G7 Report Biodiversity Finance and The Economic and Business Case For Action

Biodiversity: Finance
and the Economic and

Business Case for Action
A report prepared by the OECD for the French G7 Presidency
and the G7 Environment Ministers’ Meeting, 5-6 May 2019
OECD . c
Biodiversity: Finance and the Economic
and Business Case for Action
Report
__________________________
Prepared by the OECD for the French G7 Presidency

and the G7 Environment Ministers’ Meeting,
5-6 May 2019
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This report is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and the
arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries.
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For Israel, change is measured between 1997-99 and 2009-11. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under
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Please cite this publication as:
OECD (2019), Biodiversity: Finance and the Economic and Business Case for Action, report prepared for the G7
Environment Ministers’ Meeting, 5-6 May 2019.
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© OECD 2019
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Table of Contents
Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................................... 7

Executive Summary .............................................................................................................................. 9
1. SYNTHESIS AND KEY MESSAGES........................................................................................... 11
1.1. Global biodiversity loss and the international context ................................................................ 11
1.2. The socio-economic case for action ............................................................................................ 12
1.3. The business case for action ....................................................................................................... 12
1.4. Opportunities for cost-effective restoration ................................................................................ 14
1.5. Data and indicator gaps on pressures and responses relevant to biodiversity ............................. 14
1.6. Global biodiversity finance: A preliminary update..................................................................... 15
1.7. Opportunities to scale up action for biodiversity ........................................................................ 16
2. GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY LOSS AND THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT ..................... 19
2.1. Biodiversity picture and the international context ...................................................................... 19
2.2. Threats and pressures on biodiversity ......................................................................................... 20
2.3. State of terrestrial, marine and other aquatic biodiversity .......................................................... 22
Trends in species and populations ........................................................................................ 22
Trends in the extent and state of ecosystems........................................................................ 23
3. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CASE FOR BIODIVERSITY ACTION ........................................ 26
3.1. Biodiversity and ecosystem services: the foundation of economic development and human
well-being .......................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2. The economic values of biodiversity and costs of inaction across multiple policy areas ........... 28
Biodiversity and human health ............................................................................................. 28
Biodiversity and food ........................................................................................................... 29
Biodiversity and water security ............................................................................................ 30
Biodiversity, climate change and disaster risk ..................................................................... 31
3.3. Reflecting the true value of biodiversity in national decision-making ....................................... 33
4. THE BUSINESS CASE FOR BIODIVERSITY ACTION .......................................................... 35
4.1. Business and biodiversity: Dependencies, impacts, costs and risks ........................................... 35
Dependencies, impacts and costs ......................................................................................... 35
Risks ..................................................................................................................................... 37
4.2. Business opportunities for biodiversity and ecosystem services ................................................ 39
4.3. Signs of progress ......................................................................................................................... 40
Increasing awareness from businesses ................................................................................. 40
Emerging business commitments ......................................................................................... 40
Towards a framework for integrating biodiversity in business and investment decision-
making ............................................................................................................................................ 41
4.4. The role of policy makers and other stakeholders in addressing barriers to business actions
for biodiversity................................................................................................................................... 45
BIODIVERSITY: FINANCE AND THE ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS CASE FOR ACTION
5│
Challenges and opportunities for integrating biodiversity in business and investment

decisions ......................................................................................................................................... 45
Policy and regulatory tools to integrate biodiversity in business and investment decisions 46
5. OPPORTUNITIES FOR COST-EFFECTIVE RESTORATION .............................................. 48
5.1. The rationale for ecosystem restoration ...................................................................................... 48
5.2. Opportunities for cost-effective restoration ................................................................................ 49
5.3. Putting restoration into practice .................................................................................................. 50
6. DATA AND INDICATOR GAPS ON PRESSURES AND RESPONSES ................................. 55
6.1. The need to improve data and indicators on biodiversity pressures and responses .................... 55
6.2. The current status of data and indicators to monitor pressures and responses ............................ 56
6.3. A proposal for headline indicators in the post-2020 framework................................................. 58
6.4. Data and indicator gaps ............................................................................................................... 59
Pressures ............................................................................................................................... 59
Responses (i.e. actions) ........................................................................................................ 60
6.5. Addressing data and indicator gaps ............................................................................................ 62
7. GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY FINANCE: A PRELIMINARY UPDATE .................................... 64
7.1. A conceptual framework for biodiversity finance flows............................................................. 64
7.2. Finance flows for biodiversity .................................................................................................... 65
Finance flows as reported to the Convention on Biological Diversity Clearing House
Mechanism ..................................................................................................................................... 65
Finance flows as reported in other data sets ......................................................................... 66
7.3. Overview of estimated finance flows for biodiversity ................................................................ 71
7.4. Potentially environmental harmful finance flows ....................................................................... 72
8. OPPORTUNITIES TO SCALE UP ACTION ON BIODIVERSITY ........................................ 73
8.1. Pursue a robust post-2020 global biodiversity framework with specific, measurable and
quantitative targets ............................................................................................................................. 73
8.2. Mobilise non-state actors through the Sharm El-Sheikh to Kunming Action Agenda for
Nature and People in the lead-up to COP15 in 2020 ........................................................................ 75
8.3. Promote policy coherence to harness synergies and reduce trade-offs for biodiversity ............. 75
8.4. Scale up policy instruments for biodiversity and get the economic incentives right .................. 76
8.5. Scale up and align finance for biodiversity from all sources ...................................................... 77
8.6. Establish consistent and comparable finance reporting and tracking frameworks, across
countries and companies .................................................................................................................... 78
8.7. Reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity ................................................................................... 78
8.8. Facilitate mainstreaming of biodiversity by business and financial organisations ..................... 78
8.9. Assess and communicate socio-economic dependencies and impacts on biodiversity at the
national level ...................................................................................................................................... 80
8.10. Ensure inclusive and equitable transformative change ............................................................. 80
References ............................................................................................................................................ 82
Tables
Table 3.1. Biodiversity and ecosystem service values .......................................................................... 26

Table 3.2. Cost-benefit analysis for Lami Town ................................................................................... 33
Table 4.1. Consumer awareness and understanding of biodiversity in selected G7 countries .............. 38
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Table 4.2. Scale and growth potential of new markets with reduced biodiversity impacts and
dependencies ................................................................................................................................. 40
Table 5.1. National targets for ecosystem restoration in G7 countries .................................................. 52
Table 6.1. Examples of potential sets of indicators for policy responses .............................................. 58
Table 6.2. Examples of possible headline indicators for policy responses ........................................... 59
Table 6.3. Potential dimensions of PAs that can be monitored and current status of data .................... 61
Table 7.1. Domestic expenditure sources and categories reported in the CBD CHM .......................... 66
Table 7.2. Finance mobilised by ten large Payment for Ecosystem Services programmes .................. 69
Table 7.3. Examples of biodiversity-relevant bonds ............................................................................. 70
Table 7.4. Estimated finance flows for biodiversity .............................................................................. 71
Table 7.5. Subsidies to activities with significant environmental footprints are large and costly......... 72
Table 8.1. Policy instruments for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use ................................. 76
Figures
Figure 2.1. Types and examples of ecosystem services ........................................................................ 20

Figure 2.2. Global trends in the state of world marine fish stocks, 1974-2015 ..................................... 21
Figure 2.3. Living Planet Index, 1970-2014.......................................................................................... 23
Figure 2.4. Global and regional trends in natural wetland coverage, 1970-2015 .................................. 24
Figure 6.1. A schematic of the pressure-state-response indicator framework and how it relates to
the theory of change ...................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 6.2. Number and types of primary indicators under the BIP to track progress towards the
Aichi Targets ................................................................................................................................. 57
Figure 6.3. Possible categories of indicators for the post-2020 biodiversity framework ...................... 58
Figure 7.1. An initial conceptual framework for biodiversity finance and other types of incentives
and support .................................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 8.1. Possible elements of a post-2020 biodiversity framework, including headline indicators . 74
Boxes
Box 2.1. Key terms and definitions ....................................................................................................... 19

Box 2.2. Ecosystem thresholds and tipping points ................................................................................ 25
Box 3.1. Valuing ecosystem services .................................................................................................... 28
Box 3.2. The costs of inaction – Insights from the U.S. Fourth National Climate Assessment ............ 32
Box 4.1. The Natural Capital Protocol .................................................................................................. 42
Box 4.2. OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct ..................................... 44
Box 5.1. The Bonn Challenge and the New York Declaration on Forests ............................................ 49
Box 5.2. Examples of ecosystem restoration......................................................................................... 53
Box 6.1. The pressure-state-response model ......................................................................................... 56
Box 8.1. Stronger alignment between post-2020 national and international indicators for
biodiversity through headline indicators ....................................................................................... 74
Box 8.2. Improve reporting and tracking of biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
(i.e. positive incentives) and the revenue they generate ................................................................ 77
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank

AfDB African Development Bank
AUM Assets under management
B@B Business @ Biodiversity
BIOFIN Biodiversity Finance Initiative
BIP Biodiversity Indicators Partnership
CAD Canadian dollar
CalPERS California Public Employees' Retirement System
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CDI Community for data integration
CEO Chief executive officer
CFLR Collaborative Forest Landscape Restoration Program
CHM Clearing House Mechanism
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2e Carbon dioxide equivalent
CoP FINC Community of Practice Financial Institutions and Natural Capital
COP15 15th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
CRS Creditor Reporting System
CSIRO The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
DNB De Nederlandsche Bank
EbA Ecosystem-based adaptation
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
Eco-DRR Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction
EP&L Environmental Profit & Loss
ESG Environmental, social and governance
EU European Union
EUR Euro
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FJD Fijian dollar
FTSE Financial Times Stock Exchange
G7 Group of Seven
GBIF Global biodiversity information facility
GBO Global Biodiversity Outlook
GEF Global Environmental Facility
GHG Greenhouse gas
GLC Global land cover
GLOBIO Global biodiversity model for policy support
ha Hectare
IPBES Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
JPY Japanese Yen
LDN Land Degradation Neutrality
MDB Multilateral development bank
MEA Millennium ecosystem assessment
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCFA Natural Capital Finance Alliance
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NDC Nationally determined contribution

ODA Official development assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OOF Other official flows
PA Protected area
PES Payments for Ecosystem Services
PINE Policy Instruments for the Environment
PSE Producer Support Estimate
PwC PricewaterhouseCoopers
RBC Responsible business conduct
RCP Representative Concentration Pathway
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SEEA System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting
SER Society for Ecological Restoration
SETAC Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
SMART Specific, measurable, ambitious, realistic and time-bound
TCFD Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures
TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
UEBT Union for Ethical BioTrade
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
US United States
USD US dollar
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WHO World Health Organization
9│
Executive Summary
Biodiversity loss is among the top global risks to society. The planet is now facing its sixth
mass extinction, with consequences that will affect all life on Earth, both now and for
millions of years to come. Humans have destroyed or degraded vast areas of the world’s
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. Natural forests declined by 6.5 million
hectares per year between 2010 and 2015 (in total, an area larger than the U.K.), and natural
wetlands declined by 35% between 1970 and 2015. Over 30% of corals are now at risk
from bleaching, and 60% of vertebrate populations have disappeared since 1970. These
striking changes are driven by land-use change, over-exploitation of natural resources,
pollution, invasive alien species and climate change. They are occurring in spite of
international efforts (such as the Convention on Biological Diversity) to conserve and
sustainably use biodiversity.
Human pressures are undermining the biodiversity that underpins all life on land and below
water. Ecosystem services delivered by biodiversity, such as crop pollination, water
purification, flood protection and carbon sequestration, are vital to human well-being.
Globally, these services are worth an estimated USD 125-140 trillion (US dollars) per year,
i.e. more than one and a half times the size of global GDP.
The costs of inaction on biodiversity loss are high. Between 1997 and 2011, the world lost
an estimated USD 4-20 trillion per year in ecosystem services owing to land-cover change
and USD 6-11 trillion per year from land degradation. Action to halt and subsequently
reverse biodiversity loss needs to be scaled up dramatically and urgently. Biodiversity
protection is fundamental to achieving food security, poverty reduction and more inclusive
and equitable development.
There exists a strong business case for scaling up action on biodiversity. Business impacts
and dependencies on biodiversity translate into risks to business and financial
organisations, including ecological risks to operations; liability risks; and regulatory,
reputational, market and financial risks. Acknowledging and measuring these dependencies
and impacts on biodiversity can help businesses and financial organisations manage and
prevent biodiversity-related risks, while harnessing new business opportunities.
The development of a post-2020 global biodiversity framework at the Convention on
Biological Diversity’s (CBD) 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP15) in
Kunming, China, in 2020 presents a crucial opportunity to address this challenge. The
global framework must help bring about the transformative changes in national goals,
policies and actions needed to avert biodiversity loss and achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals.
Given the urgent need for biodiversity action, the focus of the Group of Seven (G7)
Environment Ministers’ Meeting on biodiversity in May 2019 is both timely and welcome.
Biodiversity is increasingly recognised as one of the defining global challenges of our time.
G7 leadership on biodiversity in the run-up to CBD COP15 and beyond is vitally important.
This report supports these efforts by setting the economic and business case for the G7 and
other countries to take urgent and ambitious action to halt and reverse global biodiversity
loss. It presents a preliminary assessment of current biodiversity-related finance flows. It
discusses the key data and indicator gaps to be addressed in order to underpin effective
monitoring of both the pressures on biodiversity and the actions needed and being
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implemented to address them. Finally, it provides recommendations on priorities for

scaling up action on biodiversity.
Action is required on all fronts: by government (national and subnational), the private
sector, civil society and individuals. This report identifies ten priority areas where G7 and
other countries can focus their efforts:
 Pursue and advocate for specific, measurable and ambitious targets in the post-
2020 global biodiversity framework to catalyse national and international
action, including by using a focused set of headline indicators, across the state
of biodiversity, the pressures on biodiversity and the actions needed to address
these pressures and the underlying drivers of biodiversity loss. A clear,
effectively structured and operational post-2020 framework is critical.
 Encourage business, financial organisations and other stakeholders to establish
and share commitments and contributions to biodiversity through the Sharm
El-Sheikh to Kunming Action Agenda for Nature and People, in order to
mobilise action in advance of COP15.
 Promote policy coherence across different sectors and areas to harness
synergies and reduce trade-offs for biodiversity.
 Scale up the suite of policy instruments for biodiversity and get the economic
incentives right to ensure biodiversity is better reflected in producer and
consumer decision-making.
 Scale up and align finance for biodiversity from all sources, public and private.
 Establish consistent and comparable finance tracking and reporting
frameworks across countries and companies.
 Identify, assess and reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity at the national
level, and expand internationally comparable information on those subsidies,
for example, through peer review.
 Create a multi-stakeholder advisory group on biodiversity, business and
finance, to advise on the adoption of a common approach for measuring and
integrating biodiversity in business and investment decisions.
 Assess and communicate socio-economic dependencies and impacts on
biodiversity at relevant geographic scales.
 Ensure inclusive and equitable transformative change, with special attention to
public involvement, to lower-income households and most impacted people.
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1. SYNTHESIS AND KEY MESSAGES
2020 marks a critical juncture for one of the defining global challenges of our time: the loss
of biodiversity and ecosystem services, which underpin nearly all of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Transformative changes are needed to ensure biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use, and the delivery of the ecosystem services upon which
all life depends. This report sets the economic and business case for urgent and ambitious
action to halt and reverse global biodiversity loss. It presents a preliminary assessment of
current biodiversity-related finance flows, and discusses the key data and indicator gaps
that need to be addressed to underpin effective monitoring of both the pressures on
biodiversity and the collective responses currently being implemented.
1.1. Global biodiversity loss and the international context
Biodiversity loss is one of the greatest risks of the 21st century. It undermines human
health and well-being, societal resilience and progress towards the SDGs. It places severe
costs on our economies and makes addressing other global challenges, such as climate
change, much more difficult.
The planet is facing its sixth mass extinction, with the current rate of species extinction
estimated to be as high as 1 000 times the background (pre-human) rate. In addition,
widespread and rapid population declines are affecting even common species that are
fundamental to ecological processes: since 1970, the world has lost 60% of its global
vertebrate population, and more than 40% of insect species are declining rapidly.
Humans have transformed the majority of the world’s ecosystems, destroying,
degrading and fragmenting terrestrial, marine and other aquatic habitats, and undermining
the services they provide. Natural forests declined by 6.5 million hectares per year from
2010 to 2015 (an area greater than the United Kingdom in 5 years), mangroves declined by
20% from 1980 to 2005, and natural wetlands declined by 35% between 1970 and 2015.
Business-as-usual projections are bleak: coral reefs, for example, are projected to decline
by a further 70-90% at a global average warming of 1.5o Celsius above pre-industrial levels,
or by more than 99% if warming reaches 2o Celsius.
Ecosystems are moving closer to critical thresholds and tipping points which, if crossed,
will result in persistent and irreversible (or very costly to reverse) changes to ecosystem
structure, function and service provision, with the potential for profoundly negative
environmental, economic and social consequences.
Key pressures on terrestrial, marine and other aquatic biodiversity include habitat
loss and fragmentation (particularly from agricultural expansion and intensification),
over-exploitation of natural resources (e.g. fish), pollution, invasive alien species and
climate change. The root cause of biodiversity is the growing demand for food, fuel, water
and land, combined with well-documented inefficiencies and resource misallocation in
global production and consumption systems.
The G7 Environment Ministerial Meeting in May 2019 takes place at a crucial time.
Next year marks the end of the 2011-2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (and, therefore,
nearly half of the targets under SDGs 14 and 15). Governments will meet in China to agree
on a post-2020 global biodiversity framework. The new framework will influence national
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goals and policies, and thus our collective ability to stop biodiversity loss and deliver on
the SDGs.
1.2. The socio-economic case for action
The socio-economic case for more ambitious biodiversity action is clear. Thousands of
valuation studies are available at the local, regional and global scales, providing estimates
of the benefits delivered by biodiversity and ecosystem services (e.g. pollination, climate
regulation and water purification). The most comprehensive global estimate suggests that
ecosystem services provide benefits of USD 125-140 trillion (US dollars) per year i.e.
more than one and a half times the size of global GDP.
The costs of inaction on biodiversity loss are high and are anticipated to increase. The
world lost an estimated USD 4-20 trillion per year in ecosystem services from 1997 to
2011, owing to land-cover change and an estimated USD 6-11 trillion per year from land
degradation. Specifically, biodiversity loss can result in reduced crop yields and fish
catches, increased economic losses from flooding and other disasters, and the loss of
potential new sources of medicine (as the majority of drugs used for healthcare and disease
prevention are derived from biodiversity).
Conserving, sustainably using and restoring biodiversity is vital to achieving many
other policy objectives, including human health, climate-change mitigation and
adaptation, disaster risk reduction, and water and food security. The associated economic
values can be considerable: for example, the annual market value of crops dependent on
animal pollination ranges from USD 235 billion to USD 577 billion.
The benefits derived from biodiversity and ecosystem services are considerable, but
are systematically undervalued or unvalued in day-to-day decisions, market prices and
economic accounting. Conventional accounting approaches and measures of economic
performance (such as GDP) provide only a limited picture of an economy’s health, and
generally overlook the costs of ecosystem degradation.
Ongoing efforts to better assess and value biodiversity and ecosystem services, and
integrate these values into decision-making are vital for halting biodiversity loss.
National ecosystem assessments, which map, assess and value ecosystems and their
services in order to inform and influence policy decisions, and natural capital accounting
can support these efforts.
1.3. The business case for action
Business and financial organisations can have adverse impacts on biodiversity and
ecosystem services through their operations, supply chains and investment decisions. The
luxury group Kering, for instance, estimated the 2017 impact of its activities on the
environment (e.g. carbon emissions, air and water pollution, and water consumption) at
EUR 482 million (euros). Valuing of biodiversity impacts by businesses and financial
organisations, however, remains limited.
Business and financial organisations also depend on biodiversity and ecosystems
services for the production of goods and services. Coral reefs alone generate USD 36
billion per year for the global tourism industry. Biodiversity loss can have direct
implications on business operations and value chains, e.g. by increasing input costs.
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Business impacts on biodiversity can result in “responsible business conduct” risks to

society and the environment. Biodiversity impacts and dependencies also create risks
to business and financial organisations. Relevant risks to business and financial
organisations include ecological risks, i.e. operational risks related to biodiversity impacts
and resource dependency, scarcity and quality; liability risks, i.e. risk of legal suits;
regulatory risks; reputational and market risks, linked to stakeholders’ pressures or
preferences changes; and financial risks.
The conservation, sustainable use and restoration of biodiversity can provide
significant business opportunities, including long-term viability of business models; cost
savings and increases in operational efficiency; increased market shares; new business
models, markets, products and services; and better relationships with stakeholders. The
global organic food and beverage market, for instance, is expected to grow 16% per year,
to reach USD 327 billion by 2022.
Businesses’ awareness of and commitment to biodiversity action remain too limited,
despite some forward-thinking companies’ growing awareness of biodiversity. A few
companies have adopted industry-led commitments (e.g. the 2018 French Act4Nature
initiative) and launched various biodiversity initiatives. Financial organisations, on the
other hand, are less engaged for biodiversity than businesses, and much less engaged for
biodiversity than for climate change.
Business and financial organisations need to integrate biodiversity factors across key
dimensions of business and investment decision-making, including strategy;
governance; impact assessment and risk management; due diligence;1 disclosure and
external reporting; industry standards, labels and certification schemes; and
communication. Several accounting approaches are available to help businesses assess and
measure their biodiversity impacts, dependencies and risks.
Policy makers, businesses, financial institutions and civil society need to co-operate to
strengthen the business case for biodiversity and ecosystem services. Policy makers
could notably:
 require business and financial organisations to publish long-term plans
factoring in the assessment and management of biodiversity;
 mainstream quantitative biodiversity assessments in reporting
requirements (e.g. the EU Non-Financial Reporting Directive and its
guidelines), impact assessments and risk-management tools;
 set policies promoting improved due diligence for responsible business
conduct (e.g. France’s 2017 Duty of Vigilance Law), drawing on OECD Due
Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct;
 raise awareness among financial regulators of the systemic implications of
biodiversity factors, which do not only have local impacts;
 encourage businesses, financial organisations and other stakeholders to
make and share commitments and contributions to biodiversity through the
Sharm El-Sheikh to Kunming Action Agenda for Nature and People, in order
to mobilise action in advance of COP15.
1
A due-diligence approach can help businesses identify and prioritise action to avoid or mitigate adverse impacts on
biodiversity.
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1.4. Opportunities for cost-effective restoration
The opportunities for restoration are vast. Globally, up to 6 billion hectares of land
are degraded (i.e. 20 times the size of France). Ecosystem restoration can bring species
back from the brink of extinction, reverse the trends in ecosystem decline and help
overcome major societal challenges, such as climate change, disaster risk and achieving
inclusive economic growth.
Restoration can deliver multiple benefits. Restored mangroves, for example, can protect
society from storms, hurricanes and coastal erosion, sequester carbon, provide a nursery
ground for fish, offer a source of fuel and support ecotourism. Recognising the multiple
benefits of ecosystem restoration, governments and businesses have committed to this goal
through several high-level global initiatives (e.g. the Bonn Challenge) and international
agreements (e.g. SDG 15 and Land Degradation Neutrality under the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification).
The benefits of restoration can far exceed the costs, particularly for inland and coastal
wetlands, grasslands and forests. For example, achieving the Bonn Challenge target of
restoring 46% of the world’s degraded forests could provide USD 7-30 in benefits for every
dollar spent. The net benefits depend on the objectives, degree of degradation, and
ecosystem type and location, as well as the opportunity costs. In general, preventing the
degradation and loss of an ecosystem is more cost-effective than restoring it.
Restoration can also offer new economic and business opportunities. In the United
States, for example, restoration work provides direct employment to an estimated 126 000
workers and generates USD 9.5 billion annually in economic output.
Restoration action at a landscape scale can help maximise synergies and manage
potential trade-offs between ecosystem services, as well as balance competing
demands for land or ocean resources. It is important, therefore, to integrate restoration
into broader land-use and marine spatial planning. Large-scale restoration should be an
inclusive process, requiring the participation of a range of stakeholders, such as local and
indigenous communities, local and national governments, and the private sector.
1.5. Data and indicator gaps on pressures and responses relevant to biodiversity
Tackling the biodiversity challenge requires a better understanding of the pressures

