applied

sciences
Article
Study on Low-Speed Steering Resistance Torque of
Vehicles Considering Friction between Tire
and Pavement
Dong Cao 1 , Bin Tang 2, * , Haobin Jiang 1,2 , Chenhui Yin 1 , Di Zhang 1 and Yingqiu Huang 1
1 School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China;
[email protected] (D.C.); [email protected] (H.J.); [email protected] (C.Y.);
[email protected] (D.Z.); [email protected] (Y.H.)
2 Automotive Engineering Research Institute, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0511-8878-2845




Received: 25 December 2018; Accepted: 7 March 2019; Published: 12 March 2019


Abstract: Electric power steering (EPS) systems under existing vehicle power systems cannot provide
enough power for heavy-duty commercial vehicles under pivot or low-speed steering conditions.
To solve this problem, the paper proposes an EPS system that is based on the hybrid power system
constituted by the vehicle power system and the supercapacitor in parallel. In order to provide a
theoretical basis for the intervention and withdrawal mechanisms of a super-capacitor in the new
EPS, the law of steering resistance torque at a low or extremely low vehicle speed should be explored.
Firstly, the finite element model of tire/pavement was established to conduct the simulation and
calculation of the low-speed steering friction force between the tire and pavement, and to obtain the
fitting expression of the equivalent steering friction coefficient with the running speed of the tire.
Secondly, the expression of the steering friction torque was deduced based on the calculus theory
and mathematical model of the low-speed steering resistance torque, including the steering friction
torque and aligning torques, established to conduct the simulation of the equivalent resistance torque
applied on a steering column under low-speed condition. Subsequently, the real vehicle experiments
were carried out and comparisons of the experimental results and simulation results was performed.
The consistency indicated that the model of low-speed steering resistance torque had a high accuracy.
Finally, the law of low-speed steering resistance torque with a vehicle speed and steering wheel angle
were analyzed according to the 3D surface plot drawn from the simulation results.

Keywords: heavy-duty commercial vehicle; electric power steering system; hybrid power system;
steering resistance torque; steering friction force; aligning torque

1. Introduction
With the rapid development of China’s national economy and advanced highway networks,
the driving speed of heavy-duty commercial vehicles, such as coaches and lorries, has greatly increased,
while high-speed safety has becoming increasingly prominent. The steering system as a key part in
vehicle chassis is crucial for the driving safety of vehicles.
Nowadays, heavy-duty commercial vehicles are widely equipped with a hydraulic power steering
(HPS) system, with an assist characteristic that is relatively single and an assist effort cannot vary with
vehicle speed, which would easily cause poor road feel and affect handling stability during high-speed
steering. On the other hand, whether the vehicle is going straight or steering, the steering pump in HPS
is always running along with the engine, which causes a large amount of energy loss [1,2]. Recently,
the electric power steering (EPS) system has been widely used in passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles for its advantages of safety, energy saving and environmental protection. The assist effort

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015; doi:10.3390/app9051015 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 2 of 16

of EPS can vary with vehicle speed, which is conducive to improving handling stability. In addition,
the motor in EPS provide steering assist effort directly, thus EPS hardly consumes electric energy
under no-steering conditions, which is more energy saving [3,4]. Nevertheless, EPS is not suitable for
heavy-duty commercial vehicles due to a large steering resistance torque and the power limitation of
existing power supply systems in heavy-duty commercial vehicles, especially under the condition of
pivot or low-speed steering [5]. It is known that heavy-duty commercial vehicles travel at medium or
high speeds most of the time. In this case, the steering resistance torque is lower and the power supply
system can meet the steering power demand. So the issue of insufficient power provided by existing
vehicle power systems during pivot or low-speed steering needs to be emphatically solved to promote
the application of EPS in heavy-duty commercial vehicles.
Supercapacitors (SC) have been widely used in electric vehicles and the braking system of trains
for its advantages of high power density, short charging time, large current discharge capacity, etc. [6–8]
Therefore, a new type of EPS system based on the hybrid power system constituted by the vehicle
power system and the supercapacitor, which is defined as SC-EPS here, is proposed in this paper.
When vehicle speed is low, the vehicle power system and supercapacitor jointly provide electric power
for EPS. When the vehicle speed is high, the vehicle power system solely provides electric power for
EPS while charging the supercapacitor.
In order to provide a theoretical basis for the intervention and withdrawal mechanisms of a
supercapacitor in the new EPS structure, the law of steering resistance torque at a low or extremely low
vehicle speed needs to be explored first. In other words, the power supply modes of the SC-EPS system
are determined by the change laws of the steering resistance torque. Domestic and foreign scholars
have carried out relevant research on the compositions, calculations and influences of the steering
resistance torque. The pivot steering resistance torque is related to various factors such as the front
axle load, the alignment parameters and steering angle of the front wheel, the tire/pavement friction,
etc. [9–12] For example, empirical formulas are usually used to calculate the pivot steering resistance
torque at present [13,14], however, empirical formulas do not reflect the relationship between the
steering resistance torque and the steered wheel angle. Wang, Y.C. et al. analyzed the effects of the
steered wheel angle, friction coefficient, tire pressure and vertical load on the pivot steering resistance
torque based on a vehicle road test [15], they also considered the contact between the tire and pavement
in their research on the pivot steering resistance torque [16], however, the effect of the kingpin offset on
the steering resistance torque is neglected in modeling. Zhuang, Y. et al. introduced the LuGre friction
model in their research on the pivot steering resistance torque, and the parameter identification and
simulation calculation was carried out [17]. Zhao, Y.X. proposed the hypothesis of gradual distribution
of tire load starting from contact and friction between the tire and pavement, and calculated the pivot
steering resistance torque [18]. Ma, B. et al. proposed an estimation method of the static steering
torque including the tire sliding torque and gravity aligning torque [19]. For the steering resistance
torque under a medium and high speed steering condition, it is mainly composed of aligning torques
caused by the alignment parameters of the front wheel, which is related to vehicle speed, the side-slip
characteristics of the tire, pneumatic trail, the alignment parameters and steering angle of the front
wheel, etc. [20–22] For example, Liu, Z. et al. analyzed the effects of vehicle speeds (10 km/h, 20 km/h,
30 km/h, 40 km/h, 50 km/h) on the steering torque based on modeling and simulation [23]. Kim,
S.H. et al. took the tire lateral force, the aligning torques due to kingpin inclination and the pneumatic
trail into account in their research on hardware-in-the-loop simulations of an electrohydraulic power
steering system [24]. Wei, Y.T. et al. analyzed the relationships between the lateral force, the aligning
torques of the tire and side-slip angle, the tire’s rolling speed by establishing the simulation model of
a rolling tire, and presented the change curve of the steering torque [25]. To sum up, domestic and
foreign scholars mainly studied the steering resistance torque under pivot steering and medium or high
speed steering conditions, but did not involve their research on low-speed steering resistance torque.
According to analysis, the low-speed steering resistance torque mainly includes the tire/pavement
friction torque and aligning torques caused by the alignment parameters of the front wheel. When the
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 3 of 16

