DOI 10.

1007/s11223-019-00030-7
Strength of Materials, Vol. 50, No. 6, November, 2018

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF RUBBER-CORD COMPOSITES CONSIDERING THE PROCESS OF THEIR SELF-HEATING

A. A. Larin,a,1 Yu. A. Vyazovichenko,a,2 E. Barkanov,b,3 UDC 620.178.3:62-97+539.32

c,4
and M. Itskov

The dissipative characteristics of rubber-cord composites under the action of cyclic load considering
the features of their self-heating have been experimentally investigated. Full-scale uniaxial tension
experiments are performed on the plane specimens along the reinforcement fibers of the unidirectional
rubber-cord composites. In compliance with the test results, stress–strain curves for the specimens
are determined, which form the hysteresis loops under cyclic loading. The tensile testing of the
specimens is performed under long-term cyclic loading using the experimental setup INSTRON
ElectroPuls E3000 Test System. The process of significant self-heating of the specimens under their
long-term cyclic deformation has been experimentally established and studied. Using the
non-contact methods, the variation in the specimen temperature in time is measured. The
mechanisms of their non-stationary heating are obtained, as well as the dependences of the
stabilization temperature of the thermal state on the loading conditions. It has been determined that
the area of hysteresis loops, which is formed when specimens undergo deformation in the
temperature-stabilized state, depends nonlinearly on the amplitude of strains. The qualitative and
quantitative dependences of the loss modulus, as well as the dissipation coefficients and relaxation
times on the loading frequency, strain amplitude and temperature due to the material self-heating,
are determined. The approximation dependences of the loss modulus of the composite on the
loading frequency and self-heating temperature are constructed on the basis of the generalized
three-parameter linear (Zener) model and the exponential temperature-dependent initial elastic
modulus.

Keywords: rubber-cords, viscoelasticity, cyclic deformation, energy dissipation, self-heating, loss modulus, hysteresis
loops, experimental investigations.

Introduction and Problem Statement. At present, composite materials consisting of an elastomeric matrix
and various cord reinforcement, for instance, metal, textile, glass, are widely used in current technology, construction,
devices, and equipment. For instance, in transport engineering, layered rubber composites and rubber cords are used
in the production of automobile and aircraft tires [1], various vibration dampers, gaskets and connecting hoses [2].
These materials are part of the structures in the form of separate layers to maintain the shape and protect against
external damage. In addition, to suppress the vibrations, rubber dampers are placed under the supports of bridge
structures, railway rails, and are also used as various gaskets between the machine parts. Rubber-cord composites are
employed in the manufacture of suspensions for shafts operating under intense oscillatory processes [3]. Thus, the
strength and damping properties of the elastomeric composites influence the reliability of structures and machines,
their functional performance, and safety of operation.
a
National Technical University of Ukraine “Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute,” Kharkov, Ukraine (1alexeya.
[email protected]; [email protected]). bRiga Technical University, Riga, Latvia (3barkanov@ latnet.lv).
c
RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany ([email protected]). Translated from Problemy Prochnosti,
No. 6, pp. 15 – 28, November – December, 2018. Original article submitted November 9, 2017.

0039–2316/18/5006–0841 © 2018 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 841