on biodiversity and the range of actions (i.e. responses) that are being put in place to
address the pressures. These actions include response measures such as policies,
legislation, governance and finance.
Data and indicators pertaining to pressures on biodiversity have improved steadily
over the past decade, but gaps remain. For example, information on the extent and
ecological impacts of pollution (e.g. pesticides and marine plastics) is insufficient to target
policies effectively, despite the risks posed to society and the economy.
Comparable and consistent data on the actions implemented are already collected in
a harmonised way across countries for several responses – e.g. data pertaining to a
selection of positive incentives (Aichi Biodiversity Target 3) and protected area coverage
(Aichi Target 11) – but lacking in many others. For example, although mainstreaming
biodiversity into national and sector-level plans, policies and processes is essential to
improving biodiversity outcomes, it remains challenging to monitor progress across
countries in a comparable way.
15 │
Establishing specific, measurable and (to the greatest extent possible) quantitative
targets for the post-2020 framework is essential to improving the ability to monitor
progress. More specific and measurable targets can enhance clarity on the actions needed
by government, the private sector and civil society, and would improve the ability to
monitor progress. Targets and their associated indicators need to be developed
synergistically and iteratively, to ensure stronger linkages between the two.
A key challenge in monitoring aggregate progress towards the 2011-2020 Aichi
Biodiversity Targets has been the lack of comparability across national-level
indicators. While the CBD Indicator Framework lists 98 indicative indicators for use,
uptake of these indicators at the national level has been low.
A proposal to adopt categories of indicators under the post-2020 global biodiversity
framework, including a smaller set of headline indicators for which data are
comparable and consistent across countries, could help prioritise the efforts of
national governments and international organisations in addressing data and
indicator gaps. This would also enable aggregation of national contributions to the
common, global set of biodiversity targets.
International organisations, such as the OECD and the FAO, that collect and track
data across countries in a consistent and comparable manner can offer substantial
support. For example, more than 100 countries currently report to the OECD Policy
Instruments for the Environment database, which covers biodiversity-relevant economic
instruments relevant to Aichi Target 3 on incentives and the finance they mobilise. More
comprehensive reporting by countries would further enrich the collective ability to monitor
progress on this and other Aichi and post-2020 Targets.
Open and user-friendly data can help address data gaps. Governments can also improve
the range and quality of data available by harnessing new and innovative technologies and
approaches (e.g. citizen science, artificial intelligence and earth observation) for
monitoring and analysing data.
1.6. Global biodiversity finance: A preliminary update
There is a major gap in the finance needed to halt biodiversity loss. Finance flows
(i.e. expenditures) for biodiversity come from both domestic and international public and
private sources. There are substantial opportunities to scale up biodiversity finance from
all sources.
There remain considerable gaps and inconsistencies in biodiversity finance reporting
and tracking. Data for several types of finance flows are not reported consistently and
comparably across countries. For example, some Parties reporting to the CBD Finance
Reporting Framework also include extra-budgetary and private finance in their finance on
domestic biodiversity-related activities, whereas others do not. Consolidated data on
biodiversity finance from multilateral development banks do not exist. There also exist
several important data gaps on private finance flows. For example, finance from
biodiversity-relevant bonds are difficult to isolate, given the divergence in nomenclature
and definitions of relevant bonds (e.g. green bonds, environmental bonds and sustainability
bonds).
The disparate and inconsistent nature of the available data sets on finance flows also
entails significant risks of double counting and undercounting, undermining the
robustness of any resulting estimates. Significant further analysis is needed to reach a
│16
more robust estimate of total global finance flows for biodiversity. France, which currently
holds the G7 Presidency, has called on the OECD to undertake this task as one of the
follow-up areas requested to this report.
With these caveats in mind, partial data on domestic finance on biodiversity-relevant
activities, as reported to the CBD Clearing House Mechanism by 40% of the Parties,
was estimated at approximately USD 49 billion in 2015. This estimate is based
predominantly on finance from central (and in some cases, state and local) government
budgets.
Drawing on several other data sources – most of which do not include domestic central
public biodiversity finance – preliminary estimates suggest that finance flows to
biodiversity amount to roughly USD 39 billion. This estimate includes finance flows
from economic instruments (such as biodiversity offsets), philanthropy and impact
investing, and may feature some double counting owing to the way the data are reported
across different data sets. It is important to note that these two estimates are partial and
incomplete, and cannot be added due to a degree of overlap. As noted above, further work
is required to develop robust estimates of global biodiversity finance.
It is at least equally important to track, report and reform finance flows
(e.g. subsidies) that are potentially harmful to biodiversity. The OECD conservatively
estimates these flows at USD 500 billion per year (based on fossil-fuel subsidies and
government support to agriculture that is potentially environmentally harmful), an order of
magnitude ten times higher than global finance flows for biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use. There exists large scope, therefore, to reform these types of finance flows
to channel them towards biodiversity-friendly activities, or at least towards activities that
are not potentially environmentally harmful.
It is also important to evaluate better the effectiveness of existing finance flows – and
the related policy and finance instruments – in achieving biodiversity impacts. Both
reforming harmful subsidies and reinforcing the effectiveness of biodiversity policy could
come at no additional budgetary cost. Recent OECD work finds that few rigorous impact-
evaluation studies have been conducted for terrestrial biodiversity, and even fewer for
ocean/marine biodiversity. The OECD encourages rigorous impact-evaluation studies and
the development of strategic criteria to help identify which policies, programmes or
projects require more stringent evaluation.
1.7. Opportunities to scale up action for biodiversity
1. Pursue and advocate for a clear, effectively structured and operational post-
2020 global biodiversity framework that catalyses effective international
action to halt and reverse biodiversity loss
 establish post-2020 targets that are as specific, measurable and quantitative as
possible
 ensure that targets and supporting indicators are closely linked in order to track
progress and enhance the effectiveness of appropriate policy interventions
 develop and agree on a focused set of headline indicators across state, pressure
and response (i.e. action) indicators that are consistent and comparable across
countries.
17 │
2. Mobilise action through the Sharm El-Sheikh to Kunming Action Agenda for
Nature and People in advance of COP15
 encourage business, financial organisations and other stakeholders to establish
and share commitments and contributions to biodiversity through the Sharm
El-Sheikh to Kunming Action Agenda for Nature and People and its online
platform.
3. Promote policy coherence to harness synergies and reduce trade-offs for
biodiversity
 develop specific, measurable and ambitious post-2020 national targets for
biodiversity, in consultation and co-ordination with a broad range of
stakeholders, and clearly assign roles and responsibilities for action
 integrate biodiversity goals and considerations into the national development
plans and policies of key economic sectors and policy areas, such as
agriculture, fisheries, energy, mining, urban development, trade and climate
change
 harness the potential of restoration and other nature-based solutions to deliver
on multiple policy objectives, such as those listed under the SDGs, the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification, the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change and the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction.
4. Scale up policy instruments for biodiversity and get the economic incentives
right
 strengthen ambition and scale up policy instruments for biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use (including economic instruments, such as
payments for ecosystem services, biodiversity-relevant taxes, fees and charges)
 increase the extent and strengthen efforts to improve the management
effectiveness of protected areas; enhance connectivity of natural terrestrial and
marine areas through land-use and marine spatial planning instruments
 monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of policy responses and other actions in
achieving biodiversity outcomes and impacts; consolidate evidence to enable
sharing of best practice and lessons learned among policy practitioners.
5. Scale up and align finance for biodiversity from all sources
 scale up public and private finance for the conservation, sustainable use and
restoration of biodiversity to address funding gaps, with support from public
and development financial institutions and relevant financial instruments; in
particular, better harness the ability of economic instruments to direct finance
flows to biodiversity.
6. Strengthen finance reporting and tracking frameworks
 develop finance tracking and reporting frameworks for public finance that are
more consistent and comparable across countries. The Paris Collaborative on
Green Budgeting is well placed to support these efforts
 develop finance tracking and reporting frameworks for private-sector finance
that are more consistent and comparable across companies.
│18
7. Reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity

 identify, assess and reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity at the national
level, and expand internationally comparable information on those subsidies
 consider a peer-review process to reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity
among Group of Seven (G7) and other countries.
8. Facilitate integration of biodiversity by businesses and financial organisations
 mobilise G7 leadership to develop a consensus among stakeholders on a
common approach for measuring and integrating biodiversity factors (impacts,
dependencies, risks and opportunities) in business and investment decisions,
notably calling on the OECD to launch a multi-stakeholder advisory group on
biodiversity, business and finance
 invite the OECD to develop, as part of these efforts or independently, a set of
practical actions on due diligence and biodiversity to support efforts by
business, drawing on the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible
Business Conduct
 harness the momentum and visibility of the SDGs, and enhanced climate action
by business and financial organisations, to raise awareness on the need also to
integrate biodiversity considerations in business and finance.
9. Assess and communicate socio-economic dependencies and impacts on
biodiversity at geographic scales relevant to decision makers
 develop and reinforce the strategic and operational character of National
Ecosystem Assessments (or similar assessments) – including through mapping
and socio-economic valuation of ecosystem services – to ensure biodiversity-
relevant decisions are well informed at the national and local scales
 develop and refine tools and methodologies for integrating the values of
ecosystem services and the costs of ecosystem degradation into national
accounts and decision-making.
10. Ensure an inclusive and equitable transformative change
 evaluate the distributional implications of policy changes, paying special
attention to potential impacts on lower-income households, as well as local and
indigenous communities
 develop a robust evidence base on the costs and benefits of action, including
who stands to benefit and who stands to bear the costs
 devise targeted measures to address potential regressive impacts on the
distribution of income and assets, and implement them together with the policy
actions for biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and restoration
 reinforce direct public involvement in policy making and harness the potential
of innovative methods to this aim (e.g. digital public consultations and
deliberative polls)
 ensure that the benefits of biodiversity and ecosystem services are equitably
shared across society today and for future generations.
19 │
2. GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY LOSS AND THE INTERNATIONAL

CONTEXT
2.1. Biodiversity picture and the international context
Over the last 50 years, humanity has unleashed unprecedented technological change and
economic growth, which have raised living standards and pulled billions of people out of
poverty. However, the increasing demand for energy, food, fibre, water and land has come
at a significant cost to planetary systems (Steffen et al., 2015[1]). The sheer scale of
production and consumption, combined with systemic inefficiencies, misallocation of
resources and waste, has resulted in rapid and widespread biodiversity loss. The
implications for human health and well-being, societal resilience and sustainable
development are considerable and potentially even catastrophic. According to the 2019
Global Risks Report, decision makers consider biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse
one of the ten greatest risks facing society today (WEF, 2019[2]).
Biodiversity underpins human life. It is responsible for a myriad of ecosystem services
upon which society depends for basic life-support functions, such as the provision of food,
fuel and clean water, nutrient cycling, pollination services and climate regulation (Box 2.1
and Figure 2.1). Halting biodiversity loss and restoring degraded ecosystems is therefore
an essential element of sustainable development pathways. Failure to scale up action to
address biodiversity loss will come at a significant cost to economies (Chapter 3) and
businesses (Chapter 4), and more generally to human well-being.
Box 2.1. Key terms and definitions
Biodiversity (biological diversity): “The variability among living organisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes
of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems"
(United Nations, 1992[3]).
Ecosystem: “A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the non-
living environment, interacting as a functional unit” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005[4]).
Ecosystem services: “The benefits people obtain from ecosystems” (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, 2005[4]).
Natural capital: “The stock of renewable and non-renewable natural resources (e.g. plants, animals,
air, water, soils, minerals) that combine to yield a flow of benefits to people” (Natural Capital
Coalition, 2016[5]).
Addressing biodiversity loss requires ambitious domestic action by governments and non-
state actors, which can be amplified by strong international co-operation. The Group of
Seven (G7) Environment Ministerial Meeting in 2019 takes place at a crucial time. In 2020,
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020
and its 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets will expire. Governments will convene in China for
the 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD (COP15) to agree on a post-
2020 global biodiversity framework. The decisions made on the post-2020 framework will
influence domestic goals and policies, and thus our collective ability to achieve not only
│20
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14: Life Below Water and SDG 15: Life on Land,
but also many of the other SDGs. For example, failure to address ongoing land-use change,
deforestation and forest degradation will make the challenge of addressing climate change
significantly more difficult. In turn, climate change will amplify the risks to biodiversity.
Although biodiversity loss is as great a challenge as climate change, it has received
substantially less attention on the political agenda. The focus of the 2019 G7 meeting on
biodiversity is a positive step forward. Biodiversity is connected intricately to other key
themes that are more established on the G7 agenda, such as resource efficiency, climate
change and marine litter. At the G7 Leaders Summit in 2018, for example, governments
adopted the Charlevoix Blueprint for Healthy Oceans, Seas and Resilient Coastal
Communities, which recognises the threat of plastic litter to marine ecosystems and the role
of natural infrastructure (ecosystems) in building coastal resilience.2
Figure 2.1. Types and examples of ecosystem services
Source: Adapted from (OECD, 2010[6]).
2.2. Threats and pressures on biodiversity
Biodiversity faces a wide number of threats, including land-use change, habitat loss and
fragmentation (e.g. due to agricultural expansion), over-exploitation of natural resources
(e.g. unsustainable logging, hunting and fishing), pollution (e.g. excess fertiliser use and
marine litter), invasive alien species and climate change (OECD, 2012[7]) (SCBD, 2014[8]).
For example, an analysis of over 8 500 threatened or near-threatened terrestrial, freshwater
or marine species found that 72% are overexploited, and 62% are affected by agriculture
(crop and livestock farming), timber plantations and/or aquaculture (Maxwell, 2016[9]).
Agricultural expansion and intensification continues to be the dominant pressure on
2
For a discussion of coastal resilience and marine plastics in the context of G7, see (OECD, 2018[230]) and (OECD, 2018[229]).
21 │
terrestrial biodiversity, and is expected to increase as the demand for food and bioenergy
grows (SCBD, 2014[8]). These impacts are exacerbated by international trade, which tends
to shift the environmental impacts of production from developed to developing countries
(Krausmann and Langthaler, 2019[10]). For example, 33% of biodiversity impacts in Central
and South America and 26% in Africa are driven by consumption in other regions (Marques
et al., 2019[11]).
Unsustainable fishing remains a major threat to marine ecosystems. Over 30% of fish
stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels (Figure 2.2) (FAO, 2018[12]), and sea-
bed bottom trawling is destroying irreplaceable deepwater habitats. Pollution from fertiliser
run-off and sewage disposal also poses a threat to marine biodiversity, as reactive nitrogen
and phosphorous can cause algal blooms, anoxic conditions and acidification. There is also
growing concern about plastics pollution, with an estimated 8 million tonnes of plastic
entering the ocean each year (Jambeck et al., 2015[13]), and documented impacts on around
500 species of marine mammals, fish and seabirds (SCBD, 2016[14]). Meanwhile, ocean
warming and acidification are intensifying with climate change (IPCC, 2018[15]).
Climate change is putting increasing pressure on marine and terrestrial biodiversity, and
exacerbating not only ocean warming and acidification, but also other pressures such as
invasive alien species (Early et al., 2016[16]). A synthesis of hundreds of scientific studies
found that climate change has already resulted in shifts in species distribution and disrupted
species interactions, led to mismatches in the timing of migration, breeding and food
supply, and contributed to declines in populations (BirdLife International and The National
Audubon Society, 2015[17]). Climate change is also affecting ecosystem configuration,
productivity and service provision, with significant economic implications (Lipton et al.,
2018[18]). In the absence of ambitious climate action, the impacts on biodiversity and
ecosystem services will be severe: coral reefs are projected to decline by a further 70-90%
with global warming of 1.5o Celsius above pre-industrial levels, or by more than 99% if the
world allows warming of 2o Celsius (IPCC, 2018[15]).
Figure 2.2. Global trends in the state of world marine fish stocks, 1974-2015
100
80
60
40
20
Underfished Maximally sustainably fished Overfished
Source: (FAO, 2018[12]).
│22
2.3. State of terrestrial, marine and other aquatic biodiversity
The multidimensionality and complexity of biodiversity means there is no single measure

that can comprehensively capture the state of biodiversity globally. However, a range of
biodiversity data and indicators on species, forests, wetlands and other ecosystems clearly
point to an overall decline in biodiversity and the widespread degradation of ecosystems.
While overall trends are negative, there exist a few notable examples of effective
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, demonstrating that progress has been
made, and that humankind has the knowledge and tools to address biodiversity loss.
Trends in species and populations

The planet is facing its sixth mass extinction. Scientists estimate the current rate of species
extinction to be as much as 1 000 times higher than the natural background (pre-human)
rate (De Vos et al., 2015[19]).3 In the 20th century alone, 477 vertebrates are known to have
gone extinct, while only nine would have been expected to go extinct if background rates
of vertebrate extinction had persisted (Ceballos et al., 2015[20]). Species extinction not only
represents an irreversible loss of global diversity and its inherent value, it has negative
knock-on effects for ecosystem function, productivity and resilience (Cardinale et al.,
2018[21]).
Of the 96 500 species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red
List of Threatened Species,4 26 500 (more than 27%) are threatened with extinction. This
includes 40% of amphibians, 34% of conifers, 33% of reef corals, 31% of sharks and rays,
27% of selected crustaceans and 14% of birds. The total number of species threatened with
extinction is likely to be much higher, as the Red List only covers a portion of the world’s
species: many (particularly non-vertebrate) species are yet to be formally identified, and
gaps in available data and information remain.
In addition to species extinction, the widespread and frequent loss of populations, and
declines in the numbers of individual species within remaining populations, are also cause
for concern. Species abundance, not just diversity, is an important determinant of
ecosystem function and resilience (Valiente‐Banuet et al., 2015[22]) (Oliver et al., 2015[23]),
and the delivery of ecosystem services (Inger et al., 2014[24]) (Winfree et al., 2015[25]). The
Living Planet Index (Figure 2.3), which tracks the population abundance of thousands of
mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians around the world, shows an overall decline
in population sizes of 60% between 1970 and 2014 (WWF, 2018[26]). Globally, freshwater
species show the largest declines, with an 83% loss in population size since 1970.
3
There are uncertainties and variations in estimates of current and background extinction rates, which stem from the difficulty
of estimating background extinction rates e.g. through fossil records and molecular phylogeny. However, estimates
consistently indicate a notable increase in the extinction rate.
4
The Red List of Threatened Species (established in 1964) is a widely used indicator of the health of the world’s biodiversity.
It uses a set of quantitative criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species. It divides species into nine
categories: Not Evaluated, Data Deficient, Least Concern, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically
Endangered, Extinct in the Wild and Extinct.
23 │
Figure 2.3. Living Planet Index, 1970-2014
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Confidence limits Global Living Planet Index 1970 index
Source: (WWF, 2018[26]).
Population declines are affecting not only rare and threatened species, but also common
ones. In Europe, for example, common farmland birds declined by 57% between 1980 and
2016 (EBCC et al., 2017[27]). Similar trends exist in Canada and the United States, where
74% of farmland bird species declined between 1966 and 2013 (Stanton, Morrissey and
Clark, 2018[28]). The causes of these declines include loss of natural habitats,
mowing/harvesting, exposure to pesticides and a decline in the insects upon which most
birds depend. For example, flying-insect biomass in 63 protected areas in Germany
declined by more than 75% over 27 years (Hallmann et al., 2017[29]). Globally, 40% of
insects are in decline and one-third are threatened with extinction (Sánchez-Bayo and
Wyckhuys, 2019[30]). In addition to its impacts on the food web, the loss of insect biomass
and diversity negatively affects crop pollination, waste disposal and nutrient cycling (Losey
and Vaughan, 2006[31]).
Trends in the extent and state of ecosystems