steering resistance torque mainly includes the tire/pavement friction torque and aligning torques
caused by the alignment parameters of the front wheel. When the vehicle steers at a low speed, the
friction
vehicle generated
steers at a between
low speed, the the
tirefriction
and pavement
generated includes
between thethe
components of slidingincludes
tire and pavement and rollingthe
friction.
components The proportion
of sliding and of the twofriction.
rolling friction components
The proportion willoftransfer
the twoto each other
friction as the vehicle
components speed
will transfer
changes,
to each otherand as thusthethe dynamic
vehicle speedprocess
changes, is and
quitethus
complex.
the dynamic There process
are no mature
is quite models
complex. toThere
describe
are
such dynamic processes so far. Judging from the above gap analysis,
no mature models to describe such dynamic processes so far. Judging from the above gap analysis, the study on low-speed steering
resistance
the study on torque not only
low-speed can provides
steering resistance a torque
theoretical
not onlybasiscan forprovides
the intervention and basis
a theoretical withdrawal
for the
mechanisms of a supercapacitor in SC-EPS, but can fill in the blank in the
intervention and withdrawal mechanisms of a supercapacitor in SC-EPS, but can fill in the blank in the research field on low-speed
steering
research resistance torque, providing
field on low-speed a useful torque,
steering resistance reference for the design
providing a useful ofreference
assist characteristics
for the design andof
control strategies for other new EPS systems as well.
assist characteristics and control strategies for other new EPS systems as well.
Considering
Considering that thatthethelow-speed
low-speedsteering
steeringresistance
resistancetorquetorqueofofheavy-duty
heavy-duty commercial
commercial vehicles
vehicles is
not convenient
is not convenient forfor
experimental
experimental verification,
verification, the the
modelmodel of low-speed
of low-speed steering resistance
steering torque
resistance of a
torque
compact car was established and verified by real vehicle experiments
of a compact car was established and verified by real vehicle experiments in this paper. Then the in this paper. Then the proved
modeling
proved modelingmethodmethod of low-speed
of low-speed steering resistance
steering torque
resistance torquewould
would bebe generalized
generalizedtoto heavy-duty
heavy-duty
commercial
commercial vehicles.
vehicles. Firstly,
Firstly, thethe finite
finite element
element models
models of of the
the tire
tire and
and pavement
pavement were were established
established to to
conduct the simulation and calculation of a low-speed steering friction
conduct the simulation and calculation of a low-speed steering friction force between the tire and force between the tire and
pavement
pavement and and to to obtain
obtain the the fitting
fitting expression
expression of of the
the equivalent
equivalent steering
steering friction
friction coefficient
coefficient with
with the
the
running speed of the tire. Subsequently, the mathematical model
running speed of the tire. Subsequently, the mathematical model of low-speed steering resistance of low-speed steering resistance
torque
torque including
including the the steering
steering friction
friction torque
torque and and aligning
aligning torques
torques were
were established
established to to conduct
conduct the the
simulation
simulation of of the
the equivalent
equivalentresistance
resistancetorque
torqueapplied
appliedon ona asteering
steeringcolumn
columnininvehicle
vehiclespeeds
speeds ofof0
km/h, 1 km/h, 2 km/h, 3 km/h, 4 km/h, 5 km/h, 10 km/h and 20
0 km/h, 1 km/h, 2 km/h, 3 km/h, 4 km/h, 5 km/h, 10 km/h and 20 km/h, respectively, which arekm/h, respectively, which are verified
by real vehicle
verified by real experiments.
vehicle experiments. Finally, the law of
Finally, thelow-speed
law of low-speed steering steering
resistance torque with
resistance torquevehicle
with
speed and steering wheel angle was analyzed according to the 3D
vehicle speed and steering wheel angle was analyzed according to the 3D surface plot drawn fromsurface plot drawn from simulation
results.
simulation results.

2. Structure
Structure and
and Working
Working Principles of the SC-EPS System
The
The structure of the SC-EPS system is shown in Figure 1, including the torque/angle
torque/angle sensor,
sensor,
recirculating
recirculating ball
ballsteering
steeringgear,
gear,assist motor,
assist controller,
motor, DC–DC
controller, DC–DC converter and supercapacitor.
converter The
and supercapacitor.
supercapacitor was was
The supercapacitor connected in parallel
connected with
in parallel thethe
with vehicle
vehiclepower
powersystem
systemthrough
through the
the DC–DC
converter to form the hybrid power system.

Figure 1.
Figure Structure of
1. Structure of the
the SC-EPS
SC-EPS system.
system.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 4 of 16

The SC-EPS system has three power supply modes: Hybrid power supply mode, vehicle power
supply mode and supercapacitor power supply mode. When the vehicle speed is low, the SC-EPS
system is in hybrid power supply mode. In this case, the vehicle power system and supercapacitor
jointly provided electric power to the assist motor, the controller determines the mode and proportion
of power distribution according to the signals, such as the vehicle speed and steering wheel angle.
When the vehicle speed is high, the SC-EPS system is in vehicle power supply mode, which means the
vehicle power system solely provides electric power to the assist motor. Meanwhile, the supercapacitor
is in charging state to ensure that the stored energy can be used during low-speed steering. When the
vehicle power system fails, the SC-EPS system is in supercapacitor power supply mode, under which
the supercapacitor emergently provides electric power to the assist motor to maintain the steering
assist for a short time.

