C H A P T E R 5

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
If A is success in life, then A equals X plus Y plus Z. Work is X, Y is
play and Z is keeping your mouth shut.
—Albert Einstein

Enhancing Your Career

Career in Electronic Instrumentation Engineering in-
volves applying physical principles to design devices for
the benefit of humanity. But physical principles cannot be
understood without measurement. In fact, physicists often
say that physics is the science that measures reality. Just
as measurements are a tool for understanding the physical
world, instruments are tools for measurement. The opera-
tional amplifier introduced in this chapter is a building block
of modern electronic instrumentation. Therefore, mastery
of operational amplifier fundamentals is paramount to any
practical application of electronic circuits.
Electronic instruments are used in all fields of sci-
ence and engineering. They have proliferated in science and
technology to the extent that it would be ridiculous to have
a scientific or technical education without exposure to elec-
tronic instruments. For example, physicists, physiologists,
chemists, and biologists must learn to use electronic instru-
ments. For electrical engineering students in particular, the Electronic Instrumentation used in medical research.
skill in operating digital and analog electronic instruments Source: Geoff Tompkinson/Science Photo Library.
is crucial. Such instruments include ammeters, voltmeters,
ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, and signal
generators. invent and patent their inventions. Specialists in electronic
Beyond developing the skill for operating the instru- instruments find employment in medical schools, hospitals,
ments, some electrical engineers specialize in designing and research laboratories, aircraft industries, and thousands of
constructing electronic instruments. These engineers derive other industries where electronic instruments are routinely
pleasure in building their own instruments. Most of them used.

165
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166 PART 1 DC Circuits

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Having learned the basic laws and theorems for circuit analysis, we are
now ready to study an active circuit element of paramount importance:
The term operational amplifier was introduced the operational amplifier, or op amp for short. The op amp is a versatile
in 1947 by John Ragazzini and his colleagues, in circuit building block.
their work on analog computers for the National
Defense Research Council during World War II.
The first op amps used vacuum tubes rather than The op amp is an electronic unit that behaves like a
transistors. voltage-controlled voltage source.

An op amp may also be regarded as a voltage

amplifier with very high gain. It can also be used in making a voltage- or current-controlled current
source. An op amp can sum signals, amplify a signal, integrate it, or
differentiate it. The ability of the op amp to perform these mathematical
operations is the reason it is called an operational amplifier. It is also
the reason for the widespread use of op amps in analog design. Op
amps are popular in practical circuit designs because they are versatile,
inexpensive, easy to use, and fun to work with.
We begin by discussing the ideal op amp and later consider the
nonideal op amp. Using nodal analysis as a tool, we consider ideal op
amp circuits such as the inverter, voltage follower, summer, and difference
amplifier. We will analyze op amp circuits with PSpice. Finally, we learn
how an op amp is used in digital-to-analog converters and instrumentation
amplifiers.

5.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

An operational amplifier is designed so that it performs some mathemat-
ical operations when external components, such as resistors and capaci-
tors, are connected to its terminals. Thus,

An op amp is an active circuit element designed to perform mathematical operations

of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation, and integration.

The op amp is an electronic device consisting of a complex arrange-

ment of resistors, transistors, capacitors, and diodes. A full discussion
of what is inside the op amp is beyond the scope of this book. It will
Figure 5.1 A typical operational amplifier. suffice to treat the op amp as a circuit building block and simply study
(Courtesy of Tech America.) what takes place at its terminals.
Op amps are commercially available in integrated circuit packages
in several forms. Figure 5.1 shows a typical op amp package. A typical
The pin diagram in Fig. 5.2(a) corresponds to the one is the eight-pin dual in-line package (or DIP), shown in Fig. 5.2(a).
741 general-purpose op amp made by Fairchild Pin or terminal 8 is unused, and terminals 1 and 5 are of little concern to
Semiconductor. us. The five important terminals are:
1. The inverting input, pin 2.
2. The noninverting input, pin 3.
3. The output, pin 6.
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 167