Humans have transformed the majority of terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems
across the globe. Ecosystems and the habitats they provide continue to be converted,
degraded and fragmented, altering their function, productivity and resilience.
Global forest cover continues to decline as demand for food and land increases (Hansen
et al., 2013[32]). Planted forests have increased, but this increase has been offset by a decline
in natural forests (FAO, 2019[33]), which tend to be more biodiverse (Gibson et al., 2011[34]).
Natural forest area declined by 10.6 million hectares per year from 1990 to 2000, and by
6.5 million hectares per year from 2010 to 2015 (FAO, 2019[33]). Natural wetland coverage
has declined by an estimated 35% over 1970-2015 (Darrah et al., 2019[35]), and continues
to decline at a rate of 0.85-1.6% per year (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2018[36]). The
fragmentation of forests, wetlands and other habitats is also concerning, as it is a precursor
of species loss and disrupts ecosystem functions by decreasing biomass and altering
nutrient cycles (Haddad et al., 2015[37]). Habitat fragmentation is expected to become
│24
increasingly problematic with climate change, as it undermines the ability of species to

track suitable habitats (SCBD, 2009[38]).
The state of marine and coastal ecosystems has also deteriorated. For example, global
mangrove area is estimated to have declined by about 20% between 1980 and 2005 (FAO,
2007[39]), and the coverage of seagrass is estimated to have declined by 29% over the last
100 years (Waycott et al., 2009[40]). The world lost approximately half of its shallow water
corals in the past 30 years (WWF, 2018[26]), and 31% of the world’s corals are now at risk
from bleaching, compared to 8% in the 1980s (Hughes et al., 2018[41]). While severe
bleaching events used to occur every 27 years, the median time between events had
declined to 6 years by 2016 (Hughes et al., 2018[41]).
Figure 2.4. Global and regional trends in natural wetland coverage, 1970-2015
Note: Wetlands Extent Trend index for global marine/coastal and inland wetlands, and for natural wetlands in six
regions. Natural regional wetland trends are reported from 1970 to 2015 except for Europe (1970-2013) due to data
availability. The dashed lines for the global index show 95% confidence intervals.
Source: Based on data from (Darrah et al., 2019[35]).
25 │
The widespread destruction, degradation and fragmentation of ecosystems is accelerating,

with profound implications for human well-being and the global economy. The loss of
biodiversity already costs the world billions of dollars per year (Chapter 3). Moreover,
because ecosystems are complex, non-linear systems, incremental increases in pressure in
the coming years could have a disproportionately large impact on biodiversity and the
ecosystem services upon which economies and human well-being depend (Box 2.2).
Box 2.2. Ecosystem thresholds and tipping points
Ecosystems can only absorb pressure up to a certain threshold. Beyond this threshold, an
incremental increase in human pressure can lead to a large, often abrupt, change in an ecosystem’s
structure and function. Such abrupt regime shifts tend to be persistent and irreversible (or costly to
reverse), and can have profoundly negative environmental, economic and social consequences.
Thresholds are expected to be crossed more frequently in the coming decades in marine, aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems owing to the increasing intensity of pressures, and their combined and often
synergistic effects. The complex non-linear dynamics of ecosystems and their interactions with
human systems make it difficult to predict where thresholds lie, when they will be crossed, and what
will be the scale of impact. Given this uncertainty and the potential impact of regime shifts, it is
prudent to take a precautionary approach and keep disturbance well below likely thresholds.
Maintaining or restoring biodiversity can make ecosystems more resilient, reducing the likelihood
of regime shifts.
Sources: (Folke et al., 2004[42]) (Leadley et al., 2014[43]) (Scheffer et al., 2001[44]).
│26
3. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CASE FOR BIODIVERSITY ACTION
3.1. Biodiversity and ecosystem services: the foundation of economic development

and human well-being
Biodiversity and ecosystem services underpin the global economy and human well-being.
They provide indispensable services at the local, regional and global scales, such as food
production, water purification, flood protection and climate-change mitigation. According
to one estimate, the economic value of these services was USD 125-140 trillion
(US dollars) in 2011 (Costanza et al., 2014[45]), i.e. well over one and a half times the size
of the world’s gross domestic product (GDP) that year. While these and other estimates
(Table 3.1) involve a degree of uncertainty,5 they indicate the magnitude of the economic
value derived from biodiversity.
Failure to address biodiversity loss is (and will continue to be) costly. Between 1997 and
2011, global estimates suggest the world lost USD 4-20 trillion per year in ecosystem
services owing to land-cover change (Costanza et al., 2014[45]) and USD 6.3-10.6 trillion
per year from land degradation (ELD Initiative, 2015[46]). Meanwhile, poor management of
oceans (e.g. invasive marine species carried in ship ballast water, over-exploitation of
fisheries and nutrient pollution) costs at least USD 200 billion per year (UNDP and GEF,
2012[47]). Given the current trends in biodiversity loss, the economic costs will continue to
rise and, because ecosystems are complex systems with tipping points, potentially increase
exponentially. Failure to address biodiversity loss will also compromise efforts to achieve
other policy objectives, such as climate-change mitigation, and food and water security.
Table 3.1. Biodiversity and ecosystem service values
Scale Good or service Estimated annual value

Global Seagrass nutrient cycling USD 1.9 trillion
Global Annual market value of animal pollinated crops USD 235-577 billion
Global First sale value of fisheries and aquaculture USD 362 billion
Global Coral reef tourism USD 36 billion
Europe Ecosystem services from Natura 2000 protected area network EUR 223-314 billion
Canada Value of commercial landings from marine and freshwater fisheries CAD 3.4 billion
France Recreational benefits of forest ecosystems EUR 8.5 billion
Germany Direct and indirect income from recreational fishing EUR 6.4 billion
Italy Habitat provision EUR 13.5 billion
Japan Water purification from tidal flats and marshes JPY 674 billion
United Kingdom Physical and mental-health benefits of the natural environment GBP 2 billion
United States Air purification from trees and forest (avoided morbidity and mortality) USD 6.8 billion
Notes: EUR: euros; CAD: Canadian dollars; JPY: yen; GBP: pounds sterling.
Sources: (Waycott et al., 2009[40]) (IPBES, 2016[48]) (FAO, 2018[12]) (Spalding et al., 2017[49]) (EU, 2013[50])
(Government of Canada, 2018[51]) (Garcia and Jacob-Revue D, 2010[52]) (Schröter-Schlaack et al., 2016[53])
(Comitato Capitale Naturale, 2018[54]) (Japan Ministry of Environment, 2014[55]) (White et al., 2016[56])
(Nowak et al., 2014[57]).
5
For a discussion of valuation techniques, recent progress in valuation and limitations, see: (OECD, 2018[227]).
27 │
Although biodiversity and ecosystem services deliver considerable benefits, these tend to
be undervalued or unvalued in day-to-day decisions, economic accounts and market prices.
One reason for this is that decision makers lack knowledge about the interactions between
economies and ecosystems. Another, predominant, reason is market failures: the majority
of ecosystem services are not priced in the market because they are public goods (i.e. non-
excludable and non-rival in their consumption)6. As a result, there are insufficient economic
incentives to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity. Those ecosystem services that are
priced (e.g. food and timber provision), are often distorted by subsidies or uncompetitive
markets. The failure to account for the full economic values of biodiversity and ecosystem
services in decision-making is one of the main contributing factors to their loss and
degradation.
Policy makers’ understanding of ecosystem-economy interlinkages and the valuation of
ecosystem services has improved considerably over the past 30 years. International
assessments and initiatives, such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA); The
Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB), initiated in response to a proposal by
the Group of Eight + Five countries meeting in Potsdam, Germany, in 2007; and the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES) have contributed to this progress. They have also brought international attention
to the socio-economic benefits of biodiversity and the impacts of biodiversity loss. A large
number of empirical studies that estimate the monetary values associated with the various
benefits provided by ecosystem services at the local, regional and global scales are now
available (Box 3.1).
Although economic valuation of biodiversity continues to face some methodological
limitations and is sometimes criticised on ethical grounds, it remains a useful and necessary
tool for integrating biodiversity values into policy making, as they are otherwise effectively
priced at zero. The decisions of ministries responsible for national development strategies
and budget allocations, for example, are informed predominantly by interests such as
economic growth, competitiveness, food security, and other issues that are politically
“weightier” or perceived to be more pressing. Putting a monetary value on ecosystem
services can help convey their importance, and ultimately lead to more efficient, cost-
effective and equitable decisions.
6
Non-excludable: It is difficult to exclude other people from benefitting from e.g. flood protection provided by wetlands, or
the aesthetic value of forests. Non-rival: one person benefitting from flood protection by wetlands does not reduce the flood
protection benefits obtained by another person.
│28
Box 3.1. Valuing ecosystem services
The benefits generated by ecosystem services have direct-use values (e.g. timber), indirect-use
values (e.g. pollination), option values and non-use values. Option values are the values people place
on the potential for future use of biodiversity. Non-use values refer to the benefits individuals derive
from the knowledge that biodiversity exists (existence values) and will be available to future
generations (bequest values).
The benefits society derives from ecosystem services accrue at the local, regional or global level, or
a combination of these. The spatial scales of ecosystem services provide an indication of the roles
and responsibilities associated with the conservation, sustainable use and restoration of biodiversity.
For example, the premise of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, a
mechanism through which developing countries receive finance from developed countries to protect
their forests, is that forests provide a global public good (carbon sequestration).
Geographical scale of
Type of value Examples of ecosystem services
benefits
Local Regional Global
Direct use Food (e.g. fisheries and aquaculture)   
Fuel (e.g. timber)  
Water  
Natural products (e.g. sand, pearls and diatomaceous earth)   
Genetic and pharmaceutical products   
Indirect use Atmospheric composition, carbon sequestration and climate regulation 
Shoreline stabilisation/erosion control  

Natural hazard protection (e.g. from storms, hurricanes and floods)  
Pollution buffering and water quality  
Recreation and tourism   
Option values Potential for future use of the above   
Non-use values Cultural and spiritual values, existence and bequest values,   
e.g. associated with habitat for species
3.2. The economic values of biodiversity and costs of inaction across multiple policy
areas
The conservation, sustainable use and restoration of biodiversity is vital to achieving a

number of policy objectives beyond biodiversity, such as human health, food and water
security, climate-change mitigation and adaptation, and disaster risk reduction. Drawing on
a range of local, national, regional and global studies, this section highlights the economic
case for scaling up biodiversity action in qualitative and quantitative terms.
Biodiversity and human health

Biodiversity provides services critical for human health and well-being. These services
include the provision of basic needs (e.g. food and protection from environmental hazards,
discussed in 3.2.2 and 3.2.4) biomedical resources, air purification, and opportunities for
recreational and therapeutic activities.
29 │
Biomedical resources and insights: many of the drugs used today for health care and
disease prevention were discovered from plant sources (e.g. digoxin), lizards
(e.g. exenatide), cone snails (e.g. ziconotide), fungi (e.g. penicillin) and other wild species.
More than 80% of the small-molecule anticancer drugs approved between 1981 and 2014
are either natural products, based on natural products or mimic natural products (Newman
and Cragg, 2016[58]). The most profitable drug to date, atorvastatin (Lipitor), is a
cardiovascular drug descended directly from a microbial natural product that posted annual
sales of USD 12-14 billion between 2004 and 2014 (Newman and Cragg, 2016[58]).
The untapped potential for future drug discovery and medical insights from biodiversity is
vast, but is diminishing because of biodiversity loss. Although plants have been a major
source of natural product drugs, only a fraction of the 400 000 plant species on Earth have
been studied for their pharmacological potential.7 Arthropods, microbes and fungi are even
less studied. Given their diversity and the medicines already discovered from them, these
taxa hold considerable potential for the development of new drugs (Neergheen-Bhujun
et al., 2017[59]) (WHO and SCBD, 2015[60]).
Regulating air quality: morbidity and mortality from air pollution is a major health
challenge, particularly in urban areas. The OECD estimates the welfare cost from
premature deaths stemming from exposure to outdoor fine particles and ozone at
USD 5.3 trillion globally in 2017. Investing in nature can help reduce this burden. Trees
and forests in the conterminous United States, for example, removed 17.4 million tonnes
of air pollution in 2010, providing health benefits (avoidance of human mortality and
incidences of acute respiratory symptoms) valued at USD 6.8 billion (Nowak et al.,
2014[57]).
Recreational and therapeutic activities: access and proximity to nature and green spaces
correlate with reductions in mortality, cardiovascular disease and depression, and increases
in perceptions of well-being (WHO and SCBD, 2015[60]). The physical and mental-health
benefits of natural environments (e.g. parks, woodlands and beaches) in the United
Kingdom are estimated at GBP 2 billion (pounds sterling) a year (White et al., 2016[56]).
With over half of the world’s population living in urban areas today, and given current
urbanisation trends, the savings in healthcare costs from integrating biodiversity
conservation into urban planning and building design are likely only to increase.
Biodiversity and food

Conserving and sustainably managing biodiversity is vital to meeting growing food
demand and achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger. Biodiversity is the
foundation of our food system. Biodiversity is the food we eat – domesticated and wild
livestock and crops, aquatic species harvested from the wild or raised through aquaculture
– as well as the myriad plants, animals and micro-organisms that underpin production
processes such as maintaining healthy soils, regulating water and pollinating plants.
Although food production has increased considerably to match growing demand, this
increase has often come at the expense of the biodiversity and ecosystem services that
underpin global food systems.
The economic value of biodiversity’s contribution to food systems is considerable.
Pollination from bees, birds, bats and other species contributes directly to between 5% and
8% of current global crop production. The annual market value of these crops is USD 235-
7
For example, the National Cancer Institute repository contains only c. 60,000.
│30
577 billion (in 2015 USD) (IPBES, 2016[48]). Higher pollinator density and species
diversity can lead to higher crop yields (Garibaldi et al., 2016[61]) (Garibaldi et al., 2013[62]).
The dramatic decline in the abundance of bees and other insects (see 2.3.1), therefore, poses
a considerable economic risk. The loss of all animal pollinators would result in an estimated
annual net loss in welfare of USD 160-191 billion globally to crop consumers, and an
additional loss of USD 207-497 billion to producers and consumers in other markets
(IPBES, 2016[48]).
Biodiversity is also important to control pest outbreaks. Maintaining habitat within agro-
ecosystems and surrounding landscapes for insectivorous birds and bats, and microbial
pathogens that regulate populations of agricultural pest, can reduce the need for pesticides.
The estimated value of this service for controlling a single pest – the soybean aphid – in
four US states in 2007-08 was USD 239 million (Landis et al., 2008[63]). The total value of
natural pest-control services in the United States, based on the value of crop losses to insect
damage and insecticide expenditure, is estimated at USD 13.6 billion per year (Losey and
Vaughan, 2006[31]). Reducing pesticide use and supporting biological control would help
reduce one of the primary threats to bee and other insect populations, while also increasing
the efficiency of farms (Lechenet et al., 2017[64]).
Genetic and species diversity among crops and livestock (and the wild varieties of domestic
species) is fundamental to ensuring agricultural systems’ resilience to drought, flood, pests
and disease. Maintaining genetic diversity allows farmers to adapt their livestock breeds
and crop varieties to changing environmental conditions, reducing the vulnerability of
farmers and the global food system. Nevertheless, the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) reports increasing extinction risk among wild varieties and
livestock breeds; declining crop diversity; and widespread genetic erosion as a result of
poor cross-breeding practices, the use of non-native breeds and the pursuit of more
productive breeds at the expense of less productive ones (FAO, 2019[33]).
Biodiversity and water security

A major challenge facing governments across the globe is water security, which is projected
to deteriorate in many regions owing to increasing water demand, water stress and water
pollution. An estimated 40% of the global population is already affected by water scarcity
(UN and WBG, 2018[65]), and around 30% lacks safely managed drinking water supplies
(WWAP, 2019[66]).
The mismanagement and degradation of ecosystems is a root cause of water insecurity. To
tackle water insecurity, governments must tackle biodiversity loss. Healthy soils, forests,
wetlands, grasslands and other ecosystems provide vital hydrological services that can
reduce water-related disaster risks (Section 3.2.4), and improve water availability and
quality. For example, nearly one-third of the world’s 105 largest cities – including Los
Angeles, New York, Rome and Tokyo – depend on protected forests for a significant share
of their drinking water (Duley and Stolton, 2003[67]).
Conserving or restoring natural ecosystems, or enhancing the creation of natural processes
in modified or artificial ecosystems, can be a sustainable solution to water insecurity and
may be more cost-effective than grey-infrastructure alternatives, as shown in the examples
below:
 United States: a cost-benefit analysis conducted for Philadelphia estimated the
net present value of low-impact “green” infrastructure for storm-water control
(e.g. tree planting, permeable pavement, green roofs) at USD 1.94-4.45 billion
31 │
over a 40-year period. The net benefits for the grey-infrastructure alternative
(e.g. storage tunnels) were much lower at USD 0.06-0.14 billion (Stratus
Consulting Inc, 2009[68]). An analysis of options for improving water quality
in Portland found that green infrastructure would be 51-76% cheaper (USD 68-
72 million cheaper) than water-filtration plant upgrades (Talberth et al.,
2012[69]) and would bring ancillary benefits (i.e. salmon habitat and carbon
sequestration) estimated conservatively at USD 72-125 million.
 Kenya: Tana River provides 80% of Nairobi’s drinking water and 70% of
Kenya’s hydropower. However, ecosystem degradation from unsustainable
agricultural practices has led to higher levels of erosion and sedimentation. As
a result, the cost of water treatment for Nairobi has increased, and the
hydropower reservoir capacity has declined. Planned investment of
USD 10 million in sustainable land-management measures in the Tana River
Delta is expected to deliver a return of USD 21.5 million over 30 years as a
result of increased power generation and agricultural crop yields, and savings
in water and wastewater treatment (TNC, 2015[70]).
Biodiversity, climate change and disaster risk

Countries need to decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 25% by 2030 compared to 1990
levels to achieve the 2 degrees Celsius (°C) target of the Paris Agreement and 55% to reach
the 1.5°C target (IPCC, 2018[15]). Conserving, sustainably managing and restoring
ecosystems can provide a substantial and cost-effective contribution to these efforts. Plants
and soils in terrestrial ecosystems absorb an estimated 9.5 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide
equivalent every year (Le Quéré et al., 2015[71]). However, land-use change and poor
management have depleted carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems, resulting in large
emissions of carbon into the atmosphere. For example, deforestation and forest degradation
account for around 12% of global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) (Van der Werf et al.,
2009[72]). The destruction of marshes, mangroves and seagrasses releases an estimated 0.15-
1.02 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (GtCO2) per year, resulting in annual economic damages
of USD 6-42 billion (Pendleton et al., 2012[73]).8
Griscom et al. (2017[74]) estimate that conservation, restoration and improved management
of forests, grasslands, wetlands and agricultural lands could deliver 23.8 GtCO2 of
cumulative emission reductions by 2030. About half of this mitigation potential represents
cost-effective climate mitigation, defined as a marginal abatement cost of less than or equal
to 100 USD per tonne of CO2 by 2030.9 Deploying these approaches could deliver up to
37% of the emission reductions needed by 2030 in order to have a greater than 66%
likelihood of holding warming below 2°C, and up to 20% of the emission reductions needed
between now and 2050.
In addition to mitigation, biodiversity and ecosystem services play an important role in
adapting to the impacts of climate change, and reducing the risk of climate-related and non-
climate-related disasters. For example, floodplains and wetlands can protect communities
from floods. Coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves buffer coastlines from waves and storms.
Forested slopes stabilise sediments, protecting people and their assets from landslides.
Healthy, connected and biodiverse ecosystems also tend to be more resilient to the effects
of climate change than degraded ecosystems (Oliver et al., 2015[23]) (Spalding et al.,
8
Economic damages per tonne of carbon were valued at USD 41 (2007 US dollars).
9
One-third of this could be achieved at low cost (less than or equal to USD 10 per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent).
│32
2017[49]). Hence, conserving, sustainably using and restoring biodiversity is critical to

ensuring ongoing ecosystem function and service provision in a changing climate. In some
cases, the speed and scale of climate change will make it difficult – if not impossible – for
some species and ecosystems to adapt. The Fourth National Climate Assessment of the
United States highlights some of the economic implications (Box 3.2).
Box 3.2. The costs of inaction – Insights from the U.S. Fourth National Climate Assessment
The Global Change Research Act of 1990 mandates that the U.S. Global Change Research Program
deliver a climate change report to Congress and the President no less than every four years. The
Fourth National Climate Assessment (2018) finds that climate change is having widespread impacts
on ecosystem services. Changes are occurring in agricultural and fisheries production, the supply of
clean water, protection from extreme events and culturally valuable resources. The report provides
estimates of the economic costs of some of the (projected) impacts:
 By mid-century, the annual area burned in the western United States could increase 2–6
times, partly because of increased temperatures, earlier snowmelt and more intense
droughts. The associated costs are large. For example, over 2000-16, a period of increased
wildfire (due in part to climate change), US federal wildfire suppression expenditures
ranged from USD 809 million to USD 2.1 billion per year.
 By 2090, cold-water recreational fishing days in the United States are predicted to decline,
costing USD 1.7 billion per year under a low greenhouse gas scenario (representative
concentration pathway [RCP] 4.5) or USD 3.1 billion per year under a higher scenario
(RCP 8.5).
 By 2100, climate change is projected to result in the loss of USD 140 billion in recreational
benefits associated with coral reefs (in 2015 dollars) under a high scenario (RCP 8.5).
 Ocean acidification is expected to reduce harvests of US shellfish, with cumulative
consumer losses of USD 230 million (in 2015 dollars) anticipated by 2099, under a high
greenhouse gas-emission scenario.
Notes: RCP is a plausible greenhouse gas concentration trajectory adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment
Report (AR5) in 2014. RCP 4.5 is the second-lowest of four modelled pathways. RCP 8.5 is the highest.
Source: (Reidmiller et al., 2018[75]).
The concepts of ecosystem-based adaptation10 (EbA) and disaster risk reduction11 (Eco-
DRR) – also called nature-based solutions – have emerged based on the recognition that
biodiverse ecosystems are more climate-resilient than degraded ones and can deliver
greater flows of ecosystem services. If well planned, EbA and Eco-DRR can be cost-
effective and provide multiple benefits beyond adaptation and disaster risk reduction,
including species habitat, climate mitigation, and amenity values:
 Canada: investment in wetland conservation in the Smith Creek Drainage
Basin in Saskatchewan is estimated to deliver over a ten-year period CAD 7.70
(Canadian dollars) (in flood control, nutrient removal, recreation and carbon
sequestration) for every dollar invested in wetland conservation, and CAD 3.22
10
Defined as “The use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people adapt
to the adverse effects of climate change. EbA aims to maintain and increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of
ecosystems and people in the face of the adverse effects of climate change” (SCBD, 2009[38]).
11
Defined as “Sustainable management, conservation and restoration of ecosystems to reduce disaster risk, with the aim of
achieving sustainable and resilient development” (Estrella and Saalismaa, 2013[228]).
33 │
for every dollar invested in 25% restoration of lost wetlands (Pattison-Williams

et al., 2018[76]).
 Fiji: Lami Town faces potential losses from flooding, estimated at
FJD 31 million (Fijian dollar). A cost-benefit analysis was conducted to inform
the choice between four adaptation scenarios. The benefit-to-cost ratios were
highest for EbA, but engineering approaches were assumed to have higher
damage avoidance (Table 3.2). This points to the potential role of hybrid
approaches.
Table 3.2. Cost-benefit analysis for Lami Town
Benefit-to-cost ratio Assumed damage avoidance

Ecosystem-based adaptation only 19.50 10-25%
Ecosystem-based adaptation emphasis 15.00 25%
Engineering emphasis 8.00 25%
Engineering only 9.00 25-50%
Source: (Rao et al., 2013[77]).
 United States: an assessment of the value of coastal wetlands in the