3. Simulation of Low-Speed Steering Friction Force between the Tire and Pavement
In this section, the finite element models of tire and pavement based on ABAQUS software are
established to carry out the simulation and calculation of steering friction force under a low-speed
steering condition. The law of steering friction force with running speed of tire is explored.
The focus of this section is to study the friction between two surfaces, therefore, a few simplified
treatments are made in tire modeling to reduce the difficulty of software calculation: The lateral tread
pattern is ignored and only the longitudinal tread pattern is retained; the internal complex structure of
tire is ignored and only the tread, carcass, cord layer and belt layer of the tire are retained; moreover,
the rim would constrain the tire’s deformation and should not be ignored, which is simplified into a
flat-bottomed steel ring with a regular shape and assembled with the tire.
Since the rubber material, which makes up the tire tread, has extremely complex characteristics,
it is usually defined as the isotropic, incompressible and hyper-elastic material in the model.
The Mooney–Rivlin material model is used in this section to describe the constitution of rubber
and the material parameters of each component, as shown in Table 1 [26,27]. When modeling, the steel
wires of the cord layer and belt layer are simulated by a rebar unit, which is firstly defined on the
surface unit and then embedded into the corresponding entity unit of rubber. The tread and carcass of
the tire are constrained by a tie. The rim, which is not deformed, is rigidly coupled with the central
point of carcass’ rotation axis, thus it can move with the tire carcass. The finite element models of the
tire and pavement are shown in Figure 2. To clarify, the kingpin inclination and caster are usually not
considered in 3D finite element models to simplify the models and facilitate calculation, and the tire
just rolls and deflects around the central point which is coupled with the periphery of the rim.

Table 1. Material properties of the tire and pavement.

Mooney Coefficients
Elasticity Poisson’s Density
Part (MPa)
Modulus (MPa) Ratio (g/cm3 )
C10 C01
Tread —— —— 1.14 2.0477 1.1859
Carcass 794 0.45 1.39 —— ——
Belt 55,000 0.3 7.64 —— ——
Pavement 1400 0.35 2.4 —— ——
unit and then embedded into the corresponding entity unit of rubber. The tread and carcass of the
tire are constrained by a tie. The rim, which is not deformed, is rigidly coupled with the central point
of carcass’ rotation axis, thus it can move with the tire carcass. The finite element models of the tire
and pavement are shown in Figure 2. To clarify, the kingpin inclination and caster are usually not
considered in 3D finite element models to simplify the models and facilitate calculation, and the5 tire
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 of 16
just rolls and deflects around the central point which is coupled with the periphery of the rim.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Table 1. Material properties of the tire and pavement.

Elasticity Modulus Poisson’s Density Mooney Coefficients (MPa)

Part
(MPa) Ratio (g/cm )3 C10 C01
Tread —— —— 1.14 2.0477 1.1859
Carcass 794 0.45 1.39 —— ——
Belt 55,000 0.3 7.64 —— ——
Pavement 1400 0.35
Figure 2. Finite element 2.4and pavement.
models of the tire —— ——
Figure 2. Finite element models of the tire and pavement.

In the simulation of low-speed steering friction, the tire pressure was set as 0.25 MPa, the vertical
load on the tire was set as 3000 N and the friction coefficient of surface-to-surface contact was taken
as 0.7, which is the initial value set in the the software,
software, indicating the contact property between two
surfaces. The
Thesteered
steeredprocess
process of tire
of the the wastire simulated
was simulated by the
by the tire’s tire’s rolling
forward forwardandrolling and the
the pavement’s
pavement’s horizontal
horizontal tuning, tuning, respectively.
respectively.
The simulations were
were respectively
respectivelyperformed
performedin intire
tirerunning
runningspeeds
speedsofof1 1km/h,
km/h,22km/h,
km/h, 44 km/h,
km/h,
6 km/h,
km/h, 88 km/h
km/hand
and1010km/h.
km/h.The
Thefirst
first3 3simulation
simulationresults
resultsofofthe
thesteering
steeringfriction
friction force
force are
are shown in
Figure 3a. It can be seen that the friction force at each speed rose gradually and then kept a steady
state. The steering friction
friction force in the steady state was averaged in all simulation results, and then
the average value was treated as the steering friction force at each corresponding speed as shown in
2. It can be seen that the steering friction force obviously decreased with the running speed of
Table 2.
the tire.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Simulation results of low-speed steering friction force: (a)(a) Curves
Curves of
of steering
steering friction
friction force;
force;
and (b) fitting curve of the equivalent friction coefficient
coefficient with
with the
the running
running speed
speed ofof the
the tire.
tire.

Table 2. Simulation results of low-speed steering friction force.

Table 2. Simulation results of low-speed steering friction force.
Running Speed u (km/h) 1 2 4 6 8 10
Running Speed u (km/h) 1 2 4 6 8 10
Steering friction force (N) 1504.52
Steering friction force (N) 1230.89 997.21 847.82
1504.52 1230.89 997.21 847.82 741.94 741.94 660.39
660.39
Equivalent friction
Equivalent friction coefficient μ 0.5015
0.5015 0.4103 0.4103
0.3324 0.33240.2826
0.2826 0.2473
0.2473 0.2201
0.2201
coefficient µ

Table 2 also shows the equivalent friction coefficient at different corresponding speeds, which
was obtained through dividing the steering friction force by the vertical load. Subsequently, the data
in Table 2 are fit in the form of y = a ⋅ e b ⋅ x + c ( a , b , c are the fitting coefficients) [28], according to
the variation trend and the fitting curve, which is shown in Figure 3b. Finally, the function of the
equivalent friction coefficient with running speed is:

μ= f ( u) =0.4511⋅ e-0.4603⋅u +0.2376 (1)

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 6 of 16

Table 2 also shows the equivalent friction coefficient at different corresponding speeds, which was
obtained through
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FORdividing the steering friction force by the vertical load. Subsequently, the6 data
PEER REVIEW of 16
in Table 2 are fit in the form of y = a · eb· x + c (a, b, c are the fitting coefficients) [28], according to
The value
the variation of μand
trend in the
Equation
fitting(1) can be
curve, treated
which as theinfriction
is shown Figurecoefficient between
3b. Finally, the tire
the function of and
the
equivalent friction coefficient with running speed is:
pavement under pivot steering condition when u= 0, which is consistent with the value of 𝑓 in the
commonly used empirical formula of the pivot steering resistance torque [13].
µ = f (u) = 0.4511 · e−0.4603·u + 0.2376 (1)
4. Modeling of Low-Speed Steering Resistance Torque Considering Tire/Pavement Friction
where µ is the equivalent friction coefficient between the tire and pavement under a low-speed steering
On the
condition; u premise that the
is the running friction
speed inside
of the tire,the steering system itself is ignored, the steering resistance
km/h.
torque mainly consists of 4 parts under a low-speed
The value of µ in Equation (1) can be treated as the steering condition:
friction The
coefficient low-speed
between steering
the tire and
friction torque
pavement under and aligning
pivot torques
steering caused
condition by the
when u=kingpin inclination,
0, which kingpin
is consistent withcaster and pneumatic
the value of f in the
trail.
commonly used empirical formula of the pivot steering resistance torque [13].