4. The positive power supply V + , pin 7.

5. The negative power supply V − , pin 4.
The circuit symbol for the op amp is the triangle in Fig. 5.2(b); as shown,
the op amp has two inputs and one output. The inputs are marked with
minus (−) and plus (+) to specify inverting and noninverting inputs,
respectively. An input applied to the noninverting terminal will appear
with the same polarity at the output, while an input applied to the inverting
terminal will appear inverted at the output.
V+
7

Balance 1 8 No connection Inverting input 2 −

6 Output
Inverting input 2 7 V+ Noninverting input 3 +

Noninverting input 3 6 Output

415
V− 4 5 Balance
V−
Offset Null
(a) (b)

Figure 5.2 A typical op amp: (a) pin configuration, (b) circuit symbol.

As an active element, the op amp must be powered by a voltage

i+ +
supply as typically shown in Fig. 5.3. Although the power supplies are i1 Vcc
often ignored in op amp circuit diagrams for the sake of simplicity, the 7 io −
2
power supply currents must not be overlooked. By KCL, 6
3 +
4
io = i1 + i2 + i+ + i− (5.1) i2 Vcc
i−
−
The equivalent circuit model of an op amp is shown in Fig. 5.4. The
output section consists of a voltage-controlled source in series with the
output resistance Ro . It is evident from Fig. 5.4 that the input resistance Figure 5.3 Powering the op amp.

Ri is the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen at the input terminals, while

the output resistance Ro is the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen at the
output. The differential input voltage vd is given by
v1
vd = v2 − v1 (5.2)

where v1 is the voltage between the inverting terminal and ground and v2 − Ro
is the voltage between the noninverting terminal and ground. The op amp vd Ri vo
senses the difference between the two inputs, multiplies it by the gain A, + + Avd
−
and causes the resulting voltage to appear at the output. Thus, the output
vo is given by v2

vo = Avd = A(v2 − v1 ) (5.3)

A is called the open-loop voltage gain because it is the gain of the op amp Figure 5.4 The equivalent circuit of the non-
without any external feedback from output to input. Table 5.1 shows ideal op amp.
typical values of voltage gain A, input resistance Ri , output resistance
Ro , and supply voltage VCC .
The concept of feedback is crucial to our understanding of op amp Sometimes, voltage gain is expressed in decibels
circuits. A negative feedback is achieved when the output is fed back to (dB), as discussed in Chapter 14.
the inverting terminal of the op amp. As Example 5.1 shows, when there A dB = 20 log10 A
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168 PART 1 DC Circuits

TABLE 5.1 Typical ranges for op amp

parameters.

Parameter Typical range Ideal values

Open-loop gain, A 105 to 108 ∞

Input resistance, Ri 106 to 1013  ∞
Output resistance, Ro 10 to 100  0
Supply voltage, Vcc 5 to 24 V

is a feedback path from output to input, the ratio of the output voltage to
the input voltage is called the closed-loop gain. As a result of the negative
feedback, it can be shown that the closed-loop gain is almost insensitive
to the open-loop gain A of the op amp. For this reason, op amps are used
in circuits with feedback paths.
A practical limitation of the op amp is that the magnitude of its
output voltage cannot exceed |VCC |. In other words, the output voltage
vo is dependent on and is limited by the power supply voltage. Figure 5.5
illustrates that the op amp can operate in three modes, depending on the
differential input voltage vd :
Positive saturation
VCC 1. Positive saturation, vo = VCC .
2. Linear region, −VCC ≤ vo = Avd ≤ VCC .
0 vd 3. Negative saturation, vo = −VCC .
−VCC If we attempt to increase vd beyond the linear range, the op amp becomes
Negative saturation
saturated and yields vo = VCC or vo = −VCC . Throughout this book,
we will assume that our op amps operate in the linear mode. This means
that the output voltage is restricted by

Figure 5.5 Op amp output voltage vo as a

−VCC ≤ vo ≤ VCC (5.4)
function of the differential input voltage vd .
Although we shall always operate the op amp in the linear region, the
possibility of saturation must be borne in mind when one designs with
op amps, to avoid designing op amp circuits that will not work in the
laboratory.