Northeastern United States found that wetlands prevented USD 625 million of
flood damage from Superstorm Sandy in 2012 and lowered flood damage by
11% on average. A more localised study in the region estimated that properties
located behind marshes in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, suffered 16% less annual
flood damage than properties that had lost their marshes (Narayan et al.,
2017[78]).
3.3. Reflecting the true value of biodiversity in national decision-making
Countries are taking steps to gain a better understanding of their economic dependence on
biodiversity and ecosystem services at a national and local level.12 Notable initiatives
include national ecosystem assessments (NEAs) to map, assess and in some cases
economically value ecosystem services. NEAs build on and complement the MEA, the
TEEB and IPBES assessments. For example, the first comprehensive assessment of
ecosystem services in the United Kingdom was delivered in response to a UK House of
Commons recommendation following the MEA. With the adoption in 2011 of the EU
Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, EU Member States committed to “map and assess the state
of ecosystems and their services”, and integrate “these values into accounting and reporting
systems at EU and national level by 2020” (European Union, 2011[79]).
Evidence shows that NEAs can – and are already – informing policy. NEAs conducted in
Japan and the United Kingdom, for example, have been mentioned in documents setting
out future policy or biodiversity strategies, and in legal documents pertaining to the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (Wilson et al., 2014[80]). The sharing of
experiences on NEAs (e.g. objectives, scope, design and policy application) could help
refine future NEAs and their utility in policy making (Wilson et al., 2014[80]) (Schröter
et al., 2016[81]).
Another major initiative underway is natural capital accounting, which seeks to overcome
two limitations of traditional national accounting approaches and the use of GDP as an
12
For an overview of ecosystem assessments, see the IPBES catalogue (IPBES, 2019[240]).
│34
indicator of economic performance (OECD, forthcoming[82]). First, GDP focuses narrowly

on current income and production, ignoring the underlying assets essential to long-term
economic performance. Second, national accounting does a poor job of capturing stocks
and flows of natural capital. To address this limitation, the United Nations developed a
System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA) as a complement
to its System of National Accounts. The SEEA is currently being revised to reflect lessons
learned from practical experimentation and testing in countries, as well as advances in
science and environmental economics. The revised version is due in 2021.
A number of countries have made progress on integrating natural-resource stocks and flows
into their national accounts. Most have focused on compiling accounts for natural resources
linked to priority sectors, e.g. timber, water and minerals, rather than establishing
comprehensive economy-wide environmental economic accounts. However, several
countries are experimenting with integrating non-market ecosystem services, which are
more difficult to value. The World Bank initiative on Wealth Accounting and the Valuation
of Ecosystem Services, and the UN-led Natural Capital Accounting and Valuation of
Ecosystem Services, funded by the European Union, are supporting these efforts.
Establishing natural capital accounts is an important first step, but further efforts are needed
to better link accounts to policy decisions.
Natural capital accounting, NEAs and wider efforts to value ecosystem services are
increasing the economic visibility of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and helping
policy makers improve the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of policies and projects.
Governments have used ecosystem valuation to determine environmental externality costs
to optimally priced taxes, determine compensation payments for natural-resource damage,
and inform cost-benefit analyses for policies and projects (OECD, 2012[7]). Nevertheless,
there remains significant scope for scaling policies to internalise better the costs of
biodiversity loss in private decision-making (Chapters 4, 7 and 8).
Even when decision makers have information on the values of ecosystem services and
integrate them in their policy appraisals, political-economy factors, such as competitiveness
concerns and vested interests, may prevent markets and governments from achieving
efficient outcomes. Drawing on case studies, OECD (2017[83]) provides insights on how
these challenges can be overcome, e.g. through broad stakeholder engagement, a solid and
clearly communicated foundation of evidence (reiterating the role of NEAs), and targeted
measures to address potential impacts on competitiveness and income distribution (Chapter
8).
35 │
4. THE BUSINESS CASE FOR BIODIVERSITY ACTION
Business and financial organisations13 have a clear role to play in biodiversity conservation
and sustainable use. They can actively help achieve national biodiversity goals, the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs),14 in close co-operation and co-ordination with policy makers
and civil society. Even though business and financial organisations can have significant
adverse impacts on biodiversity, they also depend on biodiversity for the production of
goods and services (IPBES, 2016[48]) (FAO, 2018[84]). Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem
services can therefore result in higher costs and risks for business and financial
organisations, and directly affect their performance (Kering, 2017[85]) (DNB, 2019[86]).
Private-sector investments in biodiversity and ecosystem services can also generate
opportunities and cost savings. Managing biodiversity-related risks to businesses and the
potential to capitalise on opportunities is a key driver of business action for biodiversity.
Additional work is needed to better understand business dependency on biodiversity, as
well as the adverse impacts of business activities on biodiversity.
Growing awareness of biodiversity risks by a number of companies and financial
organisations has resulted in business commitments and action towards the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity (Smith et al., 2018[87]) (PwC, 2018[88]). Several targets,
metrics and accounting approaches are available to help businesses understand and assess
their biodiversity impacts and dependencies. However, progress in integrating biodiversity
in business and investment decisions (e.g. strategy, governance, impact assessments and
risk management, due diligence and disclosure) remains insufficient. Several tools enable
public and private stakeholders to co-operate towards strengthening the business case for
biodiversity and ecosystem services (Berger et al., 2018[89]) (Addison et al., 2018[90]).
Political and private-sector engagement can foster support towards a harmonised approach
to assessing and managing biodiversity in business. The Group of Seven (G7) could notably
support the creation of a multi-stakeholder advisory group on biodiversity, business and
finance, to advise on the adoption of a common approach for measuring and integrating
biodiversity in business and investment decisions in support of post-2020 biodiversity
goals, building on the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct
(OECD, 2018[91]).
4.1. Business and biodiversity: Dependencies, impacts, costs and risks
Dependencies, impacts and costs

Managing costs and ensuring long-term value creation across supply chains requires
businesses to understand better their dependencies on biodiversity and ecosystem services,
and to integrate these considerations into long-term business strategies, risks-management
approaches and other business activities. The profitability and long-term survival of a
number of business sectors (such as agriculture and fisheries) depend directly on
biodiversity and well-functioning ecosystems. The loss of biodiversity has a direct impact
13
The financial organisations considered include banks, institutional investors – i.e. asset owners (pension funds, insurance
companies and sovereign wealth funds) and asset managers (including investment funds) – and insurers as underwriters.
14
In addition to future goals under the post-2020 global biodiversity framework, as well as other multilateral environmental
agreements: the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals; the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Fauna and Flora; and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance.
│36
on the key activities in a value chain and can result in increases in costs of inputs and raw
materials (e.g. in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and ecotourism). As discussed
in Chapter 3, specific examples include the reliance of:
 The agricultural sector on pollination services: USD 235-577 billion
(US dollars) worth of annual global food production relies on the direct
contribution of pollinators (IPBES, 2016[48]);
 The timber, pulp and paper sectors on forestry: forest products account for
USD 247 billion in global trade exports (FAOSTAT-Forestry database,
2017[92]);
 Multiple sectors on sustainable water supply across their supply chains: the
garment and footwear sector is responsible for around 20% of global
wastewater use (UNECE, 2018[93]);
 The ecotourism sector on well-functioning coral reefs, which generate
USD 36 billion in global tourism value per year (Spalding et al., 2017[49]).
Business operations, supply chains and investment decisions can also have direct and
indirect adverse impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Business activities can
directly cause adverse impacts on biodiversity, contribute to actual and potential impacts,
or have indirect impacts (e.g. through business linkages).15 As discussed in Chapter 3,
possible adverse impacts include habitat loss and degradation owing to land use; over-
exploitation of biodiversity resources; pollution, including air and water pollution
(e.g. from pesticides and fertilisers, or chemicals from industrial sectors); and invasive
alien species (e.g. from the shipping industry, owing to ballast water). Examples of
business impacts on biodiversity include:
 The fisheries sector: around 76% of the world’s marine fish stocks monitored
by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) are
now fully exploited, overexploited or depleted (FAO, 2018[84]). The share of
stocks fished at biologically unsustainable levels increased from 10% in 1974
to 33% in 2015 (FAO, 2018[12]).
 The garment and footwear sector: Impacts stem from all segments of the value
chain, including raw materials, manufacturing, transportation of goods,
consumer care and end-of-life disposal (Aiama et al., 2015[94]). The fashion
industry alone is responsible for around 20% of global wastewater. Cotton
farming is responsible for 24% of insecticide use and 11% of pesticide spread,
despite using only 3% of arable land (UNECE, 2018[93]).
With few exceptions, existing approaches to value the costs of biodiversity (and broader
“natural capital”16) dependencies and impacts remain limited. In 2013, the unpriced natural
capital consumed by primary production (agriculture, forestry, fisheries and mining) and
some primary processing sectors (including cement, steel, pulp and paper) was valued at
15
Direct impacts occur through direct interaction of an activity with biodiversity and ecosystems. Indirect impacts on
biodiversity are those which are not a direct result of the project, site or facility, often produced away from or as a result of
a complex impact pathway. Sectors like agro-food, mining, construction and power generation can have both direct and
indirect impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems. Other industries, like pharmaceuticals or cosmetics, can have indirect
impacts as their products use biological resources. Pharmaceuticals are also increasingly recognised as an environmental
concern when their residues enter freshwater systems (OECD, forthcoming[239]).
16
Including climate change, water, energy, biodiversity and waste.
37 │
USD 7.3 trillion (Natural Capital Coalition, 2016[95]). The luxury group Kering estimated
the impacts of its operations and supply chains on the environment at EUR 482 million in
2017, mostly in raw-material production and processing (using Kering’s Environmental
Profit & Loss (EP&L) account) (Kering, 2017[85]).17
Risks
Risks to business and financial organisations

Biodiversity-related risks to businesses manifest themselves primarily through the
dependencies from – and impacts on – biodiversity of business and financial organisations
(especially investors, lenders and insurers). Drawing on the typology of climate-related
risks defined by Bank of England Governor Mark Carney,18 biodiversity-related risks to
businesses are briefly categorised here as:19
 Ecological risks: these comprise risks related to biodiversity, and ecological
impacts and dependencies (similar to climate-related physical risks). Such risks
are mainly operational risks associated with resource dependency, scarcity and
quality, for example linked to: increased raw material or resource costs
(e.g. limited natural resources like timber or fresh water); deteriorated supply
chains (e.g. due to resource scarcity or more variable production of natural
inputs); or disrupted business operations (CBD, 2019[96]) (Natural Capital
Coalition, 2016[5]).
 Liability risks: parties who have suffered biodiversity-related loss or damage
seek compensation from those they hold responsible. The risk of legal suits
founded in biodiversity may increase as disclosure and external reporting on
companies’ biodiversity impact assessments increases (especially at the local
site level).20
 Regulatory risks: these include restrictions on land and resources access, clean-
up and compensation costs, procurement standards, and licensing and
permitting procedures or moratoriums on new permits.
 Reputational risks: businesses face reputational risk linked to growing pressure
by investors, consumers, shareholders, policy makers and civil society to
assess, report and manage risks to society and the environment, including
biodiversity risks. According to the Union for Ethical BioTrade (UEBT)
Biodiversity Barometer 2018, a majority of consumers expect companies to
respect biodiversity, but do not trust them to do so (UEBT, 2018[97]). Consumer
preferences can even lead to boycotts, e.g. on Bluefin tuna or palm oil.
 Market risks: changes in consumer preferences (e.g. towards products with
reduced biodiversity impacts) or purchaser requirements (e.g. biodiversity
safeguards in supply-chain requirements) can create market risk for companies
17
See Box A.4.1 on EP&L Account in the Annexes available online here (oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action).
18
See (Carney, 2015[231])and the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures’ recommendations (TCFD, 2017[232]).
19
See Annex A.4.1 in the Annexes available online here (oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action) for more information on risks to
businesses.
20
Examples of lawsuits include the 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Case, which cost USD 65 billion to BP (Bousso,
2018[233]) and lawsuits to protect spotted owls (Welch, 2009[234]). See the Annexes available online here for more information.
│38
(Girvan et al., 2018[98]). Market risk is likely to increase as consumer awareness

and understanding of biodiversity rises globally (Table 4.1) (UEBT, 2018[97]).
 Financial risks: businesses, banks and investors may also face financial risk,
including insurance risks (e.g. linked to higher insurance premiums stemming
from biodiversity loss); access to capital (owing to higher cost of capital, or
more stringent lending requirements based on negative impacts or
dependencies on biodiversity); and loss of investment opportunities as
investors increasingly integrate biodiversity in their investment strategies
(Girvan et al., 2018[98]). As ecological risks to businesses increase, business
and financial organisations may face depreciation of assets, e.g. in agriculture
and food production (Caldecott and McDaniels, 2014[99]). The risk of “stranded
assets” linked to regulatory or market risk likely remains smaller for
biodiversity than for climate change.
Table 4.1. Consumer awareness and understanding of biodiversity in selected G7 countries

(Over the period 2009-18)
France United Kingdom Japan United States Germany

Have heard of biodiversity (%) 90% 66% 62% 55% 53%
Correct definition of biodiversity (%) 34% 22% 29% 25% 25%
Source: (UEBT, 2018[100]).
A few businesses, investors and regulators (such as Unilever, the California public pension
fund CalPERS and the Dutch central bank DNB) are beginning to recognise that
biodiversity loss and degradation can create a “material” risk to the profitability of
businesses and investors, albeit to a lesser extent than climate risks (Dempsey, 2013[101])
(Unilever, 2019[102]) (Friends of the Earth (FOE), 2018[103]) (DNB, 2019[86]).21 Several
OECD instruments and international guidelines calls on business and financial
organisations to assess the materiality of biodiversity impacts (OECD/FAO, 2016[104]).
Assessing the materiality of biodiversity issues for companies remains extremely
challenging, however, especially at the project and site levels (Alliance for Corporate
Transparency Project, 2019[105]). More work is needed to integrate biodiversity
considerations into risk management and integrated reporting. In particular, aggregation
tools are needed to reflect local materiality issues at the corporate or portfolio level, and
ensure accountability at the board and management levels (CEF and WEC, 2015[106]).
Responsible business conduct risks to society and the environment

Business impacts and dependencies on biodiversity create risks to society and the
environment – which are part of broader “responsible business conduct” (RBC) risks – in
addition to risks to businesses. According to the OECD Guidelines on Multinational
Enterprises (OECD, 2011[107]), “RBC risks are defined as possible adverse impacts on
society and the environment related to the environment, human rights, workers, bribery,
consumers and corporate governance”. RBC is important to ensure trust in business
(OECD, forthcoming[108]). Acknowledging and managing their dependencies and impacts
21
According to the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), “information is material if omitting, misstating or
obscuring it could reasonably be expected to influence the decisions that the primary users of general purpose financial
statements make on the basis of those financial statements, which provide financial information about a specific reporting
entity.” (IASB, 2018[235]).
39 │
on biodiversity can help business and financial organisations manage and avoid risks
associated with biodiversity loss and threats to ecosystem services.
4.2. Business opportunities for biodiversity and ecosystem services
The conservation, sustainable use and restoration of biodiversity provides significant

opportunities for businesses and thus, incentives to integrate biodiversity and broader
sustainability issues in business models, operations, investment decisions and sourcing
across supply chains. Such opportunities include:
 Long-term viability of business models: making more sustainable use of
resources to address business dependencies on biodiversity can help ensure
long-term availability of natural resources, thereby guaranteeing long-term
viability of business operations and long-term value creation (CBD, 2019[96]).
 Cost savings and increases in operational efficiency: improved tracking on the
origin and processing of inputs and resources (e.g. energy savings from green
roofs or increased productivity of permaculture) can help control costs, while
minimising adverse impacts on biodiversity.
 Increased market share: customer loyalty favouring environmentally
responsible business conduct can lead to market share gains.22
 New business models: business action for biodiversity can generate new
products, technologies and services with reduced impacts on biodiversity,
driven by changes in consumer awareness and preferences and new business
models; new markets (e.g. ecotourism, organic agriculture and certified
sustainable products); new businesses (e.g. ecosystem restoration); and new
revenue streams (e.g. for new markets or payments for ecosystem services in
wetlands and forests) (Table 4.2) (BITC, 2011[109]).
 Better relationships with stakeholders, including customers, shareholders,
regulators, civil society and employees.
22
Several studies suggest RBC and corporate social responsibility (including on environmental issues) have a direct effect
on customer loyalty by enhancing trust in business (Raza et al., 2018[236]) (Han, Yu and Kim, 2019[237]).
│40
Table 4.2. Scale and growth potential of new markets with reduced biodiversity impacts and
dependencies
Current market size Projected market

Forecasted compound Estimated annual
Sector/market (annual revenue, size (annual
annual growth rate investment needs
(globally) USD billion) revenue)
(timeframe) (USD billion)
(latest year available) (USD billion) (year)
Organic food and 116 (2015) 16.4% (2015-22) 327 (2022) n/a
beverages
Ecotourism 77 (2009) 10-30% n/a n/a
Eco fibres n/a 11.46% (2015-20) 75 (2020) n/a
Sustainable forest n/a n/a n/a 70-160
management
Sustainable 12.7 (2017) 4.97% (2017-25) 18.6 (2025) n/a
seafood
Biopharma 240-270 (2018) n/a n/a n/a
Sources: (Allied Market Research, 2016[110]) (Globe Newswire, 2018[111]) (OECD, 2018[112]) (Sustainability
Watch, 2009[113]) (Markets and Markets, 2015[114]) (World Bank, 2016[115]) (Rader, 2018[116]) (Global Market
Insights, 2016[117]).
Of course, the business and investment opportunities associated with biodiversity are not
the only rationale for action, as biodiversity delivers broader benefits and public goods to
society and the environment (Chapter 2). In the agriculture sector, for instance, land should
not be perceived solely as a productive asset; its environmental and socio-cultural roles
should be recognised as well (OECD/FAO, 2016[104]).
4.3. Signs of progress
Increasing awareness from businesses

Forward-thinking businesses increasingly recognise the case for biodiversity action (Smith
et al., 2018[87]). According to PwC’s 21st Annual Global CEO Survey, climate change and
environmental damage rank in the top 10 threats to the growth prospects of organisations
(PwC, 2018[88]). Most companies acknowledge environmental, social and governance
(ESG) issues in their reports (KPMG, 2017[118]). A recent assessment of 100 companies in
selected sectors in the European Union finds that 55% mention risks associated with
biodiversity (Alliance for Corporate Transparency Project, 2019[105]). Few companies,
however, distinguish biodiversity issues from other ESG issues, and more are aware of
climate change than of biodiversity (KPMG, 2017[118]).
Emerging business commitments

In December 2016, over 100 companies signed the Cancun Business and Biodiversity
Pledge to take concrete actions that deliver solutions for biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use (CBD, 2018[119]). In 2018, 65 French companies committed to the
Act4Nature initiative. Act4Nature featured both a joint commitment to factor biodiversity
into all activities (from governance and strategy to the most concrete operations) to achieve
a net positive contribution to nature, as well as individual company commitments
(Act4Nature, 2018[120]). Financial organisations are also gradually committing to
decreasing the impact of their activities and investment strategies on biodiversity, e.g.
under the Natural Capital Financial Alliance (NCFA) or the Finance for One Planet
initiative, launched by 15 banks and institutional investors under the Community of
Practice Financial Institutions and Natural Capital (CoP FINC), representing around
41 │
EUR 1 trillion (euros) in assets under management (AUM) (CoP FINC, 2016[121]). Business
and financial organisations’ awareness of biodiversity factors (including impacts,
dependencies, risks and opportunities) remains limited, however, compared to their
awareness of climate change. By comparison to the CoP FINC, 323 investors, representing
more than USD 32 trillion in AUM, have signed the Climate Action 100+ initiative. As of
2018, more than 500 organisations, representing USD 7.9 trillion in market capitalisation
– including 289 financial firms responsible for nearly USD 107 trillion in assets – have also
supported the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD).
Business and biodiversity initiatives – including domestic, regional or international
networks, councils, partnerships and platforms aiming to integrate biodiversity across
business activities and supply chains – are emerging with support from industry
associations and civil society. In Japan, a group of 14 corporations launched the Japan
Business Initiative for Biodiversity in 2018, which now comprises 50 companies (including
Fujitsu) committed to biodiversity conservation (JBIB, 2016[122]). Other examples in G7
countries include the Canadian Business and Biodiversity Council, the French Initiative for
Business and Biodiversity, Germany’s Biodiversity in Good Company’ Initiative, and the
Japan Business and Biodiversity Partnership (CBD, 2019[123]).
Several sector-specific initiatives, partnerships and platforms on biodiversity also exist
(e.g. CanopyStyle in the garment sector or the Indonesia Palm Oil Platform), in addition to
individual corporate initiatives. Business initiatives driven by sectoral champions (like
Kering or Unilever) can help share information and emerging good practices among
businesses and industry associations. Biodiversity initiatives remain fewer among financial
organisations than corporations, despite a few initiatives (e.g. Engage the Chain in food
supply).
Business initiatives for biodiversity also receive support from international organisations
and collaborations. They include the CBD Global Platform on Business and Biodiversity,
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the EU Business @ Biodiversity Platform, the
United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-
WCMC), the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity initiative, and the Natural Capital
Coalition (Section 4.3.4).
Towards a framework for integrating biodiversity in business and

investment decision-making
A few leading companies are already integrating biodiversity into their decision-making
process (Smith et al., 2018[87]) (Rainey et al., 2014[124]) (Addison et al., 2018[90]). Several
targets, indicators and accounting approaches are available to help businesses understand,
measure and account for their biodiversity impacts and dependencies, as well as associated
costs, risks and opportunities, across business activities (e.g. risk management) and
organisational levels (e.g. site, product, supply chain, corporate and portfolio).
Mainstreaming biodiversity is a priority across key business activities, i.e. strategy,
governance, impact assessment, risk management, due diligence, internal reporting,
external disclosure, and internal and external communication. However, business action on
biodiversity is mostly driven by corporate responsibility and risk management (Smith et al.,
2018[87]). In addition, no consensus has yet been reached on an agreed protocol or
│42
framework for integrating biodiversity in business and investment decision; there exists
only a protocol for natural capital (Box. 4.1).23
Box 4.1. The Natural Capital Protocol
The Natural Capital Protocol was launched in 2016 by representatives from over 160 leading
business, civil-society and policy organisations. It is a standardised decision-making framework to
generate information allowing businesses to identify, measure, value and prioritise their direct and
indirect impacts and dependencies on natural capital, and understand the associated risks and
opportunities. The protocol has been applied to sector-specific guides, including in apparel, food
and beverages, and forest products. It has limitations, however, in terms of valuating biodiversity
benefits (e.g. it does not incorporate the value of the quality-of-stock decline for key biodiversity
sectors like forestry, only its quantity). Recognising those challenges, the Natural Capital Coalition
launched a project in 2017 to strengthen the Protocol’s coverage of biodiversity.
The Natural Capital Coalition, the NCFA and the Dutch Association of Investors for Sustainable
Development have also developed a Finance Sector Supplement to the Natural Capital Protocol,
recognising the critical role the financial sector needs to play to factor biodiversity in business and
investment decisions.
Sources: (Natural Capital Coalition, 2016[5]) (Natural Capital Coalition, 2016[95]) (Natural Capital Coalition, 2018[125]).
Goals and targets

Businesses and investors need to set clear goals and quantitative targets for managing
biodiversity that are tailored to their dependencies and impacts, and measure their progress
(Addison et al., 2018[90]). Such goals, targets and commitments can be voluntary,
encouraged or required by regulation, or can relate to international biodiversity goals and
societal targets (Lammerant et al., 2019[126]). Existing biodiversity-related goals and targets
for businesses and financial organisations to consider include: societal targets (including
international biodiversity goals, i.e. the Aichi Targets and the SDGs 24) (Smith et al.,
2018[87]); No net loss or Net positive impact (or Net gain) goals on biodiversity, which are
increasingly being adopted by businesses; science-based targets; corporate-level
biodiversity commitments; and other targets linked to regulator and permitting
requirements, voluntary standards and agreements, and lender requirements.
Biodiversity metrics, measurement and accounting approaches