4. Modeling
4.1. ofSteering
Low-Speed Low-Speed Steering
Friction TorqueResistance
between theTorque
Tire andConsidering
Pavement Tire/Pavement Friction
On theispremise
There surfacethat the friction
contact between inside the and
the tire steering system as
pavement, itself is ignored,
shown the 4.
in Figure steering
Whereresistance
δt is the
torque mainly consists of 4 parts under a low-speed steering condition: The low-speed steering friction
deformation or subsidence of the tire, l and bt are respectively the length and width of the
torque and aligning torques caused by the tkingpin inclination, kingpin caster and pneumatic trail.
tire/pavement contact region. The values of δt , lt and bt can be calculated by the following
4.1. Low-Speed
empirical Steering
formulas Friction Torque between the Tire and Pavement
[29]:
There is surface contact between the tire and pavement, Fz 0.85
as shown in Figure 4. Where δt is
δ = c
the deformation or subsidence of the tire,t lt and k b are respectively the length and width of the (2)
B 0.7t D 0.43 P 0.6
t t

tire/pavement contact region. The values of δt , lt and bt can be calculated by the following empirical
formulas [29]: s
 δt 
l = 2 DFz0.85  (3)
δt = ct kt t 0.7 0.43 (2)
B D D P0.6
 s
δt
lt b= =2D
t
B 1D (− e − tδ
t
) (3)
(4)
 
where ct is the parameter related to the = Btype,
bt tire 1 − ec−ttδ=t 1.15 for bias tires and ct = 1.5 for radial
(4)
tires, kctt =
where is0.015B + 0.42 , Frelated
the parameter z is thetovertical
the tireload
type,onctthe tire with
= 1.15 thetires
for bias unitand
of 10ct N,
= 1.5 is the
B for width
radial of
tires,
ktire
t =with
0.015Bthe+unit of Fcm,
0.42, z is the is the diameter
D vertical load onofthe
thetire
tirewith
withthe
theunit
unitofof10
cm, B isisthe
N, P thewidth
tire pressure with
of tire with
the unit
the unitofofcm,100 kPa
D is theand s and
diameter t tire
of the are with
the empirical
the unit of coefficients, which
cm, P is the tire are 0.557
pressure andunit
with the 122.7
of
respectively.
100 kPa and s and t are the empirical coefficients, which are 0.557 and 122.7 respectively.

Figure 4. Diagram
Figure 4. Diagram of
of contact
contact between
between the
the tire
tire and
and pavement.
pavement.

It is known that the steered wheel does not turn around the center of the tire/pavement contact
It is known that the steered wheel does not turn around the center of the tire/pavement contact
region rather than around the kingpin axis when the vehicle is steering. There is a certain distance
region rather than around the kingpin axis when the vehicle is steering. There is a certain distance
between the intersection of the kingpin axis to the pavement and the center of the contact region,
between the intersection of the kingpin axis to the pavement and the center of the contact region,
which is called the kingpin offset, as shown in Figure 5a. On the other hand, when the pressure is
constant, the tire with a low load has a circular shape near the contact region center. As the load
increases, the tire will come into contact with the pavement over the entire width, and the contact
region shape will become approximately elliptical and rectangular. Therefore, the shape of the
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

contact
Appl. region
Sci. 2019, is taken
9, 1015 as a rectangle for investigation in this paper. Considering the influence 7ofofthe 16
kingpin offset on the steering resistance torque, the geometric model of the low-speed steering
friction torque between the tire and pavement is established in the coordinate system with the
which is called
intersection the kingpin
of the kingpinaxisoffset, as shown
to the pavement in Figure 5a. as
as origin, Onshown
the other hand,5b.
in Figure when the pressure is
constant, the tire with a low load has a circular shape near
Figure 5c shows the corresponding longitudinal pressure distribution of the contact region center. As the
the tire, andload
the
increases,
expressionthe tire willascome
is shown into contact with the pavement over the entire width, and the contact
follows:
region shape will become approximately elliptical and rectangular. Therefore, the shape of the contact
Fz  lt Considering
n
region is taken as a rectangle for investigation nin+this n
1 2 paper.  the influence of the kingpin
p ( x , y
offset on the steering resistance torque, the geometric ) =
n lt n +model
  
bt  2 of
− y n

the low-speed (5)
steering friction torque
1
 
 
between the tire and pavement is established in the coordinate system with the intersection of the
kingpin
where n axis
is to the pavement
a constant, n = 2~10
as origin, as shown
in general, whichin Figure 5b.
can be approximately n = 4 for the radial tire.

(a) ( b) (c)
Figure5.5.Steering
Figure Steeringmodel
modelofofthe
thesteered
steeredwheel:
wheel:(a)
(a)Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofofthe
thekingpin
kingpinaxis
axisand
andkingpin
kingpin
offset; (b)
offset; (b)geometric
geometric model
model of
ofthe
thelow-speed
low-speedsteering
steeringfriction
frictiontorque;
torque;and
and(c)
(c)longitudinal
longitudinalpressure
pressure
distributionof
distribution ofthe
thetire.
tire.

Figure 5c 5b,
In Figure shows the corresponding
an infinitesimal longitudinal
element with dx as length pressureand distribution
dy as widthofatthe tire, andpoint
an arbitrary the
( x, y ) is taken in the tire/pavement contact region, as a consequence, the load on the infinitesimal
expression is shown as follows:
 n
element is: n + 1 2n Fz

lt n
p( x, y) = − y (5)
n l n +1 b 2
dFz = pt ( x , yt) ⋅ dx ⋅ dy (6)
where n is a constant, n = 2~10 in general, which can be approximately n = 4 for the radial tire.
When the infinitesimal element rotates around the original point O on the pavement, the friction
In Figure 5b, an infinitesimal element with dx as length and dy as width at an arbitrary point
force between the two is:
( x, y) is taken in the tire/pavement contact region, as a consequence, the load on the infinitesimal
element is: dFf = μ ⋅ dFz = μ ⋅ p ( x , y ) ⋅ dx ⋅ dy (7)
dFz = p( x, y) · dx · dy (6)
where μ is the friction coefficient between the tire and pavement.
When the infinitesimal element rotates around the original point O on the pavement, the friction
two is:from this arbitrary point ( x , y ) to point O is r = x + y , the friction torque
2 2
force Since
betweenthe the
distance
dFf O
of the infinitesimal element to point µ · dFz = µ · p( x, y) · dx · dy
= is: (7)

where µ is the friction coefficientdbetween

M f = r ⋅ dthe
F f =tirex 2and ⋅ μ ⋅ p ( x , y ) ⋅ d x ⋅ d yp
+ y 2pavement. (8)
Since the distance from this arbitrary point ( x, y) to point O is r = x2 + y2 , the friction torque
of theThe
infinitesimal elementtorque
steering friction to point
of aOsingle
is: tire can be calculated by integrating dM f on the whole
contact region, which is denoted as M f − s and can be expressed as:
q
dM f = r · dFf = x2 + y2 · µ · p( x, y) · dx · dy (8)
 bt  lt
 2 − c 
M f − s =  dM f = 
b


dx  2lt μp ( x , y ) x 2 + y 2 dy (9)
−  t + c  −
S 2
2 
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 8 of 16

