid, spray, or pen form, as well as inside solder wire itself. Below is a
brief overview of a few types of fluxes. As always, if you have any questions on the application
of a specific product, the manufacturer is the best place to go for up to date information.
No-Clean

No-clean fluxes are rather weak, and the residue that they leave behind will typically not harm
your devices. This is why they are called no-clean; the residue it creates can be left on the board
and it will not corrode your parts. If you are applying a conformal coating to your PCB then you
will need to clean off the residue from no-clean fluxes so you can ensure even protection.

Mildly Activated Rosin

Mildly activated rosin fluxes are a bit stronger than no-clean, but also typically leave a non-
corrosive and non-conductive residue. These fluxes vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, so
be sure to read the directions before leaving the residue to sit on a sensitive component. Mildly
activated rosin fluxes also have a high thermal stability, ensuring that preheating does not
degrade its solubility.

Activated Rosin

Activated rosin fluxes are the next step up from the mildly activated rosins. The added power in
the activated rosin can remove oxides that no-clean and mildly activated fluxes cannot. The
residue left from activated rosins may be corrosive, so check out the data sheet or talk to the
manufacturer to see if your particular flux needs to be cleaned off the board after soldering.

Inorganic Acid

Inorganic acid fluxes are also very strong, perfect to help solder difficult metals. This can be
extremely helpful for heavily oxidized metals, or for materials that have a low solderability.
Again, a corrosive residue is left behind, so a hot water or solvent rinse is required to protect
your board.

Water Soluble

These fluxes are made to be easily washed off, especially during wave soldering processes.
Water soluble fluxes are some of the strongest, and will definitely corrode your PCB if left on, so
be sure to thoroughly clean off any residues left behind by this flux.

MECHANICAL FASTENERS

A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together.
In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed
or dismantled without damaging the joining components.[1] Welding is an example of creating
permanent joints. There are three major steel fasteners used in industries: stainless steel, carbon
steel, and alloy steel. The major grade used in stainless steel fasteners: 200 series, 300 series, and
400 series.
fastener is a hardware component used universally for affixing joints with two or more objects
non-permanently. In general fasteners are temporary in nature where they can be fastened or
unfastened repeatedly without causing damage to the piece work. Fastener holds the joints of
fixtures form holding the chairs and tables to automobile parts. Applications of fasteners are very
diverse ranging from daily use items like boxes, envelope where fasteners are used for closing
them to hi- tech gazebos and special purpose closing devices like the bread clip etc. This article
discusses about the different types of fasteners and their applications.

Types of Joints

The head portion of the fastener is available in different sizes and shapes based on the area of
application of the fastener. Here are the commonly used materials in making a fastener

 Carbon steel, Alloy Steel, Inconel Stainless steel, Stainless Steel are the most commonly
used material for fasteners.
 Titanium: it is used in manufacturing fasteners that are used in air crafts
 Aluminium: It is manufacturing fasteners which find its application in fastening light load
or where reduction in weight load is quintessential.

Coatings

Fasteners also vary accordingly with the kind of coating provided to the fasteners which
enhances the performance attributes of the fastener. The key objective of coating a fastener is to
enhance property of corrosion resistance in the fasteners. Some of the widely used coatings in
fasteners are:

 Zinc  plating
 Phosphate plating
  Chromium plating
 Cadmium plating which is ideal for applications in aerospace industry
 Black oxidising
 Silver plating
 Nickel plating

Fastener – Types

1.  Nails

One of the easiest fasteners used to affix pieces of wood intact

2.  Screws

Screws are stronger than nails wherein ease of removing these fasteners is good. Hence, screws
are one of the excellent ways of fastening.

3.  Bolts

Bolts come with components like nuts and washers (being a support) enable better bonding while
the objects are fastened

4.  Clamps

Clamps are the best fasteners available for fastening objects only for a limited period of time
without causing damage to the object while it is unfastened.

5.  Tapping screws

These are fasteners that enable quick installation which create a mating thread when fastened
into a performed hole of the object. This process is known as thread forming. The installation is
quick tapping screws does not employ buts for fastening.

6.  Set Screws

Set screws are used hold intact pulleys, collars, gears with a shaft. This semi – permanent
fasteners are available in various heads and points styles.

7.  Studs

Studs are headless fasteners which are threaded externally. In this, one end of the fastener
connects with a tapped part while the other end meets with a standard nut. The forms of bolt and
screw heads vary with the usage of the fastener. Some of the different forms in terms of shape
include:

 Bolt Heads – square, eye-shaped, hexagonal etc.,

 Screw heads – Fillister, button head, counter sunk, hexagonal, Phillips type etc
 ANVIL

An anvil is a metalworking tool consisting of large block of metal (usually forged or cast
steel), with a flattened top surface, upon which another object is struck (or "worked").