Several metrics or indicators, and around a dozen accounting approaches and
methodologies, are available for businesses and investors to understand and measure their
dependencies and impacts on biodiversity (Lammerant et al., 2019[126]) (Berger et al.,
2018[89]) (Lammerant et al., 2018[127]). Ongoing work by UNEP-WCMC and the EU B@B
Platform shows these indicators and approaches are applicable to different segments of the
value chain and organisational levels, i.e. product and service, project, site, supply options,
corporate and portfolio. Existing accounting approaches support businesses and investors
in assessing biodiversity performance for diverse business applications, e.g. strategy, risk
23
See Annex A.4.3. in the Annexes available online here (oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action) for more information about the
targets, goals, metrics and approaches to measure and integrate biodiversity in business and investment decisions.
24
SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development; and SDG 15:
Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification,
and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
43 │
management, impact assessment, disclosure and due diligence. They typically do not
currently cover ecosystem services.
Several metrics for business to measure biodiversity impacts and dependencies. These
include: mean species abundance; potentially disappeared fraction; risk of extinction; and
natural capital value, whether expressed in monetary terms (e.g. euros) or using
Environment Profit & Loss (EP&L) accounting, developed by Kering and used by other
companies to monetise the costs associated with biodiversity dependencies and impacts.25
Key measurement approaches and indicators include the Global Biodiversity Score, the
Biodiversity Impact Metric, Biodiversity Indicators for Extractives, the Product
Biodiversity Footprint, the Biodiversity Footprint for Financial Institutions, Biodiversity
Return on Investment, the Agrobiodiversity Index, the Biodiversity Footprint Calculator,
the LIFE Impact Index and Bioscope, as well as assessments under the Life Cycle
Assessments and the Natural Capital Protocol.
Most accounting methodologies have been developed through collaboration between
academia and the private sector. They typically rely on one of the aforementioned metrics.
Approaches are either sector-specific or cover multiple sectors. They use real or estimated
data, drawing on existing biodiversity data sets (e.g. the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species). They then typically link economic activities to pressures26 (using, for instance,
input-output modelling) before linking pressures to impacts (using models such as
GLOBIO or ReCiPe Life Cycle Analysis). Most methodologies are not fully aligned with
the Natural Capital Protocol.
Key areas to integrate biodiversity in business and investment decisions

Opportunities to factor biodiversity arise across several dimensions of business and
financial operations. In addition to metrics and targets, key entry points for integrating
biodiversity are broader than the areas identified by the Task Force on Climate-related
Financial Disclosures (TCFD) and include:27
 Strategy: embedding biodiversity in the overall corporate strategy of
businesses and financial actors is critical to integrate biodiversity in their
decisions (e.g. by developing a biodiversity-specific or broader environmental
policy, strategy, plan or management plan that accounts for biodiversity), in
addition to aligning goals and targets with corporate strategy. Several
investment strategies (including thematic investment in support of
biodiversity) are available to help banks, asset owners and asset managers
factor biodiversity in their investment decisions. Banks and institutional
investors in particular can influence the behaviour of investee corporations
(e.g. to encourage producers of soft commodities to reduce their impacts on
forest ecosystems).
 Governance: aligning corporate governance frameworks with biodiversity
factors through strong leadership and changes in governance at the board and
management levels is critical to ensure consistent business action for diversity
across organisational levels.
25
See Box A.4.1 on EP&L in the Annexes available online here (oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action).
26
Including habitat change, overexploitation, invasive alien species, pollution and climate change (Lammerant et al.,
2019[126]).
27
See Annex A.4.4 in the Annexes available online here (oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action) for further details.
│44
 Impact and dependency assessment and risk management: businesses and

financial organisations need to undertake biodiversity-related impact and
dependency assessments across organisational levels (site, product, project and
supply chains) and aggregate them at the corporate and portfolio levels. Several
performance-assessment and impact-assessment methodologies are available
in addition to existing risk-screening tools and biodiversity-monitoring
approaches. Additional work is needed to mainstream biodiversity in corporate
and financial risk management. Analyses at sectoral and geographical levels
can be used to screen portfolios to determine risky assets (AXA and WWF,
2019[128]).
 Due diligence: a due-diligence approach can help businesses identify and
prioritise action in order to avoid or mitigate adverse impacts on biodiversity.
As recommended under the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises
(OECD, 2011[107]) and OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible
Business Conduct (OECD, 2018[91]), businesses and financial organisations
need to consider biodiversity and broader RBC risks in their due-diligence
approach (Box 4.2).
Box 4.2. OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct
The OECD due-diligence approach, as defined in the OECD Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises and OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct, can help
enterprises prioritise the order in which they take action based on the severity and likelihood of
adverse impacts through a risk-based, ongoing process of prioritisation. The OECD has also
developed sector-specific guidance on the agriculture, garment and footwear, mineral supply chains
and financial sectors.
Additional work is needed to better highlight biodiversity as a key risk businesses need to address
as part of implementing RBC through internationally recognised standards on due diligence.
Following the OECD guidance and undertaking new OECD work to tailor it to biodiversity could
help businesses identify, prioritise, prevent and address adverse impacts on biodiversity, and
regularly report on these efforts and their outcomes (See Chapter 8).
Sources: (OECD/FAO, 2016[104]) (OECD, 2018[91]) (OECD, 2011[107]) (OECD, 2017[129]) (OECD, 2016[130])
(OECD, 2017[131]).
 Disclosure and external reporting: disclosure and external reporting of

biodiversity impacts, dependencies, risks and opportunities remain limited
compared to climate disclosure, which has gained momentum in recent years.
Companies rarely disclose specific, measurable and time-bound biodiversity
commitments (e.g. quantitative indicators on biodiversity), biodiversity
impacts or internal impact assessments. However, they need to disclose how
they assess the impacts and dependencies of their operations and value chain
on biodiversity, society and the environment, in addition to the risks and
opportunities for their businesses. Any approach towards developing a
harmonised framework or protocol for measuring biodiversity should ensure it
is compatible with existing reporting and disclosure frameworks. Integrated
reporting for financial and non-financial information can help in this regard,
and in this respect we acknowledge existing initiatives such as the ongoing
mission in France on extra financial reporting.
45 │
 Voluntary industry standards, labels and certification schemes: these are

being developed by businesses to embed biodiversity in their products,
services, operations and supply chains.
 Communication: communicating internally and externally (to staff,
consumers and local communities) on biodiversity impacts and dependencies
is critical for businesses to raise awareness about biodiversity and encourage
education, knowledge sharing and engagement with key stakeholders.
Business efforts should build on education initiatives to sensitise an
increasingly urbanised population to the importance of biodiversity. Engaging
civil society and local communities is particularly important to factor in human
well-being and human rights issues, as well as the potential trade-offs between
the desired biodiversity outcomes and the desired social outcomes.
4.4. The role of policy makers and other stakeholders in addressing barriers to
business actions for biodiversity
Challenges and opportunities for integrating biodiversity in business and

investment decisions
Despite some signs of progress – especially from large global companies and well-known
business champions on business action on biodiversity – progress in integrating
biodiversity in business and investment decisions remains limited across most corporations,
investors and insurers (Addison, Bull and Milner‐Gulland, 2018[132]) (CBD COP14,
2018[133]). A study by Arcadis and JNCC (2018[134]) found that 46% of FTSE companies
that have a medium to high impact on biodiversity have no policies in place to manage
exposure to biodiversity. The challenges with integrating biodiversity in business and
investment decisions relate to:
 Lack of business case in the absence of pricing of biodiversity: further efforts
are needed to internalise externalities associated with biodiversity loss or
degradation.
 Lack of awareness and understanding by businesses and the financial sectors
on biodiversity impacts and dependencies, and related risks and opportunities:
many companies still need to understand how biodiversity is material to their
businesses.
 Quantifying the value of biodiversity, and agreeing on common metrics and a
framework to understand and measure biodiversity impacts and dependencies:
a common protocol with harmonised metrics for measuring biodiversity
impacts and dependencies (such as the Greenhouse Gas Protocol for climate
change) is missing.
 Integrating the measurement of biodiversity impacts and dependencies across
governance, strategy, risk management, impact assessment, due diligence,
disclosure and communication of corporations and financial actors:
biodiversity and natural-capital assessments often remain an academic
exercise, with limited business applications beyond a few industry leaders. This
is partly due to the multiplicity and diversity of available indicators and
accounting approaches. Corporate balance sheets rarely reflect biodiversity
impacts, even though biodiversity measurement and accounting approaches are
now available. Further work is notably needed to assess the dependencies,
│46
impacts and materiality of biodiversity for corporations and investors, and

align accounting approaches in order to aggregate biodiversity impacts at
portfolio level.
 Short-termism in business and investment decisions: building the business case
for biodiversity requires a long-term approach, yet short-term investment can
lead to long-term returns (WBCSD, 2018[135]).
 Considering biodiversity investment opportunities within green sustainable
finance: this is critical for the financial sector to promote the transition towards
a more sustainable model of agriculture, forest management, fishery and other
key sectors, as recommended by the EU High-Level Expert Group on (HLEG)
Sustainable Finance.
Policy makers have multiple opportunities to scale up business action on biodiversity, in
co-operation with other stakeholders (as discussed in more detail in Chapter 8):
 The G7 could notably create a multi-stakeholder advisory group on
biodiversity, business and finance, to advise on the adoption of a common
approach for measuring and integrating biodiversity in business and investment
decisions in support of post-2020 biodiversity goals. Such an approach would
address biodiversity-related impacts and dependencies – and associated risks
and opportunities – and develop methodologies, metrics and guidelines. This
new initiative would notably develop a set of practical actions on due diligence
and biodiversity to support efforts by businesses, drawing on the OECD Due
Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct (OECD, 2018[91]). The
framework could be improved over time through a learning-by-doing
approach.
 Policy makers can also exploit the momentum and visibility of the SDGs, and
climate action by business and financial organisations. Linking biodiversity
and climate pressures in measurement approaches and reporting is also critical,
in order to avoid trade-offs between business investment decisions with
climate-mitigation benefits and negative impacts on biodiversity (e.g. land-use
impacts of biomass fuels).
 Biodiversity requires taking a supply-chain approach. Kering’s 2017 EP&L
account revealed that 90% of its total biodiversity impacts are generated in the
supply chain (Kering, 2017[85]).
Policy and regulatory tools to integrate biodiversity in business and

investment decisions
This section briefly summarises key policy recommendations to consider biodiversity in
business and investment decisions, drawing on a review of key policy and regulatory tools
available.28 Policy makers can encourage the business and financial sectors to factor
biodiversity dependencies and take a longer-term approach through multiple policy and
regulatory tools, e.g. by:
28
See Annex A.4.5 in the Annexes available online here (oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action) for more information.
47 │
 requiring companies to publish long-term plans factoring in long-term

management of biodiversity and other sustainability impacts, dependencies and
risks.
 requiring corporations, banks, asset owners and asset managers to assess both
their impacts and dependencies on biodiversity, ecosystem services and natural
capital, and how they can become financially “material”29 (HLEG, 2018[136]).
 mainstreaming quantitative biodiversity assessments in reporting requirements
and disclosure schemes, e.g. under the EU Non-Financial Reporting Directive,
whose guidelines could be updated to improve biodiversity reporting.
 setting policies promoting RBC (such as France’s 2017 Duty of Vigilance
Law) and improved due diligence for RBC, and tailoring RBC to biodiversity
impacts and risks, drawing on the OECD Guidelines on Multinational
Enterprises (OECD, 2011[107]) and OECD Due Diligence Guidance for
Responsible Business Conduct (OECD, 2018[91]) (which requires further
technical support and guidance for companies on how to measure their
biodiversity impacts and dependencies so that they can incorporate them into
a due-diligence approach). This work could be undertaken as part of the
proposed advisory group on biodiversity, business and finance, or
independently.
 increasing awareness from financial regulators and supervisors on biodiversity
and other sustainability risks, building on central banks and other regulators’
increased awareness of climate risks (DNB, 2019[86]).
29
See Section 4.1.2 and footnote 18 for a definition of materiality.
│48
5. OPPORTUNITIES FOR COST-EFFECTIVE RESTORATION
5.1. The rationale for ecosystem restoration
Ecosystem restoration, i.e. the “process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has
been degraded, damaged or destroyed” (SER, 2004[186]), provides a crucial opportunity to
improve the global outlook for biodiversity. Ecosystem restoration can also provide
significant societal benefits, through the enhanced provision of ecosystems services such
as carbon sequestration, flood regulation, clean air and water. Furthermore, ecosystem
restoration can be cost-effective. For example, a recent analysis estimates that restoring
350 million hectares of degraded forest areas globally30 could generate USD 7-30 of
benefits for every dollar invested (Verdone and Seidl, 2017[137]).
Ecosystem restoration is complementary to more traditional conservation approaches for
biodiversity. While conservation is important to prevent further declines in biodiversity and
ecosystem services, restoration can help bring species back from the brink of extinction
and enhance ecosystem services. To be effective, restoration actions must be accompanied
by measures to reduce the pressures that led to degradation in the first place.
Restoration can be technically challenging and expensive (although this is not always the
case, as for passive restoration). Thus, the conservation of intact ecosystems is a more cost-
effective option than restoration to ensure the flow of ecosystems services from a given
landscape (IPBES, 2018[138]).
Several multilateral environmental agreements include ecosystem restoration. These
include Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)’s Aichi Biodiversity Targets 1431 and
15,32 the Sustainable Development Goals,33 and the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification’s land degradation neutrality (LDN) Target Setting Programme and LDN
Fund. At the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in March 2019, governments declared
2021-30 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.
Governments have also agreed on ecosystem-specific restoration targets. For example,
Target 12 of the Ramsar Convention’s Fourth Strategic Plan 2016-2024 focuses on
restoring degraded wetlands and prioritises those relevant to biodiversity conservation,
disaster-risk reduction, livelihoods and/or climate-change mitigation and adaptation. The
United Nations Forum on Forests (Goal 1), the Bonn Challenge and the New York
Declaration on Forests all include forest-specific restoration commitments (Box 5.1).
Similar commitments for other ecosystems – either terrestrial (e.g. grasslands) or marine
(e.g. coral reefs, seagrass beds and kelp forests) – are lacking.
30
This study assumed the 350 million ha was distributed evenly across forest biomes globally.
31
Target 14: by 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and contribute to health,
livelihoods and well-being, are restored and safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women, indigenous and local
communities, and the poor and vulnerable.
32
Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks have been enhanced through
conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15 % of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate-
change mitigation and adaptation, and to combating desertification.
33
SDG 14 (14.2) and SDG 15 (15.1, 15.2 and 15.3, which includes a specific commitment to land degradation neutrality by
2030).
49 │
Box 5.1. The Bonn Challenge and the New York Declaration on Forests
Launched in 2011 by the Government of Germany and the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), and later endorsed and extended by the New York Declaration on Forests at the
2014 UN Climate Summit, the Bonn Challenge is a global multi-stakeholder effort to bring
150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and
350 million hectares by 2030. The Bonn Challenge supports efforts to deliver on a number of
international commitments, including Aichi Target 15, the Paris Agreement and the Rio+20 LDN
goal. It is supported by several regional initiatives. These include Initiative 20x20, a country-led
effort to bring 20 million hectares of land in Latin America and the Caribbean into restoration by
2020, and AFR100, a similar initiative to bring 100 million hectares of land in Africa into restoration
by 2030. As of April 2019, 58 commitments promising restoration on 170.43 million hectares exist
globally.
Source: (IUCN, 2019[139]).
5.2. Opportunities for cost-effective restoration
The opportunities for restoration are global. Degradation is occurring across all types of
terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems, and in all regions of the world. Estimates of
the extent of global degradation vary considerably,34 but are large. The recent
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES) report estimates that 75% of world’s land surface is degraded (IPBES, 2018[138]).
Gibbs and Salmon (2015[140]) estimate that up to 6 billion hectares (20 times the size of
France) of land are degraded. Recent work by the Global Restoration Initiative highlights
areas where restoration has the potential to improve food security, reduce poverty and
mitigate climate change.35
Identifying restoration opportunities from an economic perspective requires comparing the
costs of restoration with the benefits. Restoration costs include opportunity costs
(e.g. foregone revenue from agriculture or timber harvest), capital costs (e.g. planting or
fencing), management costs (e.g. monitoring), and transaction costs (e.g. negotiating
contracts and organising programmes). Total restoration costs, therefore, vary according to
the project’s objectives, land use and ownership; the degree of degradation; the type of
restoration intervention required; and the timescale for restoration (Bullock et al., 2011[141])
(Iftekhar et al., 2016[142]). While there exists a shortage of information on the costs of
restoration36 (De Groot et al., 2013[143]), the available evidence indicates that project costs
can range from several hundreds to thousands of US dollars per hectare (USD/ha) for
grasslands, rangelands and forests, to several tens of thousands of US dollars for inland
waters and millions of USD/ha for coral reefs (Nebhöver, Aronson and Blignaut, 2011[144]).
The potential benefits delivered by a restoration project also vary between ecosystems
(according to the type, quantity and quality of ecosystem services they provide), spatially
(e.g. according to the location of ecosystem service beneficiaries), and over time.
Ecological functioning and ecosystem service delivery may take many decades to fully
34
The multifaceted nature of biodiversity and the wide variety of ecosystems globally mean the definition of degradation is
context-specific. Furthermore, different methodologies exist for assessing degradation. Consequently, estimates of the extent
of degraded land are highly variable.
35
For more details see the Atlas of Forest Landscape Restoration Opportunities (WRI, 2014[239]).
36
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity initiative, for example, reviewed over 20 000 restoration case studies and
found that only 96 contained useful cost data.
│50
recover: for example, wetlands have on average 26% lower plant diversity and 23% lower
carbon sequestration one century after restoration action than in their pristine state
(Moreno-Mateos et al., 2012[145]). Restoration success is also context-specific, with some
areas (e.g. tidal and tropical in the case of wetlands) recovering more rapidly than others.
The value of the ecosystem services provided by restoration is also highly dependent on
the density and number of beneficiaries (Jones et al., 2016[146]). Thus, understanding the
spatial and temporal variability of ecosystem-service delivery and consumption is key to
assessing the cost-effectiveness of restoration (Birch et al., 2010[147]).
Trade-offs may also exist between different ecosystem services or policy objectives,
highlighting the need for clear restoration objectives and a holistic approach to cost-benefit
analyses. The Grain to Green Project37 in China, for example, included the planting of non-
native trees on agricultural land to decrease soil erosion, which led to decreased native
vegetation cover and increased water use (Cao, Chen and Yu, 2009[148]).
Overall, the available evidence suggests that the benefits of restoration outweigh the costs,
particularly when considering the full range of ecosystem service values. For example, de
Groot et al. (2013[143]) analysed restoration case studies with information on costs (94
studies) and benefits (225 studies),38 and integrated the information into a cost-benefit
analysis. Benefit-cost ratios were greater than 1 for inland wetlands, tropical forests,
temperate forest, woodlands and grassland, and as high as 35 in grasslands. Based on the
same dataset, Blignaut et al. (2014[149]) found that the average benefit-cost ratio varies
between 0.4 (coral reefs, seagrass meadows and other non-wetland coastal systems) and
110 (coastal wetlands, including mangroves), with the majority of biomes recording an
average benefit-cost ratio of 10.
In addition to improving biodiversity outcomes and the provision of ecosystem services,
restoration can generate business and job opportunities. In the United States, restoration
work is estimated to provide direct employment for 126 000 workers and generate
USD 9.5 billion in economic output annually. An additional 95 000 jobs and USD 15
billion in economic input are supported through indirect (business-to-business) linkages
and increased household spending (BenDor et al., 2015[150]). The number of jobs created
per USD 1 million invested in restoration in the United States is estimated to range from 7
jobs for county-level wetland restoration to 40 jobs for national-level forest, land and
watershed restoration (BenDor et al., 2015[150]). It is estimated that restoring 15% of
degraded ecosystems in the European Union (Target 2 of the EU 2020 Biodiversity
Strategy) would result in between 20 000 and 70 000 full-time jobs (Eftec et al., 2017[151]).
5.3. Putting restoration into practice
Although countries have established restoration targets under several global initiatives,
these vary considerably in their ambition, specificity and consistency. Table 5.1 provides
an overview of Group of Seven (G7) country commitments. An analysis of adaptation plans
submitted under the Paris Agreement found that 103 plans committed to restoration,
management or protection of natural habitats, but these commitments were rarely translated
into quantitative targets (Seddon et al., 2018[152]). The post-2020 global biodiversity
framework, and the process of updating nationally determined contributions (NDCs) under
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, may provide an
37
Also known as the Sloping Lands Conservation Programme.
38
Only direct costs (capital costs and management costs), and known benefits (ecosystem services, not other indirect benefits)
were considered.
51 │
opportunity to revisit national restoration targets to improve their specificity and

consistency.
Targets and policies for restoration need to account for – and aim to contribute to – a
number of policy areas, including biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, climate-
change mitigation and adaptation, and food and water security. Although restoration can
deliver multiple benefits, governments may need to address some potential trade-offs.
Enhancing biodiversity should be a primary consideration for all restoration action, given
the importance of diversity for ecosystem productivity (Liang et al., 2016[153]) and
resilience (Oliver et al., 2015[23]),and the potential of poorly planned restoration initiatives
to harm biodiversity (Ouyang et al., 2016[154]).
As restoration can be technically challenging, it is important to build on previous successes
and learn from the challenges that may have hindered the success of previous projects. One
means to this end is through guidance and standards that ensure good practice for
restoration action and facilitate landscape-scale planning of restoration action. Several
international guidelines exist. For example, the Restoration Opportunities Assessment
Methodology of the IUCN provides detailed guidance on forest landscape restoration, from
identifying opportunities to implementing projects.39 Ensuring standards and guidelines are
maintained and updated for national contexts through knowledge hubs, such as Réseau
d’Échanges et de Valorisation en Écologie de la Restauration in France and Società
Italiana di Restauro Forestale in Italy, is an important component of cost-effective
restoration (Menz, Dixon and Hobbs, 2013[155]).
Restoring an ecosystem may require restrictions on certain activities, changes in production
practices or active replanting. To support these actions, governments may need to draw on
a mix of policy instruments. No-take marine reserves, for example, have been effective in
restoring biomass, the structure and health of food webs, and ecosystem resilience (Sala
and Giakoumi, 2018[156]), while providing spillover benefits for fisheries (Halpern, Lester
and Kellner, 2010[157]). Further, creating positive incentives for restoration through
economic instruments such as taxes, subsidies and payments for ecosystem services is
important. Economic policy instruments can ensure the true costs of degradation are
appropriately priced into economic activity (e.g. though taxes, fees and charges) or that the
value of ecosystems services provided through restoration is channelled back to the
stakeholders instigating the restoration.
Paradoxically, environmental legal frameworks can impede restoration activity. In France,
for example, soils are not considered a component of ecosystems, limiting the scope of
restoration action to decontamination for public-health and security reasons (Buisson et al.,
2017[158]). In Indonesia, the government passed a decree enabling “production forests”
designated for logging to also be leased as long-term ecological restoration concessions for
conservation, carbon sequestration and other benefits provided by natural forests.
Fundamental changes to legal frameworks may be required for effective and equitable
restoration.
39
See also the Ramsar guidelines on restoring wetlands and peatlands; the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) database on sustainable land management; and the World Overview of Conservation Approaches
and Technologies Global Database on Sustainable Land Management.
│52
Table 5.1. National targets for ecosystem restoration in G7 countries
Ramsar
Priority sites Restoration LDN
National Biodiversity Strategies and Paris Agreement Bonn
Country for effectively Commitment
Action Plans NDCs Challenge
restoration implemented (UNCCD)
identified
Canada 2020: Canada's wetlands are No specific mention Yes Yes No No
conserved or enhanced to sustain
their ecosystem services through
retention, restoration and
management activities
France 2020: Preserve and restore EU-wide commitment Partially Yes No No
ecosystems and their functioning No specific restoration
targets
Germany 2020: National flood-protection EU-wide commitment Yes Yes No No
programme “Giving back space to our No specific restoration
rivers” targets
Italy 2020: Restoration mentioned several EU-wide commitment No No Yes No
times, including in reference to No specific restoration
agricultural lands; no specific targets targets
Japan 2020: Restoration mentioned in three 2030: Target of 36Mt- Partially Yes No No
targets and four key actions goals, CO2e for removals by
referencing invasive species, land use, through
ecosystem services, and climate- forestry and improved
change adaptation and mitigation cropland management
United 2020: 15% of degraded EU-wide commitment Yes Yes No 0.17 million
Kingdom ecosystems restored (England) No specific restoration ha
2020: Deliver peatland and wetland targets (Scotland)
habitat restoration around the Lough
Neagh Basin “Futurescape” through
support for “Rebuilding the
Countryside” Programme for 2015/16
(Northern Ireland)
2020: Restore 240 ha of ancient
woodland (Northern Ireland)
Ecosystems are restored to good
health (Scotland)
United No specific mention Yes Yes No 15 million ha
States by 2020
Notes: NDCs: Nationally Determined Contributions; LDN: land degradation neutrality; ha: hectare; Mt: million
tonnes; CO2e: carbon dioxide equivalent. Effectiveness of restoration under Ramsar is self-reported.
Sources: Extracted from NBSAPs, NDCs, Ramsar national reports, the UNCCD website and the Bonn
Challenge website.
Broad and inclusive stakeholder participation is an integral part of effective restoration (see
Box 5.2). To make informed decisions regarding restoration and its inherent trade-offs, and
avoid negative distributional impacts, an understanding of the way local (and in some cases
downstream) communities utilise and manage ecosystem services is needed. This is
particularly important in developing regions, where a high proportion of people
(particularly vulnerable and indigenous communities) rely directly on ecosystem goods for
food and fuel (Ding et al., 2018[159]). Further, incorporating local ecological knowledge and
indigenous management approaches into restoration plans can ensure projects are both
inclusive and effective.
Finally, to demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of restoration, projects should monitor and
report not only the ecological results, but also the changes in the flows of ecosystem
53 │
services. Much of the information currently available is based on the expected flows of
services based on theory, often using the pristine ecosystem as a baseline, Better
information demonstrating the actual increases in ecosystem services from restoration,
particularly at the scale of individual projects and ecosystems, is crucial for influencing
land-use decisions (Ding et al., 2018[159]). Many projects either do not report costs at all or
report only a portion of the total costs, often failing to report monitoring or transaction costs
(Bayraktarov et al., 2016[160]).40
Box 5.2. Examples of ecosystem restoration
France: Green Infrastructure in Nord-Pas-de-Calais