The steering friction torque of a single tire can be calculated by integrating dM f on the whole
contact region, which is denoted as M f −s and can be expressed as:

s R ( b2t −c) R lt p
M f −s = dM f = b dx 2
l µp( x, y) x2 + y2 dy (9)
S −( 2t +c) − 2t

where c is the kingpin offset.

Under a low-speed steering condition, the friction coefficient µ between the tire and pavement
can be represented approximately by Equation (1). Considering the direction of the steering friction
torque, the expression of the low-speed steering friction torque can be finally written as:

R ( bt − c ) R lt
    
M f = −sign dδ · 2 · M f −s = −sign dδ
p


 dt dt · 2 · 2 bt dx 2 lt µp( x, y) x2 + y2 dy

 −( 2 +c) −2
µ = f (u) = 0.4511 · e −0.4603·u + 0.2376 (10)
  
4

24 Fz lt

5 4
 p( x, y) = 4 l 5 b −y


t 2t

 
where M f is the low-speed steering friction torque, δ is the steered wheel angle, “−sign dδ dt ”,
which indicates that the direction of M f is always opposite to the turning direction of the steered
wheel and u is the vehicle speed.
When u = 0, the value of M f in Equation (10) can be regarded as the friction torque under the
pivot steering condition.

4.2. The Aligning Torque Caused by the Kingpin Inclination

The existence of the kingpin inclination makes the steering system work against the front axle
load when steering and makes the steered wheel return to the center automatically as well [30].
The corresponding aligning torque can be expressed as:
     
D δ
Mθ = − G1 · c + − δt tan θ · sin(2θ ) · sin (11)
2 2

where θ is the kingpin inclination angle, Mθ is the aligning torque caused by the kingpin inclination,
“−” indicates that the direction of Mθ is always opposite to the direction of steered wheel angle, G1 is
the front axle load and c is the kingpin offset.

4.3. Aligning Torques Caused by the Kingpin Caster and Pneumatic Trail
Due to the centrifugal effect, the lateral force Fy exists at the center of steered wheel when the
vehicle steers. Accordingly, the lateral reaction force FY , which is also known as the cornering force,
is generated by the pavement on the steered wheel. The cornering force produces the aligning torques
which is related to the kingpin caster trail and pneumatic trail. The detailed solution procedure
of the aligning torques caused by the kingpin caster and pneumatic trail is shown in Figure 6.
The 2-degree-of-freedom (2-dof) vehicle dynamic model is employed here to calculate the ideal
side-slip angle and yaw rate. It can also be used to identify and estimate the actual side-slip angle.
Under the 2-dof vehicle model, the lateral force and the aligning torque are considered acting on the
front axle as a whole, which is consistent with the processing ideas in the calculation of M f and Mθ in
Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 9 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

𝒖—Longitudinal 𝜷—Side-slip Angle

Speed of Vehicle of Mass Center
2-dof

𝜹—Steering Angle Vehicle Model

𝝎𝒓 —Yaw Rate
of Front-wheel

𝒂𝝎𝒓
𝜶𝟏 𝜹 𝝃 𝜷 𝜹
𝒖

𝑴𝜸 —Aligning Torque 𝜶𝟏 —Side-slip Angle

𝑭𝒚 —Lateral Force
Caused by Kingpin Caster of Front-wheel
’Magic Formula’
Tire Model
𝑴𝒁 —Aligning Torque 𝑭𝒛 —Vertical Load
Caused by Pneumatic Trail on Tire

Figure 6. Solution procedure of the aligning torques caused by the kingpin caster and pneumatic trail.
Figure 6. Solution procedure of the aligning torques caused by the kingpin caster and pneumatic trail.
The corresponding vehicle motion differential equations of the 2-dof vehicle model in Figure 6
The corresponding vehicle motion differential equations of the 2-dof vehicle model in Figure 6
are expressed as Equation (12) [31]:
are expressed as Equation (12) [31]:
( .
(k1+ k2 ) β + u1 ( ak


1 1 − bk2 )ωr −
k1 δ = m v + uω. r
( ak1( k−1 +bkk22 ))ββ +
+ 1 ( ak 2 − bk )2ω − k δ = m ( v  + uωr ) (12)
uu a 1k1 + 2b k2r ωr1 − ak1 δ = IZ ω r
 (12)
where a and b are respectively the 1distance 2 ( from
u the
)
 ( ak − bk ) β + 1 a 2 k + b 2 k ω − ak δ = I ω
1 front2 and
r rear
1 axle r the center of mass, k 1 and
Z to

k2 are respectively the cornering stiffness of the front and rear wheel, u and v are respectively the
where a andvelocity
longitudinal b are respectively
along the x-axis the anddistance from the
the lateral front along
velocity and rear theaxle
y-axisto of
thethe
center of mass,
vehicle, k1
IZ is the
rotational
and inertia
k2 are around thethe
respectively z-axis, β is the stiffness
cornering side-slip angle
of theof front
the mass
andcenter, ωr is theuyaw
rear wheel, ratevand
and areδ
is the steered wheel angle.
respectively the longitudinal velocity along the x-axis and the lateral velocity along the y-axis of the
According to the 2-dof vehicle motion differential equations in Equation (12), the simulation
vehicle, I Z is the rotational
model is established inertia around the z-axis,
in the MATLAB/Simulink β is thewhich
environment, side-slip
takesangle of the mass
the forward center,
velocity ωr
u and
is the yaw
steered rate angle
wheel and δδ asis the steered
input, and wheeltakes the angle.side-slip angle of mass center β and yaw rate ωr as
According
output. to the
The desired 2-dof angle
side-slip vehicle of motion
the frontdifferential
wheel α1 can equations
be obtained in Equation
by one more(12),step
the calculation,
simulation
is established in the MATLAB/Simulink environment, which takes the forward velocity u
model is:
which
aωr
and steered wheel angle δ as input, α1 = and −(takes
δ − ξ )the
= side-slip
β+ − δ of mass center β and yaw rate
angle (13)
u
ωr asWhen
output.
theThe desired
vehicle side-slipthe
is steering, angle tireofeasily
the front
getswheel
α1 can be obtained
into a nonlinear by one more
state. Combined withstep
the
calculation, which
side-slip angle is: tire and vertical load, the ‘Magic Formula’ tire model is used to calculate the
of the
lateral force Fy and aligning torque caused by the pneumatic trail MZ , so as to accurately describe the
aω
mechanical characteristics of the tire. The − ( δ − ξ ) = βof
α1 =expressions + ther lateral
−δ force Fy and aligning torque (13) MZ
u
are as follows [32]:
When the vehicle ( is steering, the tire easily gets into a nonlinear state. Combined with the side-
y = D1 sin
slip angle of the tire and Fvertical {Cthe
load, 1 arctan
‘Magic 1 − E1 )α +tire
[ B1 (Formula’ E1 arctan
model(isB1used
α)]} to calculate the lateral
(14)
force F and aligning torque M Z = D2 sin
caused { C arctan [ B
2 the pneumatic
by 2 ( 1 − E ) α + E
2 trail M2 arctan B
, so as2 αto)]}accurately describe the
(
y Z

