FUNDAMENTALS OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

kirchhoff’s current law

KCL states that at any node
(junction) in a circuit the algebraic
sum of currents entering and
leaving a node at any instant of
time must be equal to zero.

1
FUNDAMENTALS OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Lenz’s law
An induced emf always gives
rise to a current whose magnetic
flux opposes the original change
in magnetic flux responsible for
inducing that emf.

2
FUNDAMENTALS OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

DOT MARKINGS
When current enters a dot marking
on the primary side of a
transformer coil, the current will
leave the similar dot marking on the
secondary side.

3
PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

A differential relay operates when the phasor difference of two or

more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
4
 PROTECTION ZONE OF A DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

A differential scheme is supposed to respond only to internal faults

(dependable), and restrain from tripping on external or through
faults (secure).
5
 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME DURING NORMAL
OPERATING CONDITIONS

𝐈𝐋 𝐈𝑳
𝑰𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍 = − =𝟎
𝒏 𝒏
Differential scheme remains stable during normal operating conditions.
6
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME BEHAVIOUR DURING
EXTERNAL FAULT

𝐈𝐟,𝐞𝐱𝐭 𝐈𝐟,𝐞𝐱𝐭
𝑰𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍 = − =𝟎
𝒏 𝒏
Differential scheme remains stable during external faults or
through faults. 7
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME BEHAVIOUR DURING
INTERNAL FAULT

𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝒇,𝒊𝒏𝒕

𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝒇,𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝒇,𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍 = − =
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

I f , int
Assuming that is more than the pick-up value of the
n
over-current relay, both circuit breakers will be tripped.
8
 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME BEHAVIOUR DURING
INTERNAL FAULT

𝑰𝒇,𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐

𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝒇,𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍 = + = =
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏

Assuming that the spill current is greater than Ips, the plug setting of the
O/C relay, the relay will operate and trip the circuit breakers on either side
of the protected equipment.
9
 PROTECTION CHALLENGES AND ERRORS IN
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME
Pilot wire lengths: The C.T’s and electrical equipment to be
protected are located at different locations. Normally, it is not
possible to connect relay coil to the equipotential points.

The difficulty is overcome by connecting adjustable resistors in

series with the pilot wires. These are adjusted on site to obtain
equipotential points.

10
 PROTECTION CHALLENGES AND ERRORS IN DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION SCHEME
CT errors during short circuit: The CT’s may have almost equal
turns ratios during normal operating conditions. But during short
circuit faults currents, the primary currents are extremely large.
The turns ratio errors of CT’s on either sides differ during these
conditions due to:
(a). Inherent difference in CT characteristic arising out of
difference in magnetic circuit, saturation conditions etc.
(b). Unequal d.c components in the short circuit currents.
11
 PROTECTION CHALLENGES AND ERRORS IN DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION SCHEME
Saturation of CT magnetic circuits during short circuit conditions
and unequal d.c components in the short circuit currents: Due to
these conditions, the relay may operate even for external faults.

The differential protection

scheme may lose its stability
for external faults.

To overcome these difficulties, the “percentage differential relay”

or “Biased differential relay” is used. 12
PROTECTION CHALLENGES AND ERRORS IN DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION SCHEME

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A CT.

13
 PROTECTION CHALLENGES AND ERRORS IN
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME
𝑰𝒑
𝑰𝒑

𝑰𝒑
𝒏 𝑰𝒑
𝒏

𝑰𝒑 𝑰𝒑
− 𝑰𝟎𝟏 − 𝑰𝟎𝟐
𝒏 𝑰𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍 = 𝑰𝟎𝟐 − 𝑰𝟎𝟏 𝒏

𝑰𝒑 𝑰𝒑
𝑰𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍 = − 𝑰 𝟎𝟏 − − 𝑰 𝟎𝟐
𝒏 𝒏
Simple differential Scheme with CT Equivalent Circuit. 14
SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAY BEHAVIOUR
DURING EXTERNAL FAULT

The errors, in general, increase as the primary current increases,

as in the case of external faults.
15
 THROUGH FAULT STABILITY OF SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION RELAY

Loss of
stability

Through fault
stability limit

Through fault stability is defined as a maximum through fault

current beyond which the scheme loses stability.
16
 STABILITY RATIO
Max through fault current beyond which scheme (mal )operates
Stability ratio =
Minimum internal fault current required for tripping

The higher the stability ratio, the better is the ability of the system to
discriminate between internal and external faults (reliability performance
indicator: Dependable and Secure respectively).