The Nord-Pas-de-Calais region in northern France is a heavily industrialised region, with
extensively degraded ecosystems from pollution, industry and fragmentation in the 19 th and 20th
centuries. Historic mining activity in the region had resulted in large areas of polluted and degraded
soils, which posed a considerable risk to public health. Restoration work began in 2002 and aimed
to avoid further degradation, restore natural heritage and improve connectivity between remaining
natural vegetation. The restoration was completed in 2015.
Restoration action was part of a larger national programme for green infrastructure and connectivity
(“Trame verte et bleue”) and included a broad long-term commitment to stakeholder engagement.
The steering committee comprised representatives from the public, local governments, the private
sector and non-governmental organisations. A wide-ranging public information campaign was
launched, garnering significant public support for the restoration project. The project cost
EUR 9.8 million (euros) and was ecologically successful, with several species returning to the area.
Societal benefits included increased green space for recreation and reduced public-health risks from
contaminated soils.
United States: Collaborative Forest Landscape Restoration Program (CFLR)
Forested land in the United States delivers multiple societal benefits, with an estimated 124 million
people relying on water from National Forest System lands alone. The programme aims to
encourage collaborative, science-based restoration; support ecological, economic, and social
sustainability; and leverage local, national, and private resources. The CFLR supported projects
covering 52 000 to 970 000 hectares, equating to USD 5-35 million in lifetime funding. The types
of activities supported included reforestation, invasive species removal, infrastructure upgrades
(e.g. forest roads), removal of accumulated biomass (to reduce fire risk) and sustainable timber
production.
The CFLR was allocated USD 40 million per year from 2010 to 2015; it created (or maintained) an
average of 4 360 jobs per year, generating a total local labour income of USD 661 million. From an
environmental perspective, the CFLR has facilitated the planting of over 27 000 hectares of forest,
treated around 600 000 hectares to reduce the risk of uncharacteristic wildfire and enhanced the
wildlife value of over 500 000 hectares.
Japan: Coral reef restoration, Okinawa
The coral reefs around Okinawa island in Japan have suffered significant declines in live coral cover
since the 1970s, falling as low as 3% in some areas (Kushibaru). This degradation has several
causes: mass bleaching events caused by El Niño in 1997 and 1998, over-exploitation of reef fish,
increased water turbidity from poorly managed development and predation by crown-of-thorns
40
This meta-analysis found that only 33% of 954 studies of marine restoration projects reported any cost data at all, and only
10% included some details of both capital and operating costs.
│54
starfish. Coral reefs surrounding Japan are estimated to provide USD 1 billion per year in tourism
benefits alone, and are thus are strong candidate for restoration.
Coral reef restoration in Okinawa has three key components. The first is an extensive process of
stakeholder engagement and participation. The second is a major technical programme of artificial
reef restoration, involving the cultivation and translocation of corals to sites. While these techniques
can be effective, they can also cost well over USD 200 000 per hectare, making them predominately
suitable for small, high-value restoration projects with broad public support, as in Okinawa. The
final component is a strong, science-based monitoring and research programme that assesses the
effectiveness of efforts and continues to develop the more technical elements of the coral reef
restoration.
Source: (Eftec et al., 2017[151]) (USDA and USFS, 2015[161]) (Omori, 2010[162]) (Spalding et al., 2017[49])
(Bayraktarov et al., 2016[160]) (Foo and Asner, 2019[163])
55 │
6. DATA AND INDICATOR GAPS ON PRESSURES AND RESPONSES
6.1. The need to improve data and indicators on biodiversity pressures and
responses
A better understanding of the source and magnitude of pressures on biodiversity will help
inform the design and implementation of effective responses (i.e. actions), whether by
government, the private sector or households. Similarly, improving data and indicators on
the types of responses implemented (at the national, regional and global scales), their level
of ambition and their effectiveness, is crucial to tracking progress towards achievement of
the intended biodiversity objectives. An improved set of biodiversity indicators would also
enhance understanding of the mechanistic links between the state of biodiversity, the
pressures on biodiversity and the responses (Box 6.1).
As the process of negotiating the post-2020 global biodiversity framework advances, taking
stock of data and assessment efforts, understanding current limitations and devising ways
to address gaps, is of paramount importance. The post-2020 process presents a crucial
opportunity to create a more effective global biodiversity framework. Establishing more
specific and measurable targets and indicators in the post-2020 framework will help
improve the ability to monitor progress compared to the existing framework (Butchart, Di
Marco and Watson, 2016[165]). Previous efforts to evaluate progress, such as the Global
Biodiversity Outlook-4 (SCBD, 2016[14]), have struggled to identify accurate, nationally
consistent data across countries in order to track progress towards many of the targets in a
comparable manner (Tittensor et al., 2014[166]).
Hence, the post-2020 framework should include specific, measurable, ambitions, realistic
and time-bound (SMART) targets to ensure that implementation and monitoring improve
on the Aichi Targets. To support this, indicators for the post-2020 global biodiversity
framework should be developed in tandem with targets in an iterative process. A first step
is to take stock of the available data and indicators, and to identify the gaps.
│56
Box 6.1. The pressure-state-response model
The pressure-state-response model is a commonly accepted framework for identifying and

structuring indicators. It distinguishes indicators of environmental pressures (both direct and
indirect), indicators of environmental conditions (i.e. state) and indicators of societal responses (i.e.
actions taken). Following the literature on the theory of change, response indicators can be further
disaggregated into inputs (e.g. finance), processes (e.g. institutional changes), outputs (e.g. new
legislation or policies), outcomes (e.g. increase in protected area coverage) and impacts (e.g. decline
in the number of threatened species) (Figure 6.1). Thus, if the responses are effective (and lead to
positive impacts in the last stage), they should manifest in an improved state of biodiversity.
Figure 6.1. A schematic of the pressure-state-response indicator framework and how it

relates to the theory of change
Source: (OECD, 2019[167]).
6.2. The current status of data and indicators to monitor pressures and responses
There have been large advances in the collection and analysis of biodiversity-relevant data.
Remote-sensing technology now allows near-real-time monitoring of several key pressures
globally, such as land-cover change in forest areas, fishing effort and forest fires (Global
Forest Watch, 2019[168]) (Global Fishing Watch, 2019[169]) (VIIRS Active Fire, 2019[170]).
Citizen-science data platforms, such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility
(GBIF) and the Ocean Biogeographic Information System, now contain well over 1 billion
species occurrence records globally. Databases such as the OECD Policy Instruments for
the Environment (PINE), which contains information on biodiversity-relevant economic
instruments reported by more than 100 countries, and the World Database on Protected
Areas, which maintains a record of the boundaries of protected areas globally, provide a
rich landscape of data on policy responses. There have also been significant advances in
the modelling of biodiversity responses to increasing anthropogenic pressure: indices such
as the Biodiversity Habitats Index (CSIRO, n.d.[171]) and the Biodiversity Intactness Index
(Newbold et al., 2016[172]) can help assess changes in biodiversity over time and understand
the impacts of policy responses.
57 │
Decision XIII/28 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) lists 98 indicative

indicators to monitor progress towards the Aichi Targets, and 64 indicators are currently
listed under the Biodiversity Indicators Partnership (BIP). The BIP covers a wide variety
of information, with 9 primary indicators (14%) on pressures, 28 (44%) on the state of
biodiversity and 25 (39%) on the policy responses (Figure 6.2). 41
Figure 6.2. Number and types of primary indicators under the BIP to track progress towards
the Aichi Targets
Note: Inset graph shows the type of response indicators across all targets. For a full list of the Aichi Targets
see: www.cbd.int/sp/targets/.
Information asymmetries exist across the Aichi Targets (and the environmentally relevant
Sustainable Development Goals [SDGs], notably SDG 14 and SDG 15).42 For example,
there currently exist no indicators to monitor progress towards Aichi Target 2 (on
mainstreaming) and Aichi Target 15 (on ecosystem resilience and restoration). In addition,
of the 25 response indicators available under the BIP, nearly a third relate to protected areas
(i.e. Aichi Target 11).
Kuempel et al. (2016[173]) suggest that identifying a comprehensive set of indicators that
are able to represent the changing state of a study system is an important step, which should
be taken every time new targets are being defined. For each indicator, it is important to
clarify whether it refers to conservation outputs (e.g. new legislation for protected areas
[PAs]), outcomes (e.g. greater coverage of protected areas) or impacts (e.g. higher species
abundance); to ascertain the availability of baseline data; and to determine the cost of
collecting and maintaining new data. Table 6.1 provides further examples of possible
41
Note that the data providers also assign categories themselves, resulting in 23 state, 19 pressure and 20 response indicators.
42
68% (63) of the environmentally relevant SDG indicators cannot be measured due to a lack of data (UN Environment
Programme, 2019[238]).
│58
comprehensive sets of indicators that could help to represent the changing state of a study
system.
Table 6.1. Examples of potential sets of indicators for policy responses
Response
Input Process Output Outcome Impact
theme
Protected Increase in Systematic New legislation to Increase in PA Increase in species
areas finance and conservation increase PAs coverage abundance
staff for planning
PAs
Sustainable Inter-Ministerial Fisheries Increase in % of Reduction in the
fisheries Committee on management plans fish from number of fisheries
Sustainable Ocean sustainable sources overexploited
Pesticide Assessment of Reduction in Decline in pesticide Increase in farmland
use environmental pesticide subsidies; use per hectare biodiversity (e.g.
impacts of Introduction of farmland bird index)
pesticides pesticide taxes
Sustainable Assessment of Farm-level Increase in uptake Increase in farmland
agriculture subsidy impacts on biodiversity of sustainable biodiversity (e.g.
biodiversity management plans practices and farmland bird index)
habitat creation
6.3. A proposal for headline indicators in the post-2020 framework
Under the CBD, indicators are currently arranged in a “flat” structure, suggesting all
indicators are equally important. Some indicators may be more policy-relevant and
important for tracking progress than others however. An alternative approach utilised by
the OECD Green Growth Indicators is to identify a smaller set of headline indicators from
the broader set of about 50 green growth indicators (OECD, 2017[174]).43 The data for
headline indicators must be consistent and comparable across countries. Figure 6.3
proposes a similar approach for the post-2020 biodiversity framework.
Figure 6.3. Possible categories of indicators for the post-2020 biodiversity framework
Source: (OECD, 2019[167]).
43
The OECD Core Set of Environmental Indicators also uses a similar approach, where ten key indicators have been endorsed
by national ministries.
59 │
An internationally agreed set of headline indicators could help prioritise national efforts
and those of international organisations to develop the indicators that are considered most
important. Table 6.2 provides a selection of possible headline indicators for policy
responses.
Table 6.2. Examples of possible headline indicators for policy responses
Indicator Data Provider Status

Protected area coverage World Database on Available
Protected Areas
Economic policy instruments (biodiversity-relevant OECD PINE Available
taxes, fees and charges; tradable permits; positive database (data on payments for ecosystem services
subsidies) and biodiversity offsets under
development)
Potentially environmentally harmful support to OECD PSE database Available
agriculture
Area under sustainable forest management FAO Under development
Extent of sustainable agriculture FAO Under development
Notes: FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; PINE: Policy Instruments for the
Environment database; PSE: Producer Support Estimate database.
6.4. Data and indicator gaps
Pressures
Multiple anthropogenic pressures are exerted on biodiversity. These pressures include
habitat loss and fragmentation (e.g. particularly from agriculture expansion), over-
exploitation of natural resources, pollution, invasive alien species and climate change
(Chapter 2).
Although the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity are generally well-known,
comprehensive monitoring of these pressures and impacts is largely absent. Data on
nutrient balances, pesticide sales and soil erosion have inconsistent coverage across
countries. The Farmland Bird Index is the only direct indicator of agricultural biodiversity
across many countries. However, data collection for this indicator relies on volunteers and
is therefore vulnerable to changes in the availability of volunteer labour in terms of both
space and time, limiting its scope. Efforts to develop new indicators for agricultural
biodiversity are underway in the European Union. Given the importance of agriculture to
the global economy and environment, addressing this data gap is essential. Further, the
impacts of agriculture and other forms of production are transmitted globally through
international trade. However, detailed information on the biodiversity impacts embedded
in the trade of many consumption goods is not available, complicating the implementation
of effective policy solutions.
Pollution is a key pressure on both terrestrial and marine biodiversity (OECD, 2018[175]).
While there is clear and increasing evidence of the impacts of plastic debris on marine
species (see Chapter 2), the impacts of the bioaccumulation of micro plastics on ecosystem
health, and, through consumption, on human health, are poorly understood (Koelmans
et al., 2017[176]). Given the crucial role healthy marine and freshwater ecosystems play in
the economy, the bioaccumulation of micro plastics and increasing plastic debris could
have far-reaching implications throughout society. Similarly, data and indicators on
pesticide pollution, its impacts and risks are not measured in a comprehensive manner.
│60
Better understanding the source and magnitude of pressures from pollution at local,
national and would be important.
Over-exploitation of biological resources is one of the major pressures on terrestrial,
freshwater and marine biodiversity. Inappropriate management of fish stock, for example,
can have severe impacts on biodiversity and the coastal communities that depend on it. But
data are lacking: in 2016, the most recent year for which data are available, 29% of
countries (12.8% of global catch) had not reported data to the FAO (FAO, 2018[12]).
Furthermore, illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing catches are not included in these
figures, and will likely have significant and currently unknown impacts on marine
biodiversity. From a terrestrial perspective, over-exploitation is also a major driver of
declines, again with considerable data deficiencies. Such is the case for trade in endangered
species, where a lack of data on the flows of both legal (regulated by the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and illegal trade is
undermining the effectiveness of enforcement and demand-side measures aiming to address
it (Symes et al., 2017[177]).
The development of satellite-based and other remote-sensing techniques has rapidly
expanded understanding of land-cover change in recent years (e.g. through Global Land
Cover, Community for Data Integration and Landsat) (Hansen et al., 2013[32]). Further
development of such satellite-based and other techniques should also allow the assessment
of land use. Information on the type and intensity of land use at high resolution will improve
understanding of how the threats to biodiversity vary across space, and would help optimise
investments in biodiversity (including conservation, sustainable use and restoration)
through the management of associated economic trade-offs (Naidoo et al., 2006[178]). Better
remote sensing of land cover and land use can also provide information on the changes in
ecosystem fragmentation and the impacts on biodiversity (Haddad et al., 2015[37]).
Finally, it bears noting that the multiple pressures on biodiversity do not occur in isolation;
instead, they act cumulatively or synergistically to heighten pressure (Chapter 3) (Barlow
et al., 2016[179]; Symes et al., 2018[180]). This is particularly important for climate change
and international trade, which have highly variable and complicated impacts on
biodiversity (Marques et al., 2019[11]; IPCC, 2018[15]). Consequently, actions and
investment for biodiversity must strive to account for the potential consequences of climate
change (e.g. changes in weather patterns, species composition and phenological responses)
that could undermine their impacts in the future. Understanding the mechanistic linkages
between pressures on biodiversity and how investments in biodiversity can leverage these
links to amplify their effectiveness is vital to designing cost-effective interventions.
Responses (i.e. actions)

Despite progress in the actions put in place to address biodiversity loss, much about the
policy responses remains unknown. For example, despite the wide-scale application and
long history of protected areas (PAs), information regarding their effectiveness is lacking
(Box 6.2). Data provided by countries to the OECD PINE database on the use of positive
incentives (i.e. economic instruments) such as biodiversity-relevant taxes, fees and
charges, tradable permits systems are also incomplete (Chapter 7).
61 │
Box 6.2. Data and assessment of protected areas (PAs)
Achieving the “effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected
systems of protected areas” called for in Aichi Target 11 implies monitoring multiple dimensions
of the PA systems, many of which are currently not monitored in a comprehensive way. For
example, while some countries, such as European Union Member States and the United States,
assess the status of biodiversity in protected areas regularly, this is not the case globally, particularly
in hyper-diverse tropical countries. Table 6.3 summarises the various PA dimensions and the current
status of data.
Table 6.3. Potential dimensions of PAs that can be monitored and current status of data
Indicator Nationally Globally

Data source Notes
status applicable comparable
Extent of PA Tier 1 World Database on Yes Yes Accepted as indicator of
Protected Areas, OECD progress towards Aichi
Targets and SDGs
Connectivity Tier 1 Protected area Yes Yes Accepted indicator to track
(terrestrial connectedness index progress on Aichi Targets
only)
Ecological Tier 1 Protected area Yes Yes Accepted indicator to track
representation (terrestrial representativeness index progress on Aichi Targets
only)
Management Tier 2 Global database on Yes No Data not collected routinely
effectiveness Protected Area and multiple methodologies,
Management making comparisons
Effectiveness challenging
Ecological Tier 3 n/a No No Multiple ad-hoc studies
effectiveness available, but standard
methods challenging, owing
to multiple dimensions of
effectiveness
Biodiversity mainstreaming44 across both the public and private sectors is essential for
effective action (Redford et al., 2015[181]). However, the plurality of institutions and policy
frameworks at the national level makes the creation of internationally comparable
indicators more challenging (OECD, 2018[182]). This is also true for the private sector
(Chapter 4).
Linking policy responses to the pressures on biodiversity is key to effective interventions.
Model-based indices, such as Biodiversity Habitats Index (CSIRO, n.d.[171]) and the
Biodiversity Intactness Index (Newbold et al., 2016[172]), have been developed to address
this issue. However, the complicated modelling used to derive these type of indices is
essentially a “black box”, making their interpretation challenging and undermining their
utility for policy making.
44
The Global Environmental Facility defines mainstreaming as “The process of embedding biodiversity considerations into
policies, strategies and practices of key public and private actors that impact or rely on biodiversity, so that it is conserved
and sustainably used both locally and globally.”
│62
6.5. Addressing data and indicator gaps
Improving the coverage of existing databases, both in terms of geographic and