mechanical
where D1 , B1characteristics
, C1 and E1 areofrespectively
the tire. The theexpressions
peak factor,ofstiffness
the lateral force
factor, shape Fy factor
and aligning torque
and curvature
factor
MZ areforas
thefollows
solution of lateral force. D2 , B2 , C2 and E2 are respectively the peak factor, stiffness factor,
[32]:
shape factor and curvature factor for the solution of the aligning torque and α is the side-slip angle of
the tire.
 y 1 1{
 F = D sin C arctan  B ( 1 − E ) α + E arctan ( B α ) 
 1 1 1 1  }
Under a single steering  condition, the coefficients of the ‘Magic Formula’ can be referred to in
(14)
 MZ =ofDthe
the literature [33]. The curves 2
sin C {
lateral
2
arctan
force B
 y2
F ( 1
and − E
the
2 ) α + E arctan
aligning
2 (
torqueB 2
α ) 

caused } by the pneumatic
trail MZ with the side-slip angle of the tire α are drawn according to Equation (14) in the MATLAB,
where are
which D1shown
, B1 , inC1Figure E1 are respectively the peak factor, stiffness factor, shape factor and
and 7a,b.
curvature factor for the solution of lateral force. D2 , B2 , C2 and E2 are respectively the peak
α is the side-slip angle of the tire.
Under a single steering condition, the coefficients of the ‘Magic Formula’ can be referred to in
the literature [33]. The curves of the lateral force Fy and the aligning torque caused by the pneumatic

Appl. M2019,
trail Sci. Z with
9, 1015the side-slip angle of the tire α are drawn according to Equation (14) 10
in ofthe
16
MATLAB, which are shown in Figure 7a,b.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. The relation curves obtained by ‘Magic Formula’: (a) The lateral force with the side-slip angle
of tire; and (b) the aligning torque with the side-slip angle of tire.
Figure 7. The relation curves obtained by ‘Magic Formula’: (a) The lateral force with the side-slip
Furthermore,
angle of tire; andthe(b)aligning torque
the aligning caused
torque with by
thethe kingpin
side-slip caster
angle can be expressed as:
of tire.

Furthermore, the aligningMtorque caused by the kingpin D caster can be expressed as:
γ = −F Y · l = Fy · l = Fy · sin γ cos δ (15)
2
D
where γ is the kingpin caster angle,M“γ−=” −indicates
FY ⋅ l = Fy that
⋅ l = Fthe
y
⋅ direction
sin γ cosof
δ Mγ is opposite to the direction
(15)
2
of FY and l is the distance from the contact point of the steered wheel and pavement to the kingpin
where
axis γ vehicle’s
in the is the kingpin angle, “−” indicates that the direction of M γ is opposite to the
caster plane.
longitudinal
direction F and l is the distance from the contact point of the steered wheel and pavement to
4.4. Modelof
of theY Low-Speed Steering Resistance Torque
the kingpin axis in the vehicle’s longitudinal plane.
Since the components of the steering resistance torque have taken into account directions in their
equations, they
4.4. Model of the just need toSteering
Low-Speed be added up. The Torque
Resistance low-speed steering resistance torque is equal to the sum
of the low-speed steering friction torque between the tire/pavement and the aligning torques caused
Since
by the the components
kingpin of the steering
inclination, kingpin caster resistance torque
and pneumatic have
trail, astaken
showninto
in account
Equationdirections
(16): in their
equations, they just need to be added up. The low-speed steering resistance torque is equal to the
sum of the low-speed steering friction Mr =torque
M f +between
Mθ + Mthe
γ + tire/pavement
MZ and the aligning torques
(16)
caused by the kingpin inclination, kingpin caster and pneumatic trail, as shown in Equation (16):
In the case of pivot steering, only the aligning torque caused by the kingpin inclination needs to
Mr = M f + Mθ + Mγ + MZ (16)
be considered in the calculation of the aligning torque.
In theSimulation
5. Model case of pivot
andsteering, onlyby
Validation theExperiments
aligning torque caused by the kingpin inclination needs to
be considered in the calculation of the aligning torque.
5.1. Model Simulation
5. Model Simulation and Validation by Experiments
The simulation models of the pivot and low-speed steering resistance torque are respectively
established in the MATLAB/Simulink environment according to Equation (16). In the simulation
5.1. Model Simulation
models, the input signal is the steering wheel angle which is simulated by a periodic signal of
The simulation
triangular wave, andmodels of the
the output pivotisand
signal the low-speed
equivalentsteering
resistanceresistance torque are
torque applied respectively
on the steering
column. Moreover, the equivalent resistance torque on the steering column and steeringsimulation
established in the MATLAB/Simulink environment according to Equation (16). In the resistance
models,have
torque the the
input signal relations:
following is the steering wheel angle which is simulated by a periodic signal of
triangular wave, and the output signal is the equivalent Mr resistance torque applied on the steering
Tr = (17)
iω0 · η+
where Tr is the equivalent resistance torque on the steering column, Mr is the steering resistance torque,
iω0 is the angle ratio of the steering system and η+ is the forward efficiency of the steering gear.
The simulation model of the low-speed steering resistance torque is shown in Figure 8.
 ω0 +

where Tr is the equivalent resistance torque on the steering column, M r is the steering resistance
torque, iω0 is the angle ratio of the steering system and η+ is the forward efficiency of the steering
gear.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 11 of 16
The simulation model of the low-speed steering resistance torque is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Simulation
Figure 8. Simulation model
model of
of the
the low-speed
low-speed steering
steering resistance
resistance torque.
torque.

