CE OES'’”SCS~S~S lh Multistage Amplifiers ygy 40 ela td borer 1 10 81 110 foo tt, —> fy —> Fig. 10.20 Plot of gain versus frequency for an RC coupled amplifier Gain bandwidth product Gain bandwidth product for the current gain is given by . Re VAinful = hie Roe R, (10.25) | Similarly, the gain bandwidth product for the voltage gain is given by ' Nye 1 \Avnfil =F Rea Cage Bm Re ~ 2 € dig (10.26) EXAMPLE 10.2 \ CE, RC coupled amplifier uses transistors with the following h-parameter 4, = 30 x 10° mhos, hi, x 10+. The value of g,, at the operating poi restr R, between Voc and base is 100 kG and Ry between base and ground is 10 KO. ‘he load resistor in the input circuit and the coupling capacitor R, =5kQ. Let C= 160 pF be the total shunt capacitan (= 6 uF. Calculate for one stage of the amplifier (a) mi (c)lover and higher 3 dB frequencies and (4) gain-bandwidth product. hm 1 _ 10° Soluticn = = 33.33 kQ ution R =F 39 7 383 b Ry = R, Ry = 100 * 10° |] 10x 10° = 9.1 Ka b R, = hi, = 1.2kQ i Re = Rell Ro ‘ = 5 x 10° |] 33.33 x 10° = 4.35 KO ‘ Ri = Rall B f 29,1 108.2 «= EO - »398 Electronic Devices and Cirevits RAR 4.35 x 108 If Le x10? = 0.87 kK (a) Mid-band current gain, RAR, 50x 4.35 x 10" * 48x 10+ 11x10" = 399 (>) Mid-band voltage gain, Ru Aim = Me 0.87 « 10° = 36.25 OT 10" (©) Lower 3 dB frequency. 1 f= 2nCo(Ret RD = 1 = = 4.87 Hz © aX 6x 10(4.35 x 10° + LL x 105) Higher 3 dB frequency, 1 In TEC, 1 = 995.2 kHz * ex 160% 10 xT mI (d) Voltage gain x bandwidth lAvnful 36.25 x 995.2 x 10° = 36.07 MHz 20.6 TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER Figure 10.21 shows the circuit diagram of a multistage transformer coupled amplifier, A current so J, with shunt resistance R, drives the amplifier through the input transformer 7'R,. The load resistor! ‘connected to the output circuit of the second amplifier stage through transformer TR; pled amplifier may be used inthe following three ws ) as output stay fing the load impedance, ‘age to another may be m, ance of one stage to the in, Thetransformercou by a microphone, (iy @asinputstageusualy and (iii) as intermediate stage ude more effective by the use Put impedance of the next. The coupling of one st ers to mah? the output imped: of transformers (01 This impedance miMutustage Amplifiers 399 I — w—4 > svat t Lasso "| ‘ Fig.20 22 Multistage transformer coupled amplifier resulls in increased power gain, Further, this method of coupling isolates the load impedance circuit of the amplifier from d.c, bias stabilisation network of the next stage, However, for good results, it baoniesnecessary to shield the transformer against noise, hum and unwanted signal pickups, In the | capacitors C, and Cy permit complete input power to flow into the base circuit. Given the load resistor ,. the circuit can be analysed starting at the right obtaining R,, by taking into account the turns ratio of the output transformer T'R3. This will be the load for transistor OQ, and hould be ideally equal to the output resistance of Q, for a maximum power transfer, New the input resistance of Qs equal to R (= Hi.) Would permit the determination of the load across. the interstage transformer TR), if the turns ratio of TR, were known. This would be the effective load Ry for Q, Finally. the input resistance R,; to Q, (= h.,,) would allow the selection of driver transformer TR,, based 8 the knowledge of source resistance Ry. In general, transformers are not selected for their turns ratio, ut lor the impedances they are to match and their power handling capacity. However, these impedances J permit the determination of turns ratio for ealeulating current gain and voltage gain by Analysis The analysis of a transformer coupled amplifier may be done as in the case of RC coupled amplifier. Thus the entire frequency range may be divided into three frequency regions.GOO Electronic Devices and Circuits Middle frequency range The selection of transformer TR, for the stage encloseq in Fig | Ha the current gain of the stage 4, ih 7, fe done. Assuming that all capacitor reactances are ge F ny approximate equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 10.22 may be used. fo he x . . Ni, ets a Toad impedance on the secondary, into the primar, A transformer of turns ratio an toa value of J athe equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Fig, 10.23 Yon ne é Fig. 10.23, Simplified equivalent circuit ofa transformer coupled amplifier Thus @, has an effective load equal to 2 Lites ) {ig and since its output impedance is equal 7+" wo impedances should be equal for maximum power transfer, ie. n (02Multistage Amplifiers 40a tues of h-paarameters tora BIT atre fig) = digg = 12 RQ yey = 60, fgg = 25% 10° mho. prota . ' Hee Ns Viooos2sx 10" Ny =S8N pros PRs isa step down teanstormter having a primary to secondary turns