 These materials exhibit their viscoelastic properties accompanied by dissipative processes. [4]. On the one
hand, this defines the efficiency of damping and noise reduction [5–7]. However, on the other hand, all the above
structural elements sustain mainly variable (cyclic) and/or non-stationary loading, which leads to the accumulation of
fatigue damages, while in combination with the viscoelastic behavior of the material it results in their self-heating.
This phenomenon significantly affects the functional characteristics of structural elements. In the process of mild
heating, the elastomer undergoes softening, and at the significant level of heating, the vulcanization process can
resume resulting in the material embrittlement.
Self-heating significantly speeds up the aging processes [8, 9] and degradation [10] of these materials, which
should be considered in the study of reliability index of structures [11, 12]. The strength characteristics decrease with
the variation in temperature, the fatigue processes accelerate and, as a result, there is a decrease in the general life of
the studied part or structure as a whole [13, 14]. Let us note that the process of self-heating also exhibits certain
features. The heterogeneity of the internal composite structure and the complex stress-strain state (SSS) lead to the
nonuniform heat distribution over the structural element, which, in turn, causes its additional thermal stress state.
Moreover, the variation in the mechanical properties due to the material heating is likely to lead to the redistribution
of the SSS characteristics while in operation, change the places of stress concentration and critical zones of the
structure, which are formed, in particular, as a result of nonuniform variations in the strength characteristics.
There are the investigations aimed at the study of the processes of self-heating of rubber-like materials [15,
16]. Thus, in [17], it is proposed to use the approach to the theoretical modeling of the process of heating of auto tires
under the stationary loading. The authors decided to investigate only the process of heating caused by the hysteresis
losses using the linear models exclusively for the rubber layers without the consideration of cord reinforcement. In
[18] the nonstationary heating of the rubber specimens under the conditions of large strains has been theoretically
and experimentally investigated. Here, the nonlinear models are employed, which describe the viscoelastic behavior
of the materials at strains 100% rather well. However, owing to their complexity the calculations require more time,
which imposes restrictions on their use for the solution of practical tasks. Furthermore, the authors did not investigate
the effect of variations in the strain amplitude and loading frequency on the behavior of the specimens, and the
considered loading conditions do not facilitate the significant heating, which is observed in the actual operation of
rubber-cord structural elements.
The linear approaches to the description of viscoelasticity of the rubber-cord composites have been
traditionally used for the range of strains 0–20% (crucial in practice) but at the relatively high loading frequencies
(> 5 Hz). Thus, in [19, 20], the Maxwell generalized model is employed in the consideration of the theoretical tenets
of the application of homogenization procedures to the determination of the adequate viscoelastic properties of the
orthotropic composite material. It is experimentally illustrated that this model for the given frequency range of cyclic
loading describes the energy dissipation in the material rather accurately. However, no due attention is paid to the
issues of the dependence of the viscoelasticity characteristics on the strain amplitude, and the effect of temperature
on the elasticity and the relaxation time of the material.
It should be implied that a significant self-heating is likely to occur in the solution to the practical tasks of
the dynamic deformation of the rubber-cord composites at the frequencies of the cyclic loading of 5–20 Hz.
Therefore the temperature component should be provided in the detailed assessment of the dependence of their
elastic and viscoelastic characteristics on the strain amplitude and loading frequency. On the one hand, such
procedure involves the dynamic experiments with the simultaneous process of specimen self-heating, on the other
hand, it assumes the additional quasi-static experiments with various strain amplitudes under the conditions of the
external regulation of the fixed specimen temperature.
Thus, the investigation of the viscoelastic properties and features of hysteresis losses of rubber-like
composites reinforced with cords, as well as the process of their self-heating, remains to be a topical task that
requires further development, which defines the purpose of this paper – the experimental determination of the
dissipative characteristics of rubber-cord composites under the action of cyclic loading considering the features of
their self-heating, which is possible in the solution of the following issues:
(i) experimental investigations on the evaluation of the viscoelastic characteristics of the composite material
having the rubber matrix and unidirectional textile cord;

842
 a b
Fig. 1. Geometric dimensions of the specimen (à) and scheme of the specimen reinforcement (b).

Fig. 2. General view of the experimental setup INSTRON ElectroPuls E3000 Test System: (1) grips,
(2) specimen, (3) laser thermometer, and (4) temperature measurement point.