SHEET METAL WORK

Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. Sheet metal is one of
the fundamental forms used in metalworking and it can be cut and bent into a variety of shapes.
Countless everyday objects are fabricated from sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary significantly;
extremely thin sheets are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are
considered plate.

Types of materials used in sheet metal fabrication

Speaking of material,sheet metal fabrication mainly applies sheets including

SPCC,SHCC,SECC,SGCC,copper plates,aluminum plate(6061,6063,5052,1020,etc),aluminum
extrusion and stainless steel.
Different materials with different specifications as follows,

1.Steel plate cold-rolled(SPCC).Mainly used for part need painted or electro-plating,cheap and
easy to work,thickness usually no more than 3.2mm;

2.Hot rolled steel(SHCC).T≥3.0mm,treated with spraying or electro plating as SPCC,and

cheap,but difficult to work,mainly for flat parts;

3.Electro or Galvanized steel (SECC/SGCC).SECC includes N and P type,the former is usually

with no surface treatment,high cost,while the latter mainly for spraying parts;
4.Copper plate.Mainly aplied for eletricity conducting function,surface treated with chrome or
nickle plating,or without any finish,the cost is a little high;

5.Aluminum plate.Usually treated with chromate ,anodize(conductive anodizing or chemical

anodizing),silver or nickle plating cost is high;

6.Aluminum extrusion.Aluminum extrusion are with complex structure from side view,is widely
applied in different kinds of electronic equipments,its surface can be treated as what aluminum
plates do;

7.Stainless steel sheet.Always with no any surface treatments ,high cost .

Introduction to sheet metal work

Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms
used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless
everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary significantly, although
extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are
considered plate.

2. Sheet metal processing

The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the output of the rolling process.
Typically, sheets of metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of standard size. If the sheets are thin
and very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore the first step in any sheet metal process is
to cut the correct shape and sized ‘blank’ from larger sheet.

3. Sheet metal forming processes

Sheet metal processes can be broken down into two major classifications and one minor
classification

 Shearing processes -- processes which apply shearing forces to cut, fracture, or separate
the material. 
 Forming processes -- processes which cause the metal to undergo desired shape changes
without failure, excessive thinning, or cracking. This includes bending and stretching. 
  Finishing processes -- processes which are used to improve the final surface
characteristics.
3.1 Shearing Process

1. Punching: shearing process using a die and punch where the interior portion of the sheared
sheet is to be discarded.
2. Blanking: shearing process using a die and punch where the exterior portion of the
shearing operation is to be discarded.
3. Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet
4. Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces
5. Notching: removing pieces from the edges
6. Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material

Fig.1Shearing Operations: Punching, Blanking and Perforating

3.2 Forming Processes

 Bending: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by
bending without failure. Ref fig.2 & 2a
 Stretching: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change
by stretching without failure. Ref fig.3
 Drawing: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change by
drawing without failure. Ref fig.4
 Roll forming: Roll forming is a process by which a metal strip is progressively bent as it
passes through a series of forming rolls. Ref fig.5
Fig.2 Common Die-Bending Operations

Fig.2a Various Bending Operations

Fig.3 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process.

Fig.4 Schematic of the Drawing process.

 Fig.5 Eight-roll sequence for the roll forming of a box channel

3.3 Finishing processes

Material properties, geometry of the starting material, and the geometry of the desired final
product play important roles in determining the best process

4. Equipments

Basic sheet forming operations involve a press, punch, or ram and a set of dies

4.1 Presses

 Mechanical Press - The ram is actuated using a flywheel. Stroke motion is not uniform.
Ref fig.6
 Hydraulic Press - Longer strokes than mechanical presses, and develop full force
throughout the stroke. Stroke motion is of uniform speed, especially adapted to deep
drawing operations. Ref fig.7

Fig.6 Mechanical Press

 Fig.7 Hydraulic Press

4.2 Dies and Punches

 Simple- single operation with a single stroke

 Compound- two operations with a single stroke
 Combination- two operations at two stations
 Progressive- two or more operations at two or more stations with each press stroke,
creates what is called a strip development

Fig 8 Progressive dies Punches

5. Tools and Accessories

The various operations such as cutting, shearing, bending, folding etc. are performed
by these tools.

