SETS AND VENN DIAGRAMS

ξ is the universal set (the set of everything)

a ∈ B means a is an element of B (a is in the set B)

A ∩ B means the intersection of A and B (the overlap of A and B)

A ∪ B means the union of A and B (everything in A or B or both)

A' is “not A” (everything outside A)

Sets can be written as a list of elements (members) or described in words – either way

curly brackets are used:

o A= {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}

o A= {Multiples of 3 less than 20}

Direct & Inverse Proportion

How do we deal with proportion questions?

1. Identify the two VARIABLES (called A and B below)

2. Choose TYPE of proportion:

A is DIRECTLY proportional to B use formula A = kB

A is INVERSELY proportional to B use formula A = k÷B

3. FIND k using the values given in the question

4. Write FORMULA for A in terms of B (using your value of k)
5. USE formula to find the required quantity

Finding Gradients of Non-Linear Graphs

What is a non-linear graph?

 A linear graph is a straight-line graph

 These are easily identified as their equations can always be written in the form
y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and c is the y-axis intercept 

 All other graphs are non-linear – ie. curves

 The equations of non-linear graphs take various forms
 Here are a few you could plot quickly using graphing software
 o y = x2 - 4x + 3 (a quadratic graph - called a parabola)
o y = sin x (a trigonometric graph)
o y = x3 + 2x2 – 4 (a cubic graph)
o y = 1 / x (a reciprocal graph) 

How do I find the gradient of a non-linear graph?

 Using a copy of the graph it will only be possible to find an estimate of

a gradient
 Differentiation allows gradients to be found exactly for certain graphs
 First, a tangent to the curve must be drawn
o A tangent to a curve is a straight line that touches it at one point only
 The gradient of a curve, at point (x , y) is equal to the gradient of
the tangent at point (x , y)

 STEP 1 Draw a tangent to the curve at the required x-coordinate

 STEP 2 Turn the tangent into a right-angled triangle
 STEP 3 Measure/Read off (some estimating usually involved here) the rise and the run
 STEP 4 The gradient is given by rise ÷ run
 (Alternatively, this is “Change in y” ÷ “Change in x”)

Coordinate Geometry

How do we find the equation of a straight line?

 The general EQUATION of a straight line is y = mx + c

o where m is the gradient
o c is the y-axis intercept
 To find the EQUATION of a straight line you need TWO things:
o the gradient, m
o any point on the line
 You might find these things from a graph, another equation or two points
 You may be asked to give the equation in the form ax + by + c = 0

(Especially if m is a fraction)

Congruent Triangles
Working with angles in polygons
1. TOTAL OF INTERIOR ANGLES = 180° × (n – 2)

(Because the polygon can be split into n -2 triangles)

2. TOTAL OF EXTERIOR ANGLES = 360°

(This exterior angle rule is the same for ANY number of sides!)
e.g., For a hexagon (n=6):
Circle Theorems
The first 3 circle theorems
1. The angle at the circumference in a semicircle is a right angle

 This theorem should be self-explanatory form its name/title

 The semicircle arises if you ignore the right-hand side of the diameter in the
diagram above
 Look out for triangles hidden among other lines/shapes within the circle

2. Angles at the circumference subtended by the same arc are equal

 Subtended means the equal angles are created by drawing chords from the
ends of the arc PQ
 Theses chords may or may not pass through the centre
 Both pairs of angles are equal
3. Angle subtended by an arc at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference

 Similar to above, the chords (radii) to the centre and the chords to the
circumference are both drawn from (subtended by) the ends of the arc PQ
 This theorem can also happen when the ‘triangle parts’ overlap:

More advanced circle theorems

1. Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180°

 Double-check is that all 4 vertices of the quadrilateral are on the circumference

 The diagram below shows a common scenario that is NOT a cyclic quadrilateral:
2. The perpendicular bisector of a chord is a radius

 This is also easier to see than remember from its description

 Problems here involve the radii being joined to the end of the chords and so
creating two congruent triangles

1. Alternate Segment Theorem

 The Alternate Segment Theorem states that the angle between a chord and a
tangent is equal to the angle in the alternate segment
 You can spot this circle theorem by looking for a “cyclic triangle”

ie. all 3 vertices lie on the circumference) but one vertex lies on a tangent – look
for where 2 chords meet a tangent
1. Corresponding angles are equal

 A line cutting across two parallel lines creates four pairs of equal corresponding
angles, as in the diagram below:

  Note: You may also have heard these referred to as ‘F angles’ – do not use that
term in an exam or you will lose marks!

2. Alternate angles are equal

 A line cutting across two parallel lines creates two pairs of equal alternate angles,
as in the diagram below:

 Note: You may also have heard these referred to as ‘Z angles’ – do not use that
term on an exam or you will lose marks!

3. Co-interior angles add to 180°

 A line cutting across two parallel lines creates two pairs of co-interior angles
 In the diagram below, the two coloured angles on the left add up to 180°, as do
the two coloured angles on the right:
  Note: These are sometimes referred to as allied angles, which is fine. You may
also have heard these referred to as ‘C angles’ – do not use that term on an
exam or you will lose marks!

4. Vertically opposite angles are equal

 Whenever two straight lines cross, they create two pairs of equal vertically
opposite angles, as in the diagram below:

 Don’t forget this rule when answering parallel line questions! For example, in the
following diagram the highlighted angles are equal:
  Note: vertically opposite angles are sometimes simply called opposite angles.
Either term will get you the marks

5. Angles on a line add to 180°

 This rule is also still true with parallel line questions! In the following diagram, for
example, the highlighted angles add up to 180°:
MENSURATION (PERIMETERS, AREAS & VOLUMES)
Sequences - Linear
Sequences - Quadratic
 1. DRAW the line (as if using “=”) for each inequality

Use a solid line for ≤ or ≥ (to indicate the line is included)

Use dotted line for < or > (to indicate the line is not included)

2. DECIDE which side of line is wanted:

Below line if ≤ or <

Above line if ≥ or >

How do I find percentage profit (or loss)?

 Calculate percentage profit (or loss)

 You can identify whether there is a profit or loss 

o cost price < selling price = profit (positive)
o cost price > selling price = loss (negative)