TERM PROJECT

ELE-102

Topic: FUNCTION OF CRO (CATHOD RAY OSCIILOSCOPE) & APPLICATION OF FUNCTION GENERATOR.

D.O.S 23/11/2009

Submitted to:

ARVIND CHANDAN

Submitted by: Mr. Manmohan Singh Bharij Roll. No. RB4802A21 Section.B4802 Reg.No. 10807737 Class B.Tech (ME) 152

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As with reference to our project we went through a great experience. We seemed to get much more knowledge about our field. We were just to suppose to complete term project but as we got start up we got very much engaged in the deeper prospects. We mostly understood every line of the given project.

We receipt great favour from our subject teachers. We got very much instructed by them about the term project. As I worked in the topic, I Hope that the reader of my term project will understand the hard word. The project is very simple and understandable to every reader

I tried my best to review every topic of the project. I might have left any topic so I request the reader to suggest if any change required..

CONTENT

PAGE NO.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

WHAT DOES AN OSCILLOSCOPE DO?

HOW DOES AN OSCILLOSCOPE WORK?

APPLICATION OF CRO

FUNCTION GENERATOR

EXPLANATION OF FUNTION GENERATOR

APPLICATION OF FUNCTION GENERATOR

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

A cathode ray oscilloscope (often called a CRO) is an instrument which can be used to measure voltages and/or frequencies of electrical signals. It is widely used in scientific measurement and research.

Alternating Voltage plotted against Oscilloscopes are have a display screen, andA panel of a grid is drawn on the screen of a CRO to help control knobs and input sockets. with measurement. The signal to be measured squareto the grid is known as a division. Each is fed of one of the input connectors, using a coaxial cable, or a 'scope probe'

WHAT DOES AN OSCILLOSCOPE DO?

Because so many physical quantities can be converted to a voltage, a CRO can be used to display and measure such diverse quantities as temperature, sound, velocity and light intensity. It does so by plotting a two-dimensional graph of the voltage of one or more electrical signals (vertical axis) plotted usually as a function of time (horizontal axis).

An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits because it allows you to see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way of investigating an electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and output of each system block, checking that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next. With a little practice, you will be able to find and correct faults quickly and accurately.

HOW DOES AN OSCILLOSCOPE WORK?

An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block diagram shown below:

Like a televison screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube. Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is a vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the tube is accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a bright spot on the phosphorescent screen. The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates fixed in the tube. The horizontal deflection plates, or X-plates produce side to side movement. As you can see, they are linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a sawtooth waveform. During the rising phase of the sawtooth, the spot is driven at a uniform rate from left to right across the front of the screen. During the falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly from right or left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing appears on the screen. In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph. The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the sawtooth and can be adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds, milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, s/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or s/cm. The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In the AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path. As will be explained in Chapter 5, the capacitor blocks DC signals but allows AC signals to pass.

The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Yplates so that it provides the Y-axis of the the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV control, so that the resulting display is neither too small or too large, but fits the screen and can be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV. The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section of the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of this is to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure and interpret the signal. Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is possible using the XPOS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the normal trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective display of signals like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative values.

APPLICATION OF CRO
1.Electricians use them to view signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences (vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or of some other voltage (horizontal axis). 2. Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, telecommunications, and industry. 3. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analyzing an automotive ignition system, or to display the waveform of the heartbeat

4. One of the most frequent uses of scopes is troubleshooting malfunctioning electronic equipment. One of the advantages of a scope is that it can graphically show signals: where a voltmeter may show a totally unexpected voltage, a scope may reveal that the circuit is oscillating. In other cases the precise shape of a pulse is important. In a piece of electronic equipment, for example, the connections between stages (e.g. electronic mixers, electronic oscillators, amplifiers) may be 'probed' for the expected signal, using the scope as a simple signal tracer. If the expected signal is absent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics is not operating correctly. Since most failures occur because of a single faulty component, each measurement can prove that half of the stages of a complex piece of equipment either work, or probably did not cause the fault.

Sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth waveforms.

A DDS function generator.

5. Once the faulty stage is found, further probing can usually tell a skilled technician exactly which component has failed. Once the component is replaced, the unit can be restored to service, or at least the next fault can be isolated. A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive, or single-shot in which case some kind of triggering source is required (internal or external). Another type of function generator is a sub-system that provides an output proportional to some mathematical function of its input; for example, the output may be proportional to the square root of the input. Such devices are used in feedback control systems and in analog computers.

6. Another use is to check newly designed circuitry. Very often a newly designed circuit will misbehave because of design errors, bad voltage levels, electrical noise etc. Digital electronics usually operate from a clock, so a dual-trace scope which shows both the clock signal and a test signal dependent upon the clock is useful. "Storage scopes" are helpful for "capturing" rare electronic events that cause defective operation.

7. Another use is for software engineers who must program electronics. Often a scope is the only way to see if the software is running the electronics properly.

EXPLANATION OF FUNTION GENERATOR

Analog function generators usually generate a triangle waveform as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor is being charged or

FUNCTION GENERATOR

discharged, which is reflected in the current switching comparator's output. Most function generators also contain a non-linear diode shaping circuit that can convert the triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine wave. It does so by rounding off the hard corners of the triangle wave in a process similar to clipping in audio systems. The type of output connector from the device depends on the frequency range of the generator. A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz and uses a BNC connector, usually requiring a 50 or 75 ohm termination. Specialised RF generators are capable of gigahertz frequencies and typically use N-type output connectors. Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator, various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a given electronic circuit. Some function generators can also generate white or pink noise. More advanced function generators use Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) to generate waveforms. Arbitrary waveform generators use DDS to generate any waveform that can be described by a table of amplitude values.

2. Same as previous, but starting from the last subsystem and working backwards.

3. Measuring the ESR of a capacitor in circuit (can use an AC voltmeter instead of the scope).

4.

Time domain reflectometry. I show scope traces of reflected pulses in a network cable.

5.

Response testing by sweeping.

6. Response testing using square waves, pulses, and noise.

7. How to use a power supply to change the DC offset of a function generator.

APPLICATION OF FUNCTION GENERATOR

1. Troubleshooting: identifying a bad subsystem in a system by injecting a signal into the first subsystem and checking its output, moving to the next subsystem and repeating.

REFERENCES WIKIPEDIA.COM GOOGLE.COM HUGES J.B GUPTA WWW.LAMBDA-CRO.COM WWW.BRITANNICA.COM/EBCHECKED/ TOPIC/99765/CATHODE-RAYOSCILLOSCOPE WWW.PHYSICS.SC.EDU/~HOSKINS/DEMOS/CATHODERAY CRO.ORG/

1.