The stability ratio can be improved by improving the match between the
two CTs.
To overcome these difficulties and/or challenges, the “percentage differential
relay” or “Biased differential relay” is used.
17
 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME
The simple differential relay can be made more stable if one can
develop a restraining torque proportional to the through fault
current, the operating torque still proportional to the spill current.

The relay trips if the operating torque is greater than the

restraining torque. 18
 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

For single-end-fed system, I2=0

NR  I1 + I 2 
I1 − I 2 =   + I0
N0  2 

I f , max,ext
Stability ratio =
I f , min,int

The relay automatically adapts its pick-up value to external faults

currents. 19
 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

The percentage differential relay can be made more immune to mal-

operation on through faults by increasing the slop of the characteristic.
20
FUNDAMENTALS OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

REFERENCE

Fundamentals of Power System Protection, by

Y.G. Paithankar and S.R. Bhide

STUDY: Chapter 3: Differential Protection;

Section 3.1 to 3.6.

21
 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Transformers are static devices, totally enclosed and generally oil
immersed. Therefore, chances of faults occurring on them are very
rare. However, the consequences of even a rare fault may be very
serious unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the
system.

22
 COMMON TRANSFORMER FAULTS
• Open circuits
• Overheating
• Winding short circuits
e.g. Earth faults
Phase-phase
Inter-turn
Therefore, transformer protection is absolutely
necessary for internal and external faults.
23
 PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR TRANSFORMERS

Buchholz Relay, providing protection against all kinds of

incipient faults i.e. slow-developing faults such as insulation
failure, core heating, fall of oil level.
Earth fault relays, providing protection against earth faults only.
Overcurrent relays, providing protection mainly against phase to
phase faults & overload.
Differential protection scheme, providing protection against both
earth and phase faults.

24
 TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

Transformers are provided with overcurrent protection

against faults when the cost of differential relays
cannot be justified. The differential protection is
usually applied on transformers ratings above
approximately 1 MVA. On larger units above
approximately 5 MVA it is standard practice.
25
TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

Single phase transformer

Differential protection scheme remains stable during normal

operating conditions.
26
 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

Differential protection scheme remains stable during external

faults (through faults).
27
 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

Single-fed-system

Assuming that the spill current is greater than the plug setting of
the O/C relay, the relay will operate and trip the circuit breakers
on either side of the protected transformer. 28
 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHEME

Double-fed-system

Assuming that the spill current is greater than the plug setting of
the O/C relay, the relay will operate and trip the circuit breakers
on either side of the protected transformer. 29
 INSTALLATION OF PROTECTION TRANSFORMERS

The star-delta and delta-star connections introduce certain phase

shifts between the voltages and currents on the primary and
secondary side. While connecting the CTs, we choose such
connections that nullify the phase shifts as shown in the table
below.
Power Transformer Protection transformer
connections connections (CT)
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
Star Delta Delta Star
Delta Delta Star Star
Star Star Delta Delta
Delta Star Star Delta
30
 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise. (International adopted).

31
 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise. (International adopted).

32
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

33
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

34
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

35
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

36
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

37
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

38
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

39
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
The secondary voltages of a 3-phase transformer may undergo a
phase shift of either +30° leading or -30° lagging or 0° i.e, no phase
shift or 180° reversal with respective line-to-neutral voltages or
phase-to-neutral voltages.

On the name plate of a three phase transformer, the vector group

is specified.
Typical representation of the vector group could be Yd1, Dy1,
Yd11, Dy11 etc.
40
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Yd1: The first capital letter Y indicates that the primary is
connected in star and
The second lower case letter d indicates delta connection of the
secondary side.
The third numerical figure conveys the angle of phase shift based
on clock convention.