5.2. Real Vehicle Experiments

5.2. Real Vehicle Experiments
Taking a compact car as the test object, the experiments of the pivot and low-speed steering
Taking a compact car as the test object, the experiments of the pivot and low-speed steering
resistance torque were carried out.
resistance torque were carried out.
The experimental apparatus mainly included the MSW DTI sensor-Universal measurement
The experimental apparatus mainly included the MSW DTI sensor-Universal measurement
steering wheel and the Correvit S-Motion DTI Non-contact optical sensor. Detailed information on the
steering wheel and the Correvit S-Motion DTI Non-contact optical sensor. Detailed information on
main experimental apparatus is shown in Table 3. When the driver turned the measurement steering
the main experimental apparatus is shown in Table 3. When the driver turned the measurement
wheel, which is tightly mounted on the vehicle steering wheel through brackets, the real-time steering
steering wheel, which is tightly mounted on the vehicle steering wheel through brackets, the real-
wheel torque/angle could be measured. The Correvit S-Motion DTI Non-contact optical sensor was
time steering wheel torque/angle could be measured. The Correvit S-Motion DTI Non-contact optical
fixed on the vehicle door by suckers. After relevant parameters were configured, the real-time vehicle
sensor was fixed on the vehicle door by suckers. After relevant parameters were configured, the real-
speed, lateral acceleration and yaw rate could be measured in the process of vehicle movement.
time vehicle speed, lateral acceleration and yaw rate could be measured in the process of vehicle
The experimental apparatus was connected to the power supply and the notebook computer, and all
movement. The experimental apparatus was connected to the power supply and the notebook
the measured data were recorded by DEWESoft software in the computer.
computer, and all the measured data were recorded by DEWESoft software in the computer.
Table 3. Detailed information of main experimental apparatus.
Table 3. Detailed information of main experimental apparatus.
Apparatus Application Type Manufacturer
Apparatus Application Type Manufacturer
Universal measurement steering
Universal
wheel measurement
for measurement of thesteering wheel
MSW DTI sensor
MSW DTI sensor steering torque, steering
for measurement angle
of the and
steering torque,
Universal measurement 5612A KISTLER
Universal measurement steering speed;
steering angleforand
vehicle driving
steering speed; for 5612A KISTLER
steering wheel
dynamics tests like ISO 4138,
steering wheel vehicle driving
steady-state circulardynamics tests like ISO
course drive.
4138, steady-state circular course drive.
High-precision, slip-free
High-precision,
measurement of: slip-free measurement of:
Correvit S-Motion DTI • Distance;
• Distance; 2055A KISTLER
Correvit S-Motion
Non-contact DTI
optical sensor • Speed
Non-contact optical • x, y);
Speed ((x,y); 2055A KISTLER
sensor • • Acceleration andangular
Acceleration and angular rates;
rates;
• GPS position data and time;
• Pitch and roll angle.

Before the experiments, the assist power of vehicle steering system needed to be cut off.
The experimental procedures were as follows: Make the vehicle respectively maintain a static state and
uniform linear motion state at different speeds (1 km/h, 2 km/h, 3 km/h, 4 km/h, 5 km/h, 10 km/h,
15 km/h and 20 km/h), turn the measurement steering wheel to the left and right with a constant
 • GPS position data and time;
• Pitch and roll angle.

Before the experiments, the assist power of vehicle steering system needed to be cut off. The
experimental procedures were as follows: Make the vehicle respectively maintain a static state and
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 12 of 16
uniform linear motion state at different speeds (1 km/h, 2 km/h, 3 km/h, 4 km/h, 5 km/h, 10 km/h, 15
km/h and 20 km/h), turn the measurement steering wheel to the left and right with a constant speed
speedthen
and andcollect
then collect the data
the data of the
of the steering
steering wheel
wheel torque/angle,
torque/angle, vehicle
vehicle speedasaswell
speed wellas
asthe
the lateral
acceleration and yaw rate of the vehicle, and then conduct severalseveral experiments
experiments for
for each
each condition.
condition.
The experimental scene is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. The experimental scene.

5.3. Comparison of Simulation and Experiment Results

5.3. Comparison of Simulation and Experiment Results
On the premise of no steering assist power, it can be known from Newton’s Third Law that the
On the premise of no steering assist power, it can be known from Newton’s Third Law that the
steering wheel torque and equivalent resistance torque on the steering column are equal and opposite
steering wheel torque and equivalent resistance torque on the steering column are equal and opposite
in direction when turning the steering wheel at a constant speed, as shown in Equation (18):
in direction when turning the steering wheel at a constant speed, as shown in Equation (18):
Mr
Ts =T −=T−rT==−− Mr (18)
(18)
s r
iω 0 ·⋅ ηη++
iω0

where Ts is the steering wheel torque and Tr is the equivalent resistance torque on the steering column.
where Ts is the steering wheel torque and Tr is the equivalent resistance torque on the steering
Thus, the measured steering wheel torque and the simulated equivalent resistance torque on the
column.
steering column can be contrasted to verify the accuracy of the low-speed steering resistance torque
Thus,
model. Thethe measured steering
comparative wheel
results are showntorque and the
in Figure 10.simulated equivalent
For the pivot steeringresistance
experiment,torque
the on the
driver
steering column can be contrasted to verify the accuracy of the low-speed steering
turned the measurement steering wheel with a constant speed when the vehicle was under a static resistance torque
model. The comparative
state, causing the steering results
wheelareto shown
reach thein Figure 10. For the
limit positions onpivot steering
two sides. As experiment,
a result, there thearedriver
two
turned the measurement steering wheel with a constant speed when the vehicle
mutations on the curve in Figure 10a. For the low-speed steering experiments, the driver turned was under a static
the
state, causing steering
measurement the steering
wheel wheel
whentothereach the limit
vehicle positions
maintained on two
a state sides. As
of uniform a result,
linear motionthere are two
at different
mutations on the 2curve
speeds (1 km/h, km/h, in 3Figure
km/h,10a. For the
4 km/h, low-speed
5 km/h, steering
10 km/h, 15 experiments,
km/h and 20 the driver
km/h). Theturned the
steering
measurement steering wheel when the vehicle maintained a state of uniform linear
wheel did not reach the limit position on either side for safety. Therefore, it is round at the corner of the motion at
different
curves fromspeeds (1 km/h,
Figure 10b–h. 2 km/h, 3 km/h,the
In addition, 4 km/h, 5 km/h,
decreasing 10 km/h,
height 15 km/h
of these curveand 20 km/h).
rings The steering
from Figure 10a–h,
which means the steering resistance torque decreases with the vehicle speed. It can be seen corner
wheel did not reach the limit position on either side for safety. Therefore, it is round at the from the of
the curves from Figure 10b–h. In addition, the decreasing height of these curve
figures that the simulation results are consistent with the experimental results, indicating that the rings from Figure
10a–h, which
established means
model the steering
of the steering resistance
resistancetorque
torquehasdecreases with the vehicle speed. It can be seen
a high accuracy.
from the figures that the simulation results are consistent with the experimental results, indicating
that the established model of the steering resistance torque has a high accuracy.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 13 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