informational range, is key for addressing data and indicator gaps. Some initiatives are
underway, e.g. to expand the coverage of the OECD PINE database to include information
on payments for ecosystem services and biodiversity offsets. Considerable opportunity
exists to scale up data and assessments for biodiversity at a relatively low cost. Juffe-
Bignoli (2016[183]) estimates that USD 114 million (US dollars) in investment is required
to reach an initial baseline for four globally important biodiversity-knowledge products45
(including the International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] Red List of
Threatened Species), a fraction of the USD 5-7 billion required to monitor global climate
for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (WMO, 2010[184]).
Ongoing developments in environmental accounting, emerging technologies and
innovation (Box 6.3) provide further opportunities for filling data gaps, and improving the
quality and efficiency of data collection. Finally, the development, application and
harmonisation of methodologies and standards to measure the biodiversity impacts
embodied in trade, such as the UNEP/SETAC (2016[185]) Life Cycle Assessment guidance
and the EU Environmental Footprint standards (EC, 2013[186]) is helpful in this regard.
Conversely, mobilising national data-collection efforts to track progress internationally
would benefit from better co-ordination of the national agencies responsible for data
collection with international data aggregators, such as the OECD PINE database and the
GBIF. Many countries (including in the Group of Seven [G7]) have extensive biodiversity-
monitoring programmes (e.g. the UK Biodiversity Indicators programme and the US
National Parks Service Vital Signs monitoring programme). Sharing best-practice insights
from these programmes – possibly through peer learning, to facilitate knowledge exchange
between national-level institutions – could benefit countries with less-developed
programmes.
Finally, a commitment to open data by all relevant institutions (where possible), both
nationally and internationally, is essential in order to address data gaps, enhance
accountability, and improve the design and implementation of policies for biodiversity
(OECD, 2019[187]). A powerful example of the impacts open data can have is the NASA
Earth Observation Systems Data and Information Systems, which provides free access to
over 11 000 unique data products. These data products now underpin many of the global-
scale indicators available today. Further initiatives to facilitate the open source nature of
data will likely help close data gaps without the need for additional expensive data
collection by ensuring more effective use of existing data.
45
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems, Protected Planet and the World Database
of Key Biodiversity Areas.
63 │
Box 6.3. Role of innovation in addressing data gaps
The rapid development of technology has led to an explosion in the volume and types of data that
can be collected across many sectors of the economy, society and environment (OECD, 2019[187]).
Biodiversity is no different. Several novel, emerging or developing technologies have the potential
to support traditional data collection by diversifying the types of data that can be collected and the
way existing data can be used by the public sector, the private sector and private individuals. In
some cases, these impacts are being felt already. Emerging artificial intelligence techniques, for
example, combined with remote data collection from camera traps and acoustic monitoring, has
already proved a powerful tool for identifying species and even individual animals (Kwok,
2019[188]). Further, nanopore DNA sequencing can be used fight illegal wildlife trade and block
chain to provide end-to-end transparency of supply chains, while mobile phone applications have
already increased role of citizen scientists in monitoring biodiversity. Finally, the emergence of new
technologies represents a major opportunity for new business: Earth observation from space, for
example, was worth USD 7.5 billion a year in 2015 (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2019[189]). The G7
can play a key role in leading the development and implementation of innovations for biodiversity
(see Annex for more information: oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action).
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7. GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY FINANCE: A PRELIMINARY UPDATE
7.1. A conceptual framework for biodiversity finance flows
The global finance needed to meet the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets by 2020 has been
estimated at about USD 150-440 billion (US dollars) per year (CBD High-Level Panel,
2014[190]). Global finance flows for biodiversity were estimated at about USD 52 billion in
2010 (Parker et al., 2012[191]). While acknowledging some uncertainties in these estimates,
it is clear that a major gap in the finance needed to halt biodiversity loss exists.
The finance for biodiversity stems from several sources, both public and private, and can
be domestic or international (Figure 7.1). Governments can influence both public and
private finance flows for biodiversity, including through economic instruments such as
payments for ecosystem services and biodiversity offsets. Figure 7.1 depicts the revenue-
raising instruments available to government (e.g. taxes, fees and charges), as well as the
financing instruments for biodiversity available to the public and private sectors.
Revenue-generating instruments such as biodiversity-relevant taxes, fees and charges also
provide incentives for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. If earmarked for
biodiversity purposes, such revenue can also create finance flows for biodiversity.
Figure 7.1. An initial conceptual framework for biodiversity finance and other types of
incentives and support
Note: Biodiversity-relevant bonds can include both private and public finance (if the issuer is public,
e.g. sovereign bonds), and can also be a subset of impact investing.
65 │
Data reported to the OECD Policy Instruments for the Environment (PINE) database
indicates that biodiversity-relevant taxes (such as taxes on pesticides) generate revenue
estimated at USD 7.4 billion annually (2012-16 average) in OECD countries (OECD,
2018[192]). While some countries included information on whether or not the revenue from
these taxes is earmarked for biodiversity-relevant purposes, the data are not currently
comprehensive enough to provide robust estimates of finance flows from such taxes to
biodiversity.
Revenue raised from biodiversity-relevant fees and charges, as reported to the OECD PINE
database, is estimated at USD 2.29 billion annually (2012-16 average) (OECD, 2019[193]).
Of the total number of biodiversity-relevant fees and charges that are currently reported in
the PINE database, 42% also include data on revenue. These instruments include entrance
fees to natural parks, and hunting and fishing permit fees. Based on a preliminary
assessment, a large proportion of this revenue is likely to be channelled towards
biodiversity-related activities.
The OECD PINE database also tracks information on biodiversity-relevant tradable
permits, such as individually transferable quotas for fishing. Tradable permits that are
auctioned, and whose revenue is earmarked for biodiversity-relevant purposes, also
constitute a finance flow for biodiversity. Existing data in PINE is currently limited and
will be extracted in the OECD follow-up work to this report.
7.2. Finance flows for biodiversity
The multiple data sources currently available on finance flows for biodiversity are non-
comprehensive and sometimes overlapping. Moreover, data for various types of finance
flows are not yet collected and reported in a consistent and comparable way. With these
important caveats in mind, this preliminary analysis provides estimates on biodiversity
finance flows, based on the categories in Figure 7.1. Section 7.2.1 discusses the data
available on finance flows to biodiversity as reported to the CBD Clearing House
Mechanism, whereas section 7.2.2 examines the data available based on other data sources
identified. A summary of the estimated finance flows for biodiversity identified here is
provided in Table 7.4 below.
Finance flows as reported to the Convention on Biological Diversity

Clearing House Mechanism
Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) are requested to report on their
finance for domestic biodiversity-related activities. According to data available in the CBD
Clearing House Mechanism (CHM), annual financial support provided to domestic
biodiversity-related activities, based on reporting from 74 governments, amounted to
USD 48.96 billion in 2015 (SCBD, 2019[194]).46
This finance estimate does not include the European Union, which allocated EUR 11.2
billion to biodiversity-related activities in 2015, covering central government budgets, and
including both direct and indirect expenditures. Further analysis is needed to determine
whether this finance flow is not also reflected in the data reported by individual
EU Member States to the CBD CHM. The domestic finance estimates reported in the CBD
CHM also do not include Ireland, which recently conducted a National Biodiversity
46
This aggregate number reflects a correction from Austria (personal communication with the CBD National Focal Point).
│66
Expenditure Review.47 Biodiversity expenditures are estimated at EUR 1.49 billion over
2010-15, i.e. EUR 250 million per year (Morrison and Bullock, 2018[195]).48
There exist some important considerations and caveats in terms of what the data reported
to the CBD CHM does – and does not – include. Domestic biodiversity expenditures
include finance received by international sources (referred to as extra-budgetary; see
Table 7.1), but not finance provided to other countries. The data reported may include
finance from all sources (including private/market) but must include, at a minimum, central
government. Italy, for example, includes government budget from both the central and
state/provincial levels, and covers both direct and indirect expenditures. Canada includes
data from a broader number of sources, including private finance. The estimates for private
finance cover user fees (e.g. park fees and licences) as well as business expenditures. The
data reported are therefore not consistent and comparable across countries.49 Reporting
rates are also still low (40% of all Parties to the CBD) (CBD, 2018[196]).
Table 7.1. Domestic expenditure sources and categories reported in the CBD CHM
Number of countries
Expenditures directly Expenditures indirectly
Number provided covers
related to biodiversity related to biodiversity
Government budgets – central 70 41
Government budgets – state/provincial 25 17
Government budgets – local/municipal 22 14
Extra-budgetary 24 15
Private/market 16 10
Other (non-governmental organisations, foundations, academia) 30 17
Collective action of indigenous and local communities 6 3
Source: (SCBD, 2019[194]).
Finance flows as reported in other data sets
Subsidies beneficial to biodiversity

According to the currently available data in the OECD PINE database, biodiversity-
relevant positive subsidies amount to USD 0.89 billion per year (2012-16 average, current
prices). Of the total number of biodiversity-relevant positive subsidies reported in the
database, only 57% also provide information on the finance flows associated with these
subsidies (OECD, 2019[193]).
A subset of government domestic expenditure is government support to agriculture that is
considered potentially beneficial to biodiversity, totalling an estimated EUR 2.6 billion per
year in OECD countries (OECD, 2018[197]).50 The data are reported in a consistent and
comparable manner. This amount includes support provided through the US Conservation
47
Following the approach of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)’s Biodiversity Finance Initiative
(BIOFIN) (UNDP, 2018[226]).
48
Another source of data that may be useful for domestic biodiversity-relevant expenditures is the Classification of Functions
of Government (COFOG), which includes a category for “biodiversity and landscape”.
49
An initial review of the data provided to the CBD CHM indicates that only about half of the countries provide specific
information for each of the finance categories they include. It is therefore not possible to identify which fraction of the total
finance reported is due only to domestic government budget, for example.
50
This is a proxy, which focuses on two categories of government support – namely, support with environmental constraints
that is for long-term retirement of resources and specific non-commodity outputs (this does not include cross-compliance).
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Reserve Programme (which is also included in the estimate of finance flows from selected
payments for ecosystem services [PES] provided in Table 7.2 below, and therefore leads
to double-counting).51
Official development assistance and other flows

The OECD also tracks data on official development assistance (ODA) from its OECD
Development Assistance Committee members through the Creditor Reporting System
(CRS). The most recent estimates are provided below (OECD, 2019[198]).
It is important to note that the bilateral biodiversity-related ODA is likely to be different
from what the Parties have reported as “extra-budgetary” in their domestic biodiversity-
relevant activities (Table 7.1). For example, the data below are commitments (rather than
disbursements). In addition, these funds could presumably be used to provide technical
assistance to partner countries (for example), rather than to add to partner government
resources that are spent and accounted for in national budgets.
 ODA: bilateral biodiversity-related ODA amounted to USD 7.83 billion in
2017 (commitments, current prices).
 ODA: Multilateral biodiversity-related ODA amounted to USD 2.57 billion in
2017 (commitments, current prices). This estimate is based on reporting from
EU institutions, the Global Environmental Facility and the International
Development Association.
 Multilateral development banks (MDBs): data on finance for biodiversity from
MDBs, such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the
European Investment Bank, the World Bank, the International Finance
Corporation and the Asian Development Bank, are not yet reported in a
consolidated manner available (unlike, for example, finance for climate
change).
 Other official flows (OOF) amounted to USD 146 million in 2017
(commitments, current prices). This estimate is based on reporting from two
members.
Debt-for-Nature Swaps
Debt-for-Nature swaps are another way that – in effect – mobilise finance for biodiversity.
According to Sommer, Restivo and Shandra (2019[199]), US debt-for-nature swaps
cancelled approximately USD 1.8 billion owed by 21 low- and middle-income nations, and
generated USD 400 million for conservation. In comparison, debt-for-nature swaps carried
out by all other high-income nations totalled USD 1 billion of debt cancelled and generated
about USD 500 million for conservation. Further analysis is needed to determine whether
the finance mobilised and reported by (Sommer, Restivo and Shandra, 2019[199]) would
constitute double counting with the data reported to the OECD CRS database on bilateral
biodiversity-relevant ODA.
51
There may also be double counting of data on PES by Costa Rica; this is not clear, however, owing to the way in which
the data have been reported to the OECD PSE database.
│68
Philanthropy
According to the most recent estimates, finance flows from philanthropy (i.e. private
foundations) for biodiversity-related activities totalled USD 380 million in 2017
(commitments, current prices). This estimate is based on data reported to the OECD CRS
database by 17 foundations, including the Arcus Foundation, the C&A Foundation, the
Children’s Investment Fund, the David & Lucile Foundation, the Ford Foundation and the
MAVA Foundation.
Private finance flows for biodiversity

In addition to public finance flows, achieving transformative change for biodiversity action
will require mobilising private finance flows for biodiversity action at pace and scale.
Economic instruments, such as PES and biodiversity offsets, are one way to engage the
private sector directly in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Biodiversity offsets
mobilise an estimated USD 4.8 billion per year (2016 data), globally (Bennett, Gallant and
Ten Kate, 2017[200]).
Finance for biodiversity channelled through ten large national PES schemes alone are
estimated at approximately USD 12 billion per year (Table 7.2).52 These larger PES
schemes highlighted in Table 7.2 generally combine both public and private finance for
biodiversity. It is estimated, however, that more than 300 PES schemes are in place
globally, including many privately financed programmes. The OECD is currently working
to incorporate PES schemes into the OECD PINE database in order to better track finance
from PES schemes, including whether the source of finance is public, private, or a
combination of both.
Other opportunities to mobilise private finance flows are also available. For example,
OECD institutional investors alone manage USD 55 trillion in assets (OECD, 2018[201]).53
Governments are keen to leverage private capital, notably from institutional investors, to
support the climate goals under the Paris Agreement. What is needed now is more
ambitious action to mobilise financial actors54 to steer private finance flows towards
biodiversity action.
A variety of investment strategies are available for investors and other financial
organisations to mainstream biodiversity considerations across asset classes and investment
types (e.g. listed or unlisted equity, loans, fixed income – including bonds – and
infrastructure) and investment management strategies (e.g. passive index investing or
active management). Available investment strategies include: active ownership and
engagement, divestment, exclusionary screening in the due diligence process, best-in-class
investing tailored to biodiversity, investment in thematic funds, or direct investment in
sustainable businesses that have a positive impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services
(e.g. in natural infrastructure), including through impact-investing strategies.55
52
The OECD is currently developing a survey to obtain additional information on PES schemes and the finance they channel,
to circulate to OECD and partner countries. Initial results are expected in late 2019 or early 2020. The data will eventually
be integrated into the OECD PINE database.
53
Including asset owners (pension funds, pension reserve funds and insurance companies), but excluding asset managers and
investment funds. Information derived from data gathered from OECD global pension statistics, institutional investor asset
databases, and data collected through the survey (for the total investment in reserve funds).
54
Including asset owners, asset managers, investment funds, banks, capital markets, financial regulators and supervisors,
international financial institutions and investee corporations.
55
See Annex A.4.4 in the Annexes available online here oe.cd/bio-fin-econ-case4action for more information on the available
investment strategies.
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According to Hammrick (2016[202]), the total private capital committed to conservation

investments between 2004 and 2015 amounted to USD 8.2 billion. Hammrick (2016[202])
defines conservation investing as “intentional investments in companies, funds, and
organisations with the goal of generating both a financial return and a measurable
environmental result”.
Table 7.2. Finance mobilised by ten large Payment for Ecosystem Services programmes
Year
Country Name of programme Objectives Finance mobilised
introduced
Australia Environmental Stewardship 2007 Biodiversity conservation, habitat USD 5.19 million per
Programme restoration, nationally threatened species year (2007-17 average)
Brazil Green Grants 2011 Sustainable use of protected areas, USD 33.8 million (2011-
programme (Bolsa Verde) improved environmental management 13 average)
and poverty reduction
China Sloping Land Conversion 1999 Reducing soil and water erosion by USD 4.9 billion per year
Programme (Grain for Green) targeting and converting marginal on average
farmland to forest or grassland (USD 69 billion by end of
2014)
China Natural Forest Conservation 1998 Protection and restoration of natural USD 4.7 billion in 2015
Programme forests
Costa Pago por Servicios 1996 Carbon storage, hydrological services, USD 42.4 million in 2012
Rica Ambientales protection of biodiversity and landscapes
Ecuador Socio Bosque 2008 Forest conservation, USD 7.9 million per year
carbon storage (2015)
Mexico Biodiversity PES 2003 Forest conservation, USD 22.3 million in 2016
biodiversity conservation
Mexico Payments for Hydrological 2003 Forest conservation, USD 28.2 million in 2016
Services hydrological services
United Conservation Reserve 1985 Wildlife-habitat benefits, water-quality USD 1.8 billion in 2015
States Programme benefits, on-farm soil-retention benefits
United Catskills 1997 Hydrological services, habitat restoration, USD 167 million per
States environmentally friendly farming year
Note: Finance for PES can include both private and public finance. Data on PES, including finance flows, are
not yet collected in a consolidated way. The OECD is currently working to incorporate PES into the OECD
PINE database. The new information will be available in the second phase of the OECD work for the G7.
Source: See (OECD, 2018[192]).
Impact investing strategy

Although still a niche investment strategy, impact investing has been gaining momentum,
contributing to the effort to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and address social,
environment and governance issues. According to Principles for Responsible Investment
data, more than 450 investors allocated USD 1.3 trillion to impact investments worldwide
in 2016 (UNEP Finance Initiative and United Nations Global Compact, 2018[203]).
The Annual Impact Investor Survey 2018 identified USD 6.98 billion in finance for
“conservation”, based on 226 investor responses. Total impact-investments assets (across
all categories) are estimated at USD 228 billion (Mudaliar, Bass and Dithrich, 2018[204]).
Biodiversity-relevant bonds
While investors have yet to mainstream biodiversity and broader environmental
considerations across all asset classes and investment types (despite progress in finance for
│70
climate change), bonds are another potential source of private finance for biodiversity.56
Since the inception of the green bond market, annual green bond issuance has grown rapidly
at the global level, from USD 37 billion in 2014 to USD 168 billion in 2018, thanks to the
diversification of issuer sectors, countries and targeted projects such as the 2019 Climate
Bonds Initiative. In fact, cumulative green bond issuance over the past ten years has passed
the USD 500 billion mark.
While green bonds are rapidly scaling up, they focus primarily on climate change and
seldom include biodiversity-relevant finance. The finance flows from biodiversity-relevant
bonds are, however, a tiny fraction of climate-relevant bonds. Sustainability bonds,
environmental bonds and impact bonds may also be relevant to biodiversity. A preliminary
review and analysis of the publicly available information (through websites) suggests
which bonds may be relevant to biodiversity (Table 7.3).
Table 7.3. Examples of biodiversity-relevant bonds
Company Finance
Green bond Klabin, Brazilian paper Claims USD 53 million for Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)
company (forestry); USD 61.3 million SFM (certification); USD 5.6 million
(native forests); USD 2.6 million (ecological parks)
Green bond Stora Enso, Finland Published a Green Bond Framework which includes projects related to
Forest Stewardship Council and Programme for the Endorsement of
Forest Certification-certified forests among its eligible categories,
signalling its intention to enter the market
Green bond France (government) 16% of EUR 9.7 billion for biodiversity conservation (outstanding at the
end of 2017) Sovereign Green OAT, i.e. EUR 1.55 billion
Environmental impact Louisiana Coastal Master USD 40 million for coastal-protection investment
bond Plan (project)
Environmental impact DC Water USD 25 million for building storm-water run-off infrastructure
bond
Social and sustainable Danone EUR 300 million partly for “sustainable” agriculture
bond
Sustainable bond PT Royal Lestari Utama USD 95 million “sustainable” rubber-joint venture in Indonesia
(Barito Pacific and Michelin)
Sustainability European Investment Bank EUR 500 million for sustainable water projects
awareness bond (EIB)
Sources: (Klabin, 2018[205]) (Enso, 2018[206]) (Agence Trésor France, 2017[207]) (EDF, 2018[208]) (TLFF,
2018[209]) (EIB, 2018[210]).
Other biodiversity funds

A number of biodiversity-relevant funds also exist, which mobilise finance from the public
and private sector. The OECD has started initial work to develop a biodiversity fund
inventory (OECD Biodiversity Fund Inventory [BFI] database). To date, more than 120
funds intended for the conservation of species and ecosystems have been identified.
Another 20 funds or so are climate funds that also target biodiversity-relevant aspects
(e.g. directly or through the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation initiative). The publicly available data are not sufficient to provide a robust
estimate of the finance flows for biodiversity at this time.
56
Note that bonds can be issued as part of various investment strategies, including impact investing.
71 │
7.3. Overview of estimated finance flows for biodiversity
Given the lack of comparable and consistent data on the subject, and based on the review
conducted to date, it would be premature and misleading to provide an aggregate estimate
of global finance flows for biodiversity. A summary of the estimates discussed above,
however, is provided in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4. Estimated finance flows for biodiversity
Type of finance Amount per year Notes Source/reference

Public
Domestic budget USD 48.96 billion 74 governments. Includes (SCBD, 2019[194])
in 2015 ODA in some cases. Methods
are not harmonised.
(Morrison and Bullock, 2018[195])
Ireland:
EUR 250 million per
year (average 2010-
15)
EU covers central budget (EC, 2018[211])
European Union: (direct and indirect
EUR 11 billion in expenditures)
2015
ODA – bilateral USD 7.83 billion Commitments, current prices (OECD, 2019[198])
in 2017
ODA – multilateral USD 2.56 billion Commitments, current prices (OECD, 2019[198])
in 2017
OOF USD 145 million Bilateral and multilateral. (OECD, 2019[198])
in 2017 Reporting is very limited (two
members)
Multi-lateral Development Banks Not available
Debt-for-nature swaps USD 900 million Possible double counting with (Sommer, Restivo and Shandra,
ODA? 2019[199])
Philanthropy/foundations USD 380 million Commitments, current prices (OECD, 2019[198])
in 2017 (biodiversity marker).
Based on 14 foundations
(Other) Biodiversity funds More than 120 biodiversity- (OECD, forthcoming[212])
relevant funds identified. Very
little data available on finance
Biodiversity-relevant positive USD 0.89 billion Current prices (OECD, 2019[193])
subsidies 2012-16 average
Potentially beneficial flows from EUR 2.6 billion Includes U.S. CRP which is (OECD, 2018[197])
government support to (OECD countries) also included in the PES
agriculture estimate below
Private
PES USD 12 billion 10 large PES programmes (OECD, 2018[192])
Biodiversity offsets USD 4.8 billion (Bennett, Gallant and Ten Kate,
in 2016 2017[200])
Biodiversity-relevant fees and USD 2.29 billion Current prices (OECD, 2019[193])
charges (2012-2016 average)
Impact investing for USD 6.84 billion Based on survey of 226 (Mudaliar, Bass and Dithrich,
“conservation”, i.e. conservation impact investors 2018[204])
assets under management
Private equity and debt finance N/A e.g. Mirova Althelia
Notes: Adding these numbers would likely lead to significant double counting in some cases. *Green/blue
bonds can be part of impact investment; bonds can also be issued by public issuers, i.e. sovereign bonds.
│72
7.4. Potentially environmental harmful finance flows
Any estimates on finance flows for biodiversity should be considered together with the
available estimates on potentially environmentally harmful flows. The estimates suggest
high government support and subsidies to activities with significant environmental
footprints (Table 7.5).
Table 7.5. Subsidies to activities with significant environmental footprints are large and costly
Country coverage USD billion per year Source