(ii) analysis of the features of self-heating of specimens made of the selected composite under cyclic
deformation;
(iii) determination of mechanisms of formation of the hysteresis loop area depending on the strain amplitude
and loading frequency considering the temperature established due to the material self-heating.
Experimental Investigations. To perform the experiments in compliance with the problem statement, the
specimens made of the rubber-cord unidirectional cord-reinforced composite were selected (Fig. 1à). The specimens
were made of the material that is used for manufacturing the pneumatic tires by cutting in the reinforcement direction
(Fig. 1b). The geometry and dimensions of the specimens are in compliance with the ISO 527-2-1B standard for the
mechanical testing of the given materials: total length is 150 mm, gauge length is 60 mm, width at the attachment
point is 20 mm, within the gauge length 10 mm; actual width is 4.8 ± 0.1 mm. The stacking density of the cord fibers
of 0.63 mm in diameter equals to 113 ± 6 fibers for 100 mm.
The tensile testing was conducted under long-term cyclic loading of the experimental setup INSTRON
ElectroPuls E3000 Test System (Fig. 2). The pneumatic grips hold the specimen in the setup.
One of the peculiar features of rubber-like materials lies in the fact that under their repeated loading there is
the Mullins effect [21–23], which is related to the processes of the material aging. A new material, which is first-ever
loaded, acquired the nonreversible residual strains. In the present paper, this effect has not been considered, and all
the material properties were determined under stabilized conditions. To reduce the Mullins effect, the specimens
were subjected to the preliminary repeated slow loading with the fixed strain amplitude of 10% and frequency of
0.5 Hz (50 cycles).

843
 Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Fig. 3. Specimen loading scheme (I and II – loading stages).
Fig. 4. Stress-strain curves of three specimen in the tensile testing with the loading rate of 100%/min.

a b
Fig. 5. Variation of shape (à) and area (b) of hysteresis loop with time of rubber-cord composite under cyclic
)
deformation with e = 2% and w = 7.5 Hz: (1), (2), and (3) is the shape of hysteresis loop at the 60th, 300th,
and 3500th strain cycle, respectively.

The experiments under strain-controlled loading cycle were performed in two stages. At the first stage, the
specimens underwent the process of slow tension to strain e 0 , which is regarded to be the average one among the
further loading cycles, with the rate of 10%/min. Then, they were subjected to the cyclic loading with the fixed
amplitude and frequency regarding the mean value e 0 .
)
The strain amplitude e was taken as 2, 4, and 6%, while the loading frequency varied within the range from
5 to 15 Hz with a step of 2.5 Hz.
The scheme of a loading circuit is illustrated in Fig. 3. The test results were automatically recorded every 0.1 s
in the form of the stress–strain curve for each loading cycle.
The range of variation of the strain amplitudes was chosen based upon the possible limiting loading levels,
which were determined in the tensile strength testing of the specimens (Fig. 4). According to the data obtained, the
cord threads begin to break at the strain values of 18–20%. Therefore, the preload and the maximum strain amplitude
were selected so that there was a certain margin prior to the first possible damage to the textile cord.
Results of Experimental Investigations. From the test results, the stress–strain curves of specimens were
determined, which formed the hysteresis loops under cyclic loading conditions. It should be noted that in the process
of each test some variations with time were observed. In particular, there was a decrease in the inclination of the
hysteresis loop and its area.

844
 a b

c d

e f
)
Fig. 6. Time-dependencies of specimen heating at w = 7.5 Hz and e = 2 (à), 4 (b), and 6% (c), as well as
)
at e = 4% and at w = 5 (d), 10 (e), and 12.5 Hz (f).

Figure 5 illustrates the variation of the shape and area of the hysteresis loop of the composite material under
its cyclic loading in the direction of the cord reinforcement. These data are explained by the increase in the specimen
length and its self-heating. The specimen length is evidenced by the Mullins residual effect, which cannot be fully
neglected. Moreover, the material exhibits the inverse creep due to the elongation of the specimen with time at the
fixed loading level. The process of self-heating is experimentally confirmed. The measurement of temperatures of the
specimen gauge length was made each 0.5 min using the SNR laser thermometer (Fig. 2).
The time dependencies of the specimen heating at various loading frequencies and strain amplitudes are
given in Fig. 6. Their analysis demonstrates that at small frequencies and strain amplitudes the heating process of the
specimens occurs stepwise, while with the enhancement of these characteristics the rate of their temperature rise is
increased.