5.1 Marking and measuring tools

 Steel Rule - It is used to set out dimensions.
 Try Square - Try square is used for making and testing angles of 90degree
 Scriber – It used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces.
 Divider - This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular lines, bisecting
lines, etc

Fig.9 Marking and measuring tools

5.2 Cutting Tools

 Straight snip - They have straight jaws and used for straight line cutting. Ref fig.10
  Curved snip - They have curved blades for making circular cuts. Ref fig.10a

Ref fig.10 Straight snip

Ref Fig.10a Curved Snip

6. Striking Tools

 Mallet - It is wooden-headed hammer of round or rectangular cross section. The

striking face is made flat to the work. A mallet is used to give light blows to the
Sheet metal in bending and finishing. Ref fig.11
 Fig.11 Types of Mallets

1. Merits
 High strength
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Relatively low cost
2. Demerits
 Wrinkling and tearing are typical limits to drawing operations
 Different techniques can be used to overcome these limitations
o Draw beads
o Vertical projections and matching grooves in the die and blank holder
 Trimming may be used to reach final dimensions
3. Applications
 Roofings
 Ductings
 Vehicles body buildings like 3 wheelers, 4 wheelers, ships, aircrafts etc.
 Furnitures, House hold articles and Railway equipment
4. Questions:
Part A

1. What is sheet metal work?

2. Write down any four sheet metal characteristics
3. What is meant by clearance?
4. What is stretching?
5. Define the term “spring back”
6. How force exerted on the form block is calculated
7. What are the formability test methods?
8. What is super plasticity of metals?
9. What is metal spinning process?
10. What is sheet metal?
Part B

1. What are Punching, Nibbling, Blanking, Piercing, tools/machines are needed for these
processes?
2. What is deep drawing? Provide a few examples of products/parts made using deep
drawing operations.
3. What is progressive die stamping?
4. Describe shearing operations in a sheet metal work with a neat sketch
5. Describe various types of bending operations with its neat sketches
6. Explain any one method of stretch forming operation with a neat sketch
7. Explain hydro forming process with its neat sketches. State their advantage and
applications
8. Explain the power spinning process with a neat sketch .give their applications
9. How magnetic pulse forming process is carried out on sheet metal?Explain peen forming
process with a neat sketch
10. What is super plastic of metal? How this process is carried out on sheet metals?

How to Make a Sheet Metal Box

1) first you want to make an expanded template for your box out of cardboard, paper, etc. ( a flat
version of your box. I have a graph paper drawing in the pics below, but its not for this box)
2) trace your template on to your piece of sheet metal, as pictured ( I suggest 20-22 gauge steel)
3) cut your piece into the same shape as template. use the corner notcher to cut out any right
angles, but be sure to line it up exactly on your lines. Use the beverly shears to cut off the small
corners.
4)you are now ready to start bending with the finger brake
5) after you finish bending all the sides up, use a spot welder to hold all the sides in place( you
can also use rivets if you dont have a spot welder, but it takes longer).

VERNIER CALIPER

The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and external
distances extremely accurately.
MATHEMATICAL METHOD
A. The main metric scale is read first and this shows that there are 13 whole divisions before the 0 on the hundre
Therefore, the first number is 13.
B. The’ hundredths of mm’ scale is then read. The best way to do this is to count the number of divisions until yo
division that lines up with the main metric scale. This is 21 divisions on the hundredths scale.
C. This 21 is multiplied by 0.02 giving 0.42 as the answer (each division on the hundredths scale is equivalent to
D. The 13 and the 0.42 are added together to give the final measurement of 13.42mm (the diameter of the piece o
section steel)

COMMONSENSE METHOD
Alternatively, it is just as easy to read the 13 on the main scale and 42 on the hundredths scale. The correc
measurement being 13.42mm.
   

   
EXAMPLE 2: (To zoom in to see the scale - right click mouse and select zoom)  

   
 
   

ANSWER:
 
 
 
 

   

ANSWER:
 
 
 
 

   

ANSWER:
 
 
 
 
The micrometer screw gauge

The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure even smaller dimensions than the vernier
callipers. The micrometer screw gauge also uses an auxiliary scale (measuring hundredths of a
millimetre) which is marked on a rotary thimble. Basically it is a screw with an accurately
constant pitch (the amount by which the thimble moves forward or backward for one complete
revolution).  The micrometers in our laboratory have a pitch of 0.50 mm (two full turns are
required to close the jaws by 1.00 mm).  The rotating thimble is subdivided into 50 equal
divisions.  The thimble passes through a frame that carries a millimetre scale graduated to 0.5
mm.  The jaws can be adjusted by rotating the thimble using the small ratchet knob.  This
includes a friction clutch which prevents too much tension being applied.  The thimble must be
rotated through two revolutions to open the jaws by 1 mm.
A micrometer reading contains two parts:

 the first part is contributed by the main scale on the sleeve

 the second part is contributed by the rotating vernier scale on the thimble

The above image shows a typical micrometer screw gauge and how to read it. Steps:
 To obtain the first part of the measurement: Look at the image above, you will see a
number 5 to the immediate left of the thimble. This means 5.0 mm. Notice that there is an
extra line below the datum line, this represents an additional 0.5 mm. So the first part of
the measurement is 5.0+0.5=5.5mm.
 To obtain the second part of the measurement: Look at the image above, the number 28
on the rotating vernier scale coincides with the datum line on the sleeve. Hence, 0.28 mm
is the second part of the measurement.You just have to add the first part and second part
of the measurement to obtain the micrometer reading: 5.5+0.28=5.78mm.