ratio of 5.8 0d secondary, Uso kaa the transformer would be specified as matching 40 KO primary toa 1 RS also taken into «the output impedance of Q, is closer to SO KQ, if the source resistance Ry i sount id-frequency stage’ current gain, A; To detern c the current gain, assume J, flowing into By Fryer bot for matched conditions. Sinee former primary will be gshown’ The current through the trans g.is a voltage step-down transformer, the current on the secondary will berstepped up by the ra NN Ny Aver doe nd the expression for mid-frequency current gain is, Tes (10.28) s the gain evaluated for RC coupled amplifier. This is because The current gain is several times as larg ‘ors and base input. All the collector ‘s no current division between loud resistance, biasing re magnified by the transformer turns ratio is the base input current to the next stage. . if TR, matches load resistance Ths expression for current gain may also be used for the second stage Ion the current gain" will be g 2 to output resistance of Qs. Similarly Mid frequency stage voltage gain, Ay From Fig. 10.23, (10.29) Substitining (10.30) Substituting Eqn. (10.30) in Eqn. (10.29), Met mn (Mil Va =p \N,) Me :40 Electronic Devices and Circuts ff As wl ‘ is ’ a (ny . i If identical transistors are used with hie = hier f N, bye . AND (sy which is the same expression as for the current gain, Thus Ay = 145. Note that a large volta \ results in spite of the presence of a step down transformer. This is because the Jransistor is Works ° into a much higher effective load resistance than in RC coupled amplifier resulting in large votay «|. between base and collector. F For the matched conditions, stage power gain A, = Ay * A, = 145°= 21025. } Hence 4, in dB = 10 logyg 21025 = 43 dB. Thus, fewer stages would be necessary to provide ring power gain if transformer coupling were used instead of RC coupling. However, this must be baling: | by the cost of transformers (often more expensive than transistors) and the effect of transformene| the frequency response. ' Low frequency response A more accurate equivalent circuit of a transformer coupled amplifiers low frequencies includes the primary inductance Lp so that the load reflected from the secondary 1: the primary is shunted by Lp as shown in Fig. 10.24 Q, &, Fig. 10.24 Equivalent circuit of transformer coupled amplifier in the low frequency region ib! At lower frequencies, the shunting eflect of Lp will reduce the effective load for transistor 21 reduction in V, and voltage gain,- Multistage Amplifiers 403 NY sents the parallel combination of and ( C4} fst lower dB frequeney fp il eur wR enn’ _ Doo Ny rahe oactance oF Ep = as Dalbp=R . (10.33) (10.34) where por the example under consideration, R= 40 kQ || 40 kQ = 20 kQ. To obtain lower 3 dB frequency "50 Hz, a transformer whose primary inductance given by R 20.000 Lp=s aul 2af, eX 150 21.2 His required er inductance yalues of inductance available ina transformer range from 0.6 mH to 150 F, with the fa spoiously involving a bulkier transformer and more cost je Ris reduced, the necessary value of /p is also reduced (or f; is reduced for a given value of £,,), but tvs will destroy the maximum power transfer condition resulting in decrease in Ap. High frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier ‘The shunting effect of the sformer’s primary inductance fp at mid-to-high frequencies is negligible but the series leakage ,juctances and distributed capacitances in both primary and secondary now become significant These are included in the high frequency equivalent circuit for a transformer coupled amplifier shown in Fig. 10.25, “OY Fig. 10.25 High frequency equivalent circuit of a transformer coupled amplifier Sinee the high frequency capability of the amplifier will normally be limited by the transformer’s characteristics and not by that of the transistor, the transistor can be represented by its approximate iow frequency model. Thus, V, and X, represent cither the input source or the equivalent output from the previous Uansistor. A, may be the output load or the input to the next stage. When the resistance, ‘nductanee and capacitance on the secondary side are reflected into the primary My EN it Lis) and ¢ ole) 6 The simplified equivalent circuit shown in Fig, 10.26 is obtained with L404 Electronic Devices and Cicuits “A) L_ Fig,10.26 Smif equaen cut of tansfomer coupled aif m bok frequen egy ig. 10.26 Simpifi The circuit will have series resonant effet at high Hrequencies but because of R.. the overall Q of the circuit will be low in the region of “| . ‘nal Pronounced but the cesonant frequency /, where X= X,) will give an indi frequency /,,. Thatis why /jpis usually some what higher than fo which is given by of the usually i the resonant eff,” ication Of the upp, I, ely , The sariation of the amplifier's voltage gain with frequency is shown in Fig. 10.37 for different values of Q. Voltage gain Ay Ay) For cumple. ff Ly = 02 H and C= 500 pF. J, = 16 kHz and fy will be in this neighbourhood, with its precise value . depending upon the Q of the circuit, Fig, 20, i= t "27 Frequency response ofa transformer coupesen 207 _DIRECT COUPLED (d.c.) AMPLIFIERS In the fietd with time {of instrumentation and power supplies, © Process these signals, circui there are many signals that change v flat down to dc. This ils must be employed whose fre quency response is Prevents the use of the interstage coupling elem: ‘reformers. as these componentsattenuate There are two with ume One signal en of those of other cir evels of each stage are compatible “ample, consider the identical = Ver = DY, He therefore biased at v, the collector of 2) and the bas V between © of,Multistage Amplifiers 405 r Vanv? sy a fYont9¥ Fe wa Fig. 10.28 Two identical amplifier stages For ac. operation, a capacitor is connected between the collector of Q, and the base of Q, as shown in Fig 10.29. By this method, the a.c, signal is coupled from Q, to Q;, but the capacitor charges to 3.V dic so that Vey isstill at $ V and Vqp is still at 2 V. The d.c. levels of both the stages remain independent of the other: Vog= 15V) Fee 5ve— @ } 15V Fe Re Fig. 10.29 Two amplifier stages coupled by a capacitor 1 be directly connected For dc, operation, the capacitor is to be omitted but the collector of Q) eat to the base of Q» unless the voltages al these points are the same. One possible solution is to leave the first stage as its but lift the second stage by 3 V relative to ground So that Vs, Vig and Vey are all 3 V higher (han they were earlier, This may be accomplished by connecting a3 V battery in series with Ay» and using a 18 V supply for Voc as shown in Fig. 10.30.406 In the eireuit of Fig. 10,30, Mp connection of the two points dit by the same therefore MOUNT Jos the operating The above arr: nd bev 3.V battery ¢ n be rep correspondingly Ia increased ney must be larger than V impractically large A circuit arr; transistors Operating al exactly the Junction and 5 V reverse bias ‘one external supply is needed An additional problem peculiar to dc temperature or power supply fuciuatio there is nothing to bloc The dc. input volt Both the offset volt ‘Mectronic Devices and Cucults Liye —— < = - —_ < ey o | Fig. 20.30 A two stage d.c, amplifier es MOL alt point is uncl angement has a number se of the 3 V battery in series with Ry, ed by a ger. This would increase the Hive feedback, Further, as V, ‘ce Hence for a multistage amplify ment that solves the above re cascaded and the de. volt pe Point. kde. ‘ape required to bring measure of performance of de known as offset curren, J amp oy. might fe and current Fequire @ potentiometer adjustineny the values of Ey. and 4, also be applied here fos and the ex 5 Vand clly to e any of the potential differences, ie, V, across cach collector-b; aand these chang = 8 V. This causes Vey to be equal toy, ch other, Increasing, the hd collec m= 0.5 Vand Vv. ‘2 Shab OF Vol HV ay mise, eMILLer rained obvious disadvantages. As Vee, and V, total of three different suppl 5V zener diode or it could be simply elimin snp Tesistunee 10 Qs and lower the gain becaean ea mus be larger than Vee, if a third slage is add Yen ler the required d.c, voltage supplics igh | | 02 ME NOL he gy, | ies are require! 1, led and Ry, na problem is shown in Fig, 10, ges are so adjusted that each In this circuit, there isi 0.3 V forwa 1, Here, alternate potan | of the three tr | bias across each base-mits mse Junction. Further, it is Lo be noted thi oth | silo } ampliliers is that small changes in the operating point de | ns as Well as aging of circuit Components are also ampliiels | “Ppearin the amplified form across the output | the output voltage ba fiers and is called volta be required to bring fend Lo vary with tim -k Lo its original level (no signal tes ine offset V,,., Similarly, adc inp the output current back lo its oFigit perl? ne and temperature, dc. umpire for cancelling such offyety Phe manufacturer also usuillly nf e "i wes Pecied drift with time und temperatane Stabilising techai!Multistage Amplifiers 407 Fig. 10.31 three stage d.c. amplifier 10.8 DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER Spular connection of two bipolar junction transistors for operation as one tion, which is shown in Fig. 10.32. The main feature of the Darlington unit with a current gain that is the product of rransistors oe “superbeta” sris the Darlington connec! ae vo is that the composite transistor acts as a single rae gains of the individual transistors, If the connection is made using two separate 0

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