(a) Pivot steering (b) 1 km/h

(c) 2 km/h (d) 3 km/h

(e) 4 km/h (f) 5 km/h

(g) 10 km/h (h) 20 km/h

Figure
Figure 10.10.Simulation
Simulationand
andexperimental
experimental results
results of
of the
the steering
steeringwheel
wheeltorque
torqueatatdifferent
differentspeeds.
speeds.
 and steering wheel angle can be finally drawn based on the simulation results, as shown in Figure
11. It can be clearly seen from the figure that the change laws of the low-speed steering resistance
torque are as follows:
1. The low-speed steering resistance torque increased with the steering wheel angle at a certain
speed.
Appl. Sci. When the vehicle speed was below 10 km/h, the steering resistance torque almost changed
2019, 9, 1015 14 of 16
linearly with the steering wheel angle. When the vehicle speed was between 10 km/h and 20 km/h,
the steering resistance torque varied nonlinearly with the steering wheel angle;
Furthermore,
2. The low-speed the surface
steeringplot of the low-speed
resistance steeringwith
torque decreased resistance torque
the vehicle speedwithatthe vehicle
a certain speed
steering
and steering wheel angle can be finally drawn based on the simulation results, as shown
wheel angle. When the vehicle speed was in the range of 0 km/h to 5 km/h, the steering resistance in Figure 11.
Ittorque
can bedecreased
clearly seen from the
rapidly figure
with the that the change
vehicle laws ofthe
speed. When the vehicle
low-speed steering
speed resistance
exceeded torque
5 km/h, the
are as follows:
change of the steering resistance torque was not obvious.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. 3D
3D surface
surface plot
plot of
of the
the low-speed
low-speed steering
steering resistance
resistancetorque.
torque.

1. The low-speed steering resistance torque increased with the steering wheel angle at a certain
6. Conclusions
speed. When the vehicle speed was below 10 km/h, the steering resistance torque almost changed
The steering wheel angle and the vehicle speed had great effects on the steering resistance
linearly with the steering wheel angle. When the vehicle speed was between 10 km/h and 20 km/h,
torque. The study on low-speed steering resistance torque can provide a theoretical basis for the
the steering resistance torque varied nonlinearly with the steering wheel angle;
intervention and withdrawal mechanisms of a supercapacitor in the SC-EPS system on the one hand,
2. The low-speed steering resistance torque decreased with the vehicle speed at a certain steering
and the fill the gap in the research field on low-speed steering resistance torque on the other hand,
wheel angle. When the vehicle speed was in the range of 0 km/h to 5 km/h, the steering resistance
providing a useful reference for the design of assist characteristics and control strategies for other
torque decreased rapidly with the vehicle speed. When the vehicle speed exceeded 5 km/h, the change
new EPS systems.
of the steering resistance torque was not obvious.
The work done in this paper and the results found from the above analyses have all come to the
following conclusions:
6. Conclusions
1. The finite element (FE) model of steering friction force between the tire and pavement was
The steering wheel angle and the vehicle speed had great effects on the steering resistance torque.
established and the exponential expression of the equivalent steering friction coefficient with the
The study on low-speed steering resistance torque can provide a theoretical basis for the intervention
vehicle speed was obtained by means of FE simulation and numerical fitting;
and withdrawal mechanisms of a supercapacitor in the SC-EPS system on the one hand, and the fill the
2. The expression of the steering friction torque between the tire and pavement was derived
gap in the research field on low-speed steering resistance torque on the other hand, providing a useful
based on calculus theory. The mathematical model of the low-speed steering resistance torque
reference for the design of assist characteristics and control strategies for other new EPS systems.
including the steering friction torque and aligning torques was constructed, and the accuracy of the
The work done in this paper and the results found from the above analyses have all come to the
model was verified by real vehicle experiments;
following conclusions:
3. The low-speed steering resistance torque increased with the steering wheel angle at a certain
1. The finite element (FE) model of steering friction force between the tire and pavement was
vehicle speed. As the vehicle speed increased, the low-speed steering resistance torque gradually
established and the exponential expression of the equivalent steering friction coefficient with the
presented nonlinearity with the steering wheel angle;
vehicle speed was obtained by means of FE simulation and numerical fitting;
2. The expression of the steering friction torque between the tire and pavement was derived based
on calculus theory. The mathematical model of the low-speed steering resistance torque including
the steering friction torque and aligning torques was constructed, and the accuracy of the model was
verified by real vehicle experiments;
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1015 15 of 16

3. The low-speed steering resistance torque increased with the steering wheel angle at a certain
vehicle speed. As the vehicle speed increased, the low-speed steering resistance torque gradually
presented nonlinearity with the steering wheel angle;
4. The low-speed steering resistance torque decreased with the vehicle speed at a certain steering
wheel angle. When vehicle speed was below 5 km/h, the steering resistance torque significantly
dropped off. When vehicle speed was above 5 km/h, the rate of decrease slowed down gradually.

Author Contributions: D.C. and B.T. conceived of and designed the method. D.C., C.Y., D.Z. and Y.H. performed
the experiments and analyzed the experimental data. Finally, D.C. wrote the paper under the guidance of H.J. and
B.T.
Funding: The work in this paper is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
51605199, No. 51675235), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. BK20160527), China
Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 2016M590417), Natural Science Foundation for Colleges and
Universities of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. 16KJB580001) and Jiangsu Province Postdoctoral Science Foundation
(Grant No. 1601222C).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the teachers in the laboratory for their guidance on the use
of the experimental apparatus, and Jiangsu Gang Yang Steering Gear Company for providing the experimental
site. Meanwhile, many thanks to Chen Zhu, Ziyan Lin and Yue Yin for participating in the experiments, as well as
other teachers and students in the research group for participating in the discussion.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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