Support measures for fossil fuels Global 370 in 2015 (OECD, 2018[213])
Water use and treatments Global 450 in 2012 (IMF, 2015[214])
Support to agricultural production OECD countries 100 in 2015 (OECD, 2013[215])
potentially environmentally harmful
Support to fisheries OECD countries 7 in 2018 (OECD, 2017[216])
Global – including fuel subsidies 35 (in 2009 dollars) (Sumaila et al., 2016[217])
Based on conservative estimates of subsidies that are harmful to biodiversity (covering

fossil-fuel subsidies, which contribute to climate change and thus indirectly to biodiversity
loss, and government support to agriculture that is potentially environmentally harmful)
finance flows for the conservation, sustainable use and restoration of biodiversity outweigh
government support that is potentially harmful to biodiversity by a factor of 10.
Such support, including subsidies, can – and must – be reformed. Several countries have
taken action in this regard. Switzerland, for example, has reformed its agricultural policy
to ensure that current subsidies target more biodiversity-friendly purposes (OECD,
2017[83]). Chapter 8 discusses opportunities to scale up action for biodiversity.
73 │
8. OPPORTUNITIES TO SCALE UP ACTION ON BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity and ecosystem services underpin human well-being and the ability to ensure
sustainable development. The planet’s ability to sustain people and prosperity can no longer
be taken for granted. Addressing the multiple pressures on biodiversity requires actions
across all fronts: government (national and subnational), the private sector, civil society
and individuals. More co-ordinated, coherent and strategic approaches are needed to ensure
that biodiversity and ecosystem services can continue to support all life on Earth. Ten
priority areas have been identified where Group of Seven (G7) and other countries can
focus their efforts.
8.1. Pursue a robust post-2020 global biodiversity framework with specific,

measurable and quantitative targets
The 15th meeting of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Conference of the
Parties (COP 15), to be held in Kunming, China, in December 2020, represents a critically
important opportunity to put in place the framework and supporting mechanisms to halt
and reverse biodiversity loss, and to scale up the conservation, sustainable use and
restoration of ecosystem services. A robust post-2020 global biodiversity framework,
featuring specific and measurable targets, will be fundamental to galvanising action at the
national level, across both the public and private sectors. Specific and measurable targets
at the global level, together with associated indicators, will enhance clarity and
transparency on the actions required at the global, regional and national levels, and enable
the assessment of whether progress is being achieved.
An effective structure of the post-2020 global biodiversity framework can also help
communicate and clarify the overarching goals and objectives to the public, and engage
civil society. The current framework comprises a long-term 2050 vision for biodiversity,
together with 5 overarching goals for 2011-20 and the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets. New
structures are being considered for the post-2020 global biodiversity framework, including
a pyramid structure featuring a quantifiable “apex” goal, below which are: (i) quantified
objectives on the state of biodiversity; (ii) priority actions (not necessarily quantified); and
(iii) the necessary supporting and enabling conditions (Conservation International et al.,
2018[218]).
A few iterations of the elements within the pyramid structure have since evolved. Figure 8.1
provides an alternative proposal for the three elements under the “apex” goal, that aligns
more closely with the existing Aichi Targets, and which cover the well-established
categories of biodiversity-related pressures, state and responses (see Chapter 6). The
responses are, in effect, the actions taken to address the pressures and indirect drivers of
biodiversity loss. The proposal places stronger emphasis on the need for quantified
objectives, not only for the state of biodiversity, but where possible also on the pressures
and actions taken. Actions include those on policies, governance and finance, among
others. The proposal also incorporates the concept of headline indicators for all of the
objectives (see Chapter 6). Identifying the relevant headline indicators would need to be
driven by the recognised importance of the associated targets for policy making. The
identification of a smaller set of headline indicators would enable efforts to be prioritised
to improve the data underlying these indicators, so as to ensure they are comparable and
consistent across countries.
│74
Figure 8.1. Possible elements of a post-2020 biodiversity framework, including headline

indicators
Source: Adapted from (OECD, 2019[167]) (Conservation International et al., 2018[218]).
A post-2020 global biodiversity framework that includes the concept of headline indicators
would strengthen the alignment between the indicators proposed through the global
framework and indicators used at the national level (Box 8.1). This would enhance
transparency, accountability and comparability of data across countries (see also
Chapter 6).
Box 8.1. Stronger alignment between post-2020 national and international indicators for
biodiversity through headline indicators
There currently exist about 98 indicative indicators under the CBD framework, which countries are
encouraged to use to monitor progress on achieving the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The Biodiversity
Indicators Partnership (BIP) currently covers 64 indicators (see Chapter 6). Uptake of the BIP
indicators at the national level remains limited, however, rendering it difficult to: (i) assess whether
the national commitments, when aggregated at the global level, are sufficient to meet the 2011-2020
Aichi Biodiversity Targets; and (ii) monitor national progress in a comparable way across countries.
A more robust monitoring and reporting framework, using indicators in a more consistent and
comparable way across countries at the national, regional and global scales, is therefore essential to
track progress towards the post-2020 biodiversity targets.
Agreement on a smaller set of key headline indicators that are quantitative, consistent and
comparable across countries could help achieve this goal. A strong emphasis of the headline
indicators on responses, including on inputs (e.g. finance), outputs (e.g. positive incentives and their
level of ambition), and outcomes (e.g. increase in PA coverage) (see Chapter 6) would allow a
quantitative comparison of the actions put in place. Should the need arise to ratchet up national
biodiversity commitments over time so as to achieve any of post-2020 global biodiversity targets, it
is the targets associated with these action headline indicators that would be the most important to
revise, as these are most policy-relevant.
75 │
8.2. Mobilise non-state actors through the Sharm El-Sheikh to Kunming Action
Agenda for Nature and People in the lead-up to COP15 in 2020
The Sharm El-Sheikh to Kunming Action Agenda for Nature and People was launched by
the Governments of Egypt and China, in co-operation with the CBD Secretariat, to mobilise
action in the lead-up to COP15 in 2020. It aims to enhance implementation of the Strategic
Plan for Biodiversity 2011-20 and the Aichi Targets, advance on the SDGs and support the
post-2020 global biodiversity framework, by collecting, coordinating, and celebrating
actions in support of biodiversity conservation and its sustainable (CBD, 2019[219]). All
stakeholders across all sectors are encouraged to send and display commitments and
contributions to biodiversity on an online platform launched in April 2019, to map
biodiversity efforts, estimate impact and help identify key gaps.
8.3. Promote policy coherence to harness synergies and reduce trade-offs for
biodiversity
Action on biodiversity will involve trade-offs and synergies with other policy areas.
Developing a long-term vision (e.g. to 2050) at the national level can be a useful first step
to identify priority areas for action. The long-term national visions can draw on and align
with the global biodiversity vision, adapted to the national-level context.
The long-term national vision can be used to inform the establishment of clear, national
biodiversity targets, for example to 2030, and embedded in the post-2020 National
Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans. Similarly to the post-2020 global biodiversity
framework, national targets should be as specific, measurable, ambitious, realistic and
time-bound (SMART) (and thus quantitative) as possible, accompanied by indicators for
measuring progress (OECD, 2018[182]). By using nationally appropriate SMART targets for
biodiversity, governments can clearly identify where trade-offs and synergies with other
policy areas (e.g. agriculture, mining or trade) exist, and develop appropriate strategies to
address or harness them.
To help ensure that policies are coherent across various sectors and areas of the economy,
biodiversity targets should be reflected and mainstreamed into other relevant national
strategies, e.g. on economic growth and development, agriculture, fisheries, urban
development, climate change and trade. These strategies should also incorporate clear
biodiversity-relevant strategic objectives, targets and indicators, so as to monitor progress.
Co-ordinating national-level response to multilateral environmental agreements (e.g. the
Sustainable Development Goals [SDGs], the CBD, the United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
and the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction) is important for harnessing the
potential of biodiversity to deliver on multiple goals. For example, nature-based solutions
can be used to improve outcomes for biodiversity and simultaneously deliver on several
other international environmental goals, such as clean water and air, resilience to climate
change and job creation through ecosystem restoration.
More stringent environmental provisions in regional trade agreements (RTAs) and product-
specific agreements can help reduce the impacts of trade on biodiversity (see Chapter 2).
Although most RTAs contain environmental protections of some kind, these are often too
weak to mitigate fully the impacts of trade or address the pressures causing biodiversity
decline. Provisions that directly address biodiversity issues – such as in the EU-Canada
Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement – or to address deforestation and product-
│76
specific agreements – such as under the EU Forest Law Enforcement Governance Action
Plan – can be used more frequently to mitigate the impacts of international trade on
biodiversity.
8.4. Scale up policy instruments for biodiversity and get the economic incentives
right
Governments will need to consider which mix of policy instruments is most likely to
achieve their national post-2020 targets in the most environmentally and cost-effective
manner. Table 8.1 summarises examples of possible policy instruments covering
regulatory (command-and-control) approaches, economic instruments, and information
and voluntary approaches. Other possible measures relate to research and development, and
trade.
Table 8.1. Policy instruments for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use
Regulatory (command-and-control) Information and other voluntary

Economic instruments
approaches instruments
Restrictions or prohibitions on use Price-based instruments: Eco-labelling and certification
(e.g. trade in endangered species and the Taxes (e.g. on groundwater (e.g. organic agriculture labelling
Convention on International Trade in extraction, pesticide and schemes and labels for sustainably
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and fertiliser use) harvested fish or timber)
Flora)* Charges/fees (e.g. for natural-
resource use, access to
national parks, and hunting
or fishing licence fees)
Subsidies to promote biodiversity
Access restrictions or prohibitions Reform of environmentally harmful Green public procurement (e.g. of
(e.g. protected areas and legislated buffer subsidies sustainably harvested timber)
zones along waterways)
Permits and quotas (e.g. for logging and Payment for ecosystem services Voluntary approaches
fishing) (i.e. negotiated agreements
between businesses and
government for nature protection),
e.g. voluntary offset schemes
Quality, quantity and design standards Biodiversity offsets/ bio-banking Corporate environmental accounting
(e.g. commercial fishing net mesh-size
specifications).
Spatial planning (e.g. ecological corridors) Tradable permits (e.g. individual
transferable quotas for fisheries)
Planning tools and requirements
(e.g. environmental impact assessments Non-compliance fines
and strategic environmental assessments
Source: Adapted from (OECD, 2013[220]).
The full suite of available policy instruments are not implemented at the scale needed to
halt and reverse biodiversity loss.57 Protected areas (PAs), for example, have long been the
cornerstone of biodiversity conservation policy. While countries have made considerable
progress in increasing the coverage of their terrestrial and marine PAs (in line with Aichi
Target 11), management effectiveness in many PAs needs to be improved. More consistent
use of spatial planning to improve the ecological representativeness and connectivity of
57
This includes action to counter illegal poaching and trade in biodiversity, as well as action to address the risks from invasive
alien species.
77 │
PAs, also in light of ongoing climate change, and better monitoring of the effectiveness of
the PA system in achieving the intended ecological impacts of PAs are essential.
Economic instruments, such as taxes, fees and charges, tradable permits and payments for
ecosystem services, provide incentives for more sustainable production and consumption
patterns, and can also generate revenue. These instruments must also be scaled up. Yet the
revenue generated from biodiversity-relevant taxes only amounts to 1% of the total revenue
generated from environmentally relevant taxes, suggesting substantial scope to scale up the
use and ambition of biodiversity-relevant economic instruments. Such measures should
also be accompanied by other policy reforms, such as lowering taxes on public goods.
Improved tracking and reporting on the use of biodiversity-relevant economic instruments
is also important for monitoring and evaluating country progress (e.g. towards Aichi Target
3), facilitating analysis of the effectiveness of biodiversity policy responses and supporting
lesson-sharing among countries (Box 8.2).
Reviewing, evaluating and enhancing the effectiveness of existing policy instruments can
help governments tailor policy responses and enhance their cost-effectiveness. A recent
inventory of impact-evaluation studies relevant to terrestrial and marine biodiversity
suggests there still exist very few rigorous evaluation studies applied to the field of
biodiversity (in contrast to, for example, economic development and health). While such
studies are costly to conduct, they allow deriving a better understanding of what works,
what does not, and why, and are therefore crucial to designing and implementing effective
policies for biodiversity. Undertaken strategically and selectively, such studies could
enhance the cost-effectiveness of public and private interventions (Karousakis, 2018[221]).
Box 8.2. Improve reporting and tracking of biodiversity-relevant economic instruments

(i.e. positive incentives) and the revenue they generate
Countries could step up their efforts to provide regular, up-to-date and accurate data on the policy
instruments in place, their ambition, and – to the extent possible – their effectiveness. The OECD
database on Policy Instruments for the Environment (PINE) is a tool to track progress on the
implementation of biodiversity-relevant economic instruments (i.e. the positive incentives in Aichi
Target 3). While more than 100 countries currently report to the PINE database – e.g. on finance
generated or mobilised, and whether or not the finance generated (e.g. from biodiversity-relevant
taxes) is earmarked, – it is not yet comprehensive (see Chapter 7). G7 countries could showcase
their leadership in this area by committing to strengthening their reporting to the PINE database.
8.5. Scale up and align finance for biodiversity from all sources
Scaling up finance from all sources – both public and private – is critical. The finance needs
to ensure biodiversity conservation and sustainable use have been estimated at USD 150-
440 billion per year, yet the estimates available on finance flows to biodiversity suggest
these are between three and 10 times smaller. Domestic public expenditure on biodiversity
and biodiversity-related ODA is an important part of this, but it is not sufficient on its own.
Governments, in close co-operation with financial authorities, banks and investors, also
need to help align private investment decisions with biodiversity objectives and the
mobilisation of private financial flows towards biodiversity-friendly investment. To
mobilise private financial flows, policy makers can: strengthen economic incentives to get
the prices right; strengthen domestic enabling conditions to improve the attractiveness of
│78
biodiversity-friendly investment, including by setting biodiversity-friendly policies and

aligning broader investment conditions; encourage pipelines of biodiversity-friendly
investment opportunities; and support de-risking instruments and transaction enablers and
institutions, to provide channels for institutional investment and other sources of private
finance towards biodiversity-friendly investment.
8.6. Establish consistent and comparable finance reporting and tracking

frameworks, across countries and companies
Improving the consistency and comparability of finance reporting frameworks for both the
public and private sector is important to track progress in scaling up biodiversity finance.
While data availability on finance relevant to biodiversity is improving, a number of data
gaps remain, and the available data are not always collected in a comparable and consistent
way. For example, while data on bilateral biodiversity-relevant official development
assistance are reported in a consistent way, data on finance flows from domestic public
expenditures on biodiversity are generally not. The G7 could endorse France’s call for the
OECD to conduct follow-up work to produce a comprehensive update on global finance
for biodiversity, and to develop recommendations on how to resolve data gaps and
inconsistencies, including through improved reporting and tracking frameworks.
8.7. Reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity
In addition to scaling up biodiversity finance, it is equally important to accelerate the reform

of subsidies harmful to biodiversity. Progress towards Aichi Target 3 on reforming
subsidies harmful to biodiversity by 2020 has been very slow, and efforts on this front must
be scaled up. As the basis for reform, it would be useful to expand internationally
comparable information on subsidies to more countries and types of support, e.g. through
peer review. Countries could also share experience and lessons learned from identifying,
assessing and reforming subsidies harmful to biodiversity and, more generally, subsidy
reforms.
Better understanding the domestic public expenditures that may harm the environment, in
addition of those that contribute to environmental protection, is an objective of the Paris
Collaborative on Green Budgeting.58 The OECD launched the Collaborative at the One
Planet Summit in 2017, with the support of France and Mexico. It aims to design new,
innovative tools to assess and drive improvements in the alignment of government budgets
and fiscal policy with environmental objectives, including on climate and biodiversity.
8.8. Facilitate mainstreaming of biodiversity by business and financial organisations
Policy makers need to commit to strengthening business incentives for action on

biodiversity. International and co-ordinated efforts to this aim will also help ensure a level
playing field. Multiple opportunities exist for policy makers to encourage business and
financial organisations to scale up action on biodiversity, in co-operation with other
stakeholders:
Political leadership (e.g. under the G7) could spur a consensus among stakeholders on a
common approach for measuring and mainstreaming biodiversity factors across business
and investment decisions. The G7 could notably create a multi-stakeholder advisory group
58
For more information on the Paris Collaborative see: www.oecd.org/environment/green-budgeting/
79 │
on biodiversity, business and finance, to advise on the adoption of a common approach for
measuring and mainstreaming biodiversity in business and investment decisions in support
of post-2020 biodiversity goals. Such an approach could address biodiversity-related
factors (i.e. impacts and dependencies, and associated risks and opportunities) and develop
methodologies, metrics and guidelines relevant to business and investment activities. In
particular, a common approach could be based on:
 A methodology for assessing biodiversity factors across operations, supply
chains and portfolios: this would build on common ground across existing
accounting approaches, to aggregate the measurement of biodiversity impacts
at the corporate level and harmonise it at the portfolio level. A common
protocol with harmonised metrics for measuring biodiversity factors is missing
and more challenging to establish than metrics for greenhouse gas emissions.
The advisory group could establish a few agreed metrics to start
(e.g. ecosystem degradation, land-cover change, species loss, pollution or
carbon footprint), before scaling up ambition and improving the measurement
over time through learning-by-doing.
 A framework to mainstream biodiversity factors in business and investment
decisions: this would apply not only to metrics and targets, but also to strategy,
governance, risk management, due diligence and disclosure. Such a framework
would need to consider business activities across supply chains and
organisational levels. Most biodiversity impacts are generated in the supply
chains (e.g. for the agriculture, food, beverage, garment and footwear sectors).
Key organisational levels include product and service, project, site or facility,
corporate, portfolio, supply-chain segments, and sectors.
 In particular, the advisory group could build on the OECD Due Diligence
Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct to develop a set of practical
actions on due diligence and biodiversity in support of efforts by businesses
(OECD, 2018[91]). All G7 members have adhered to the guidance. They have
committed to asking businesses to follow it in order to identify, prevent and
address adverse impacts on biodiversity, and to regularly report on these efforts
and their outcomes. The G7 could call on the OECD to develop this work as
part of the proposed multi-stakeholder advisory group on biodiversity, business
and finance, or independently.
Policy makers can also harness the momentum and visibility of the SDGs and climate
action among business and financial organisations to raise awareness on biodiversity and
ecosystem services. A multidimensional approach across policy areas (e.g. biodiversity,
climate change and water) can be particularly important in sectors such as food and land-
use, including forests (WBCSD, 2018[135]). The EU Action Plan on Sustainable Finance for
instance looks at priorities to promote sustainable finance across a number of
environmental and social areas. Linking biodiversity and climate change pressures in
measurement approaches and reporting is particularly critical to avoid trade-offs between
business investment decisions with climate-mitigation benefits and negative impacts on
biodiversity (e.g. land-use impacts of biomass for fuels or plastic use).
│80
8.9. Assess and communicate socio-economic dependencies and impacts on

biodiversity at the national level
At the national level, all sectors and stakeholders – including the government, private sector
and civil society – need to scale up action on biodiversity, and take steps to ensure more
sustainable production and consumption patterns. The government in particular has a key
role to play in developing the information and evidence base needed to inform policy, and
in providing the regulatory and policy frameworks to maximise social welfare. A
comprehensive, co-ordinated and strategic approach is needed to this end – one that is
environmentally effective, cost-efficient and distributionally equitable, including across
generations.
Governments can strengthen their policy responses by developing a clear understanding of
socio-economic dependencies, pressures and impacts on biodiversity, and how these may
evolve. Mapping, assessing and valuing ecosystems and their services, for example through
national ecosystem assessments (NEAs), can increase the economic visibility of
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Not only do analyses of existing NEAs highlight their
potential utility in shaping policy, they also stress the importance of designing NEAs to
respond to specific policy questions and communicate targeted messages to key
stakeholders (e.g. agriculture, fisheries and other sectoral ministries). Sharing experiences
on NEAs (e.g. objectives, scope, design and policy application) could help refine future
NEAs and their ability to influence policy making.
Further efforts are also required to scale up and refine the use of natural capital accounting.
Although an increasing number of countries are experimenting with natural capital
accounting, few have comprehensive accounts. Furthermore, challenges remain in
integrating non-market ecosystem service values and linking natural capital accounts to
decision-making. G7 countries could continue to play a leading role in developing and
refining tools and methodologies for integrating the values of ecosystem services and the
costs of ecosystem degradation into national accounts. The ongoing revision of the System
of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting provides an important opportunity
to drive these efforts.
8.10. Ensure inclusive and equitable transformative change
Any actions to foster biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and restoration, should
imperatively consider the distributional implications on more vulnerable groups of society
and future generations. A package of policy measures is needed, including targeted
measures to address potential regressive impacts on income distribution. The evidence
suggests that the distribution of costs and benefits (real or perceived) can be fundamental
in defining the ambition and pace of reforms, policy choice and design. Recycling the
revenue from biodiversity-relevant taxes, for example, or putting in place transitional
measures, can help minimise the cost to lower-income groups (OECD, 2017[83]).
Developing a robust evidence base – including on the costs and benefits of action and who
stands to win or lose – is therefore essential to build support for reform and help anticipate
and address any unintended impacts and consequences of policies. This is especially true
for conservation and restoration actions in the developing world, where many vulnerable
groups – particularly indigenous people – rely daily on biodiversity for food and fuel.
Targeted information and awareness-raising campaigns can also help stakeholders better
understand how their everyday actions can have a positive impact. Digital technology –
81 │
including citizen-science platforms, online dashboards and communication channels – can

help disseminate information rapidly, and maintain the connections between society and
biodiversity (OECD, 2019[222]). Further digital technology, combined with processes such
as deliberative polling can help better engage individuals, civil society and other
stakeholders in the policy-making process, and facilitate efforts to reconcile trade-offs
between environmental and economic concerns. Transformative change is needed to
prevent further declines, and ensure the benefits of biodiversity and ecosystem services are
equitably shared throughout society today and for many generations to come.
│82
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Biodiversity: Finance and the
Economic and Business Case for Action
The Convention on Biological Diversity’s 15th Conference of the Parties (CBD

COP15) in 2020 marks a critical juncture for one of the defining global challenges of
our time: the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, which underpin nearly all
of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Transformative changes are needed
to ensure biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, and the delivery of the
ecosystem services upon which all life depends. This report sets the economic
and business case for urgent and ambitious action on biodiversity. It presents a
preliminary assessment of current biodiversity-related finance flows, and discusses
the key data and indicator gaps that need to be addressed to underpin effective
monitoring of both the pressures on biodiversity and the actions (i.e. responses)
being implemented. The report concludes with ten priority areas where G7 and
other countries can prioritise their efforts.
OECD Environment Directorate,

May 2019

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Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................................... 7

Challenges and opportunities for integrating biodiversity in business and investment

Table 3.1. Biodiversity and ecosystem service values .......................................................................... 26

Figure 2.1. Types and examples of ecosystem services ........................................................................ 20

Box 2.1. Key terms and definitions ....................................................................................................... 19

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ADB Asian Development Bank

NDC Nationally determined contribution

implemented to address them. Finally, it provides recommendations on priorities for

1. SYNTHESIS AND KEY MESSAGES

1.1. Global biodiversity loss and the international context

1.2. The socio-economic case for action

1.3. The business case for action

Business impacts on biodiversity can result in “responsible business conduct” risks to

1.4. Opportunities for cost-effective restoration

Tackling the biodiversity challenge requires a better understanding of the pressures

1.6. Global biodiversity finance: A preliminary update

1.7. Opportunities to scale up action for biodiversity

7. Reform subsidies harmful to biodiversity

2. GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY LOSS AND THE INTERNATIONAL

2.1. Biodiversity picture and the international context

Box 2.1. Key terms and definitions

Figure 2.1. Types and examples of ecosystem services

Source: Adapted from (OECD, 2010[6]).

2.2. Threats and pressures on biodiversity

Underfished Maximally sustainably fished Overfished

Source: (FAO, 2018[12]).

2.3. State of terrestrial, marine and other aquatic biodiversity

The multidimensionality and complexity of biodiversity means there is no single measure

Trends in species and populations

Figure 2.3. Living Planet Index, 1970-2014

Confidence limits Global Living Planet Index 1970 index

Source: (WWF, 2018[26]).

Trends in the extent and state of ecosystems

increasingly problematic with climate change, as it undermines the ability of species to

The widespread destruction, degradation and fragmentation of ecosystems is accelerating,

Box 2.2. Ecosystem thresholds and tipping points

3. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CASE FOR BIODIVERSITY ACTION

3.1. Biodiversity and ecosystem services: the foundation of economic development

Table 3.1. Biodiversity and ecosystem service values

Scale Good or service Estimated annual value

Box 3.1. Valuing ecosystem services

Shoreline stabilisation/erosion control  

The conservation, sustainable use and restoration of biodiversity is vital to achieving a

Biodiversity and human health

Biodiversity and food

Biodiversity and water security

Biodiversity, climate change and disaster risk

2017[49]). Hence, conserving, sustainably using and restoring biodiversity is critical to

for every dollar invested in 25% restoration of lost wetlands (Pattison-Williams

Table 3.2. Cost-benefit analysis for Lami Town

Benefit-to-cost ratio Assumed damage avoidance

Source: (Rao et al., 2013[77]).

 United States: an assessment of the value of coastal wetlands in the