845
 a b c
) )
Fig. 7. Dependence of heating temperature for specimens on the loading frequency w: (à) e = 2%; (b) e = 4%;
)
(c) e = 6%.

A sixfold increase of the heating rate to the stabilized state is observed with the increase of the strain
amplitude within the range from 2 to 6% (and a fivefold increase – with the increase in the loading frequency from 5
to 15 Hz). Figure 7 shows the dependencies of the heating temperature on the loading frequency at various strain
amplitudes.
Figure 8 illustrates the curves obtained at the stabilized state, which corresponds to the stop of the heating
process and temperature stabilization. The experimental stress–strain curves display the results of loading with the
strain amplitudes of 2, 4, and 6% at the minimum of 5 Hz and the maximum 15 Hz loading frequencies (Fig. 8). It is
obvious that at small strain amplitudes the material exhibits a quite linear behavior and the hysteresis loop has an ellipse
form (Fig. 8à, d). With the increase of the strain amplitude, there is a distortion of the hysteresis loop (Fig. 8c, f).
Here, it is not enough to use only the linear model of material behavior, but other more complex nonlinear models are
required [24].
Theoretical Substantiation of Experimental Results. For the considered task the approximation curves of
the measurement of the area of hysteresis loops were built depending on the loading frequency considering the
temperature of the actual self-heating of the material. In the known papers [5, 6, 25] there were the models describing
the behavior of different materials based on the known physical mechanisms of viscoelasticity. Here, it is proposed to
use only the generalized linear three-parameter model of viscoelasticity (Zener model), which is applied independently
for each level of the strain amplitude (Fig. 9). The model displays the series type connection between the elastic and
viscous elements that are connected with the other elastic element in parallel.
In the process of deformation of the material having such physical structure (Fig. 9), stresses of various
nature occur: elastic s e and viscous s v components:

s e = Ee, s v = he&. (1)

Considering the fact that the identical stresses occur in the series connection of the elements, while the
identical strains are observed in the parallel connection, the following relation is obtained [25]:
) )
E EE )
s& + s = e + ( E + E ) e&, (2)
h h

where h is the dissipation coefficient, E E is the elastic modulus at infinity, i.e., it corresponds to the stabilized state
)
in terms of the viscosity, and (E + E ) is the sum that defines the initial elasticity modulus.
For the considered strain-controlled loading cycle, the deformation is in compliance with the harmonic law:
)
e ( t ) = e 0 + e sin wt. (3)

846
 a b

c d

e f
) ) )
Fig. 8. Stress–strain curves at w = 5 (a–c) and 15 Hz (d–f): (à, d) e = 2%; (b, e) e = 4%; (c, f) e = 6%.

Fig. 9. Generalized liner three-parameter model of viscoelasticity (Zener model).

847
 The solution to Eq. (2) for the determination of stresses in the variation of strains according to the law (3)
will be also in compliance with the harmonic law, which is presented as

)
s ( t ) = Ee 0 + e {G1 (w)sin wt + G2 (w)cos wt}, (4)

where G1 (w) is the stiffening modulus or accumulation modulus and G2 (w) is the dissipation modulus or the loss
modulus.
Substituting Eqs. (3) and (4) into (2), the moduli of accumulation and losses are determined in explicit form
as the frequency-dependent functions:
) (wt 0 ) 2
G1 (w) = E + E , (5)
1 + (wt 0 ) 2

) wt 0
G2 (w) = E , (6)
1 + (wt 0 ) 2
)
where t 0 is the relaxation time, t 0 = h E .
It has been experimentally established that under long-term cyclic heating the specimens are subjected to the
significant heating. It is known that the elastic characteristics of the material are temperature-dependent. To consider
)
this effect, it is proposed to employ the exponential dependence of the initial modulus E on the temperature:

)
E = E 0 e m (T1 -T ) , (7)

where Å 0 and m are the experimentally determined coefficients, and Ò 1 is the initial temperature.
The mechanical energy (work) dissipated during one cycle of deformation is determined by the area of the
hysteresis loop:
2p 2p
w w
)2
AD = ò s (t )&(
e t ) dt = e w ò [G1 (w)sin wt + G2 (w)cos wt ]cos wt dt (8)
0 0

and has the analytical solution:

)
AD = pe 2 G2 (w). (9)

Formula (8) allows one to experimentally determine the loss modulus G2 for the material in its stabilized
state and under fixed loading conditions, i.e., with the specified frequency and strain amplitude per cycle.
Figure 10 illustrates the approximation dependence of the modulus of losses G2 on the frequency and
temperature, which is plotted from the experimental data according to Eqs. (6) and (7). It is seen that the proposed
approximation dependencies describe the experimental results fairly well. Noteworthy is that the use of the Maxwell
and Zener models without considering the self-heating temperature leads to the error in approximation of 11–17%
depending on the loading frequency and strain amplitude. At the same time, consideration of the self-heating
temperature makes it possible to reduce the error to 5% and thus to expand the use of these models. This gives one
the opportunity to develop adequate numerical procedures for the evaluation of dynamic viscoelastic deformation of
the rubber-cord composite.
Analysis of the approximation results implies that the most significant dissipative properties of the material
are detected at the loading frequencies of 3–6 Hz. There is a small amplitude dependence. Thus, with an increase in
the strain amplitude from 2 to 6%, the maximum dissipated energy shifts from 4 to 5 Hz.
Table 1 lists the approximation coefficients, which are obtained separately for different strain amplitudes,
which implies a significant dependence of the loss modulus on the strain amplitude.

848
 TABLE 1. Approximation Coefficients
)
e, % Å0 , MPa m, ° C-1 h, MPa × s t0 , s T1 , °C
2 86 - 0.0012 22 0.26 23
4 85 - 0.0010 20 0.24 23
6 55 - 0.0008 12 0.21 23

a b

c d

e f
Fig. 10. Approximation dependence of the loss modulus on the loading frequency and temperature
at strain amplitudes equal to 2 (à, b), 4 (c, d), and 6% (e, f).

The initial modulus of elasticity practically does not change within the range of 2–4% of the strain
amplitude of this material, but with its increase to 6% it decreases by 35%. A similar behavior is observed for the
dissipation coefficient of the material, which decreases by 40% under the same conditions. At the same time, the
relaxation time is reduced less significantly: an increase for every 2% of the strain amplitude leads to the decrease in
the relaxation time by 10%.

849
CONCLUSIONS

1. The experimental results of the determination of viscoelastic (dissipative) characteristics and features of
the self-heating of the rubber-cord composite specimens in the direction of its reinforcement for uniaxial tension with
cyclic deformation at the different strain amplitudes and loading frequencies are presented.
2. Hysteresis loops are obtained for various loading frequencies and strain amplitudes. It is established that
the hysteresis loop with loading time varies quantitatively and qualitatively due to the increase in the specimen
length and its self-heating.
3. The variation in temperature of the specimen with time was experimentally investigated. The mechanisms
of nonstationary heating of the specimens were obtained demonstrating the areas of intense temperature increase and
its stabilization. A sixfold increase of the heating rate of the specimens to the stabilized state with the variation in the
strain amplitude within the range of 2–6% is shown, as well as its fivefold increase with the increase of the loading
frequency from 5 to 15 Hz.
4. It is determined that the area of the hysteresis loops, which is formed during the deformation of specimens
under stabilized temperature conditions is nonlinearly dependent on the strain amplitude. At the small strain
amplitude, the hysteresis loops take the form of ellipse, while with its increase they are considerably distorted.
5. Using the generalized linear model of viscoelasticity (Zener model) the approximation dependencies of
the modulus of loss are developed depending on the loading frequency and temperature considering the exponential
dependencies of the initial elasticity modulus on the temperature.

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