41
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
The angle between two consecutive numbers on the clock is 30°.

The minute hand is used to represent the primary phase-to-

neutral voltage and always shown to occupy the position 12.

The hour hand represents the secondary phase-to-neutral voltage

and its position depends upon phase shift.
Phase-to-neutral voltage in the case of delta connection is
artificial.
42
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 1 : Dy11 Transformer

43
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 1 : Dy11 Transformer
Step 1: Draw Phase-Neutral Voltage Vectors
A
a

C B
c 44
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 1 : Dy11 Transformer
Step 2: Draw Delta Connection
A
a

C B
c 45
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 1 : Dy11 Transformer
Step 3: Draw A Phase Windings
A
a

A
b

C B
c 46
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 1 : Dy11 Transformer
Step 4: Complete Connections
A
a

C A
b

C B B
c 47
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 1 : Dy11 Transformer
Step 4: Complete Connections
ILA= IPA-IPC A a
Ipa = ILa
IPA
IPC
C A
b

C B B
c 48
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 1 : Dy11 Transformer
Step 4: Complete Connections

A
a

C A
b

C B B
c
49
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 2: Yd1 Transformer

50
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 3: Yd11 Transformer

51
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

52
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Dy1 Transformer

53
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

54
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Dy5 Transformer

55
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 2 : Dy5 Transformer

A
c

C A
b

B
C B
a
56
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

57
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Dy7 Transformer

58
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Example 2 : Dy7 Transformer

A
b

A B c
C
B
C
a
59
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

60
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Dy1 Transformer

61
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

62
VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

63
FUNDAMENTALS OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

REFERENCE
Fundamentals of Power System Protection, by
Y.G. Paithankar and S.R. Bhide

STUDY: Chapter 4: Transformer Protection;

Section 4.1 to 4.5 and 4.8 to 4.10.

RECOMMENDED READING
Protection of Electricity Distribution Networks,
3rd Edition, Juan M. Gers and Edward J. Holmes
64
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Determine the vector group of each transformer connection below.

65
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Determine the vector group of each transformer connection below.

66
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Determine the vector group of each transformer connection below.

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑨∅ − 𝑰𝑪∅ 𝑫𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑨∅ − 𝑰𝑪∅ 𝑫𝒚11

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟎° − 𝟏∠𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟎° − 𝟏∠𝟏𝟐𝟎°
𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠ − 𝟑𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠ − 𝟑𝟎° 67
 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Determine the vector group of each transformer connection below.

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑩∅ − 𝑰𝑨∅ 𝑫𝒚𝟕 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑪∅ − 𝑰𝑩∅ 𝑫𝒚3

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎° − 𝟏∠𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟏𝟐𝟎° − 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎°

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠ − 𝟏𝟓𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠𝟗𝟎° 68

 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Determine the vector group of each transformer connection below.

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑨∅ − 𝑰𝑪∅ 𝑫𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑩∅ − 𝑰𝑨∅ 𝑫𝒚𝟕

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟎° − 𝟏∠𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎° − 𝟏∠𝟎°

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠ − 𝟑𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠ − 𝟏𝟓𝟎° 69

 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Determine the vector group of each transformer connection below.

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑪∅ − 𝑰𝑩∅ 𝑫𝒚𝟑 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑨∅ − 𝑰𝑩∅ 𝑫𝒚𝟏

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟏𝟐𝟎° − 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟎° − 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎°

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠𝟗𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠𝟑𝟎° 70

 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Determine the vector group of each transformer connection below.

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑨∅ − 𝑰𝑪∅ 𝑫𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝑨∅ − 𝑰𝑪∅ 𝒀𝒅𝟏

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟎° − 𝟏∠𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟏∠𝟎° − 𝟏∠𝟏𝟐𝟎°

𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠ − 𝟑𝟎° 𝑰𝑨𝑳 = 𝟑∠ − 𝟑𝟎° 71

 Dy11
A a
C
A
b
C B B
c
A Dy5 c

C A b
B
C B
a 72