E X A M P L E 5 . 1
A 741 op amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 2 × 105 , input resistance
of 2 M, and output resistance of 50 . The op amp is used in the circuit
of Fig. 5.6(a). Find the closed-loop gain vo /vs . Determine current i when
vs = 2 V.
Solution:
Using the op amp model in Fig. 5.4, we obtain the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 5.6(a) as shown in Fig. 5.6(b). We now solve the circuit in Fig. 5.6(b)
by using nodal analysis. At node 1, KCL gives
v s − v1 v1 v1 − vo
= +
10 × 10 3 2000 × 10 3 20 × 103
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 169

20 kΩ

20 kΩ i
10 kΩ v1 Ro = 50 Ω v
10 kΩ 1 i o
− 1 O
741 −
+ O + + +
vs + vs − vd Ri = 2 MΩ Avd
− vo −
+
−

(a) (b)

Figure 5.6 For Example 5.1: (a) original circuit, (b) the equivalent circuit.

Multiplying through by 2000 × 103 , we obtain

200vs = 301v1 − 100vo
or
2vs + vo
2vs  3v1 − vo ⇒ v1 = (5.1.1)
3
At node O,
v 1 − vo vo − Avd
=
20 × 103 50
But vd = −v1 and A = 200,000. Then
v1 − vo = 400(vo + 200,000v1 ) (5.1.2)

Substituting v1 from Eq. (5.1.1) into Eq. (5.1.2) gives

vo
0  26,667,067vo + 53,333,333vs = −1.9999699
vs
This is closed-loop gain, because the 20-k feedback resistor closes the
loop between the output and input terminals. When vs = 2 V, vo =
−3.9999398 V. From Eq. (5.1.1), we obtain v1 = 20.066667 µV. Thus,
v1 − v o
i= = 0.1999 mA
20 × 103
It is evident that working with a nonideal op amp is tedious, as we are
dealing with very large numbers.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.1

If the same 741 op amp in Example 5.1 is used in the circuit of Fig. 5.7, io
−
calculate the closed-loop gain vo /vs . Find io when vs = 1 V. 741
+
Answer: 9.0041, −362 mA.
vs +
− 40 kΩ +
5 kΩ 20 kΩ vo
−

Figure 5.7 For Practice Prob. 5.1.

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170 PART 1 DC Circuits

5.3 IDEAL OP AMP

To facilitate the understanding of op amp circuits, we will assume ideal
op amps. An op amp is ideal if it has the following characteristics:
1. Infinite open-loop gain, A  ∞.
2. Infinite input resistance, Ri  ∞.
3. Zero output resistance, Ro  0.

An ideal op amp is an amplifier with infinite open-loop gain, infinite input

resistance, and zero output resistance.

Although assuming an ideal op amp provides only an approxi-

mate analysis, most modern amplifiers have such large gains and input
impedances that the approximate analysis is a good one. Unless stated
otherwise, we will assume from now on that every op amp is ideal.
i1 = 0 For circuit analysis, the ideal op amp is illustrated in Fig. 5.8, which
− is derived from the nonideal model in Fig. 5.4. Two important character-
+ −
i2 = 0
vd istics of the ideal op amp are:
+ +
+ 1. The currents into both input terminals are zero:
v1 + vo
v2 = v1
i1 = 0, i2 = 0 (5.5)
− − −

This is due to infinite input resistance. An infinite resistance

between the input terminals implies that an open circuit exists
Figure 5.8 Ideal op amp model. there and current cannot enter the op amp. But the output
current is not necessarily zero according to Eq. (5.1).
2. The voltage across the input terminals is negligibly small; i.e.,

v d = v2 − v 1  0 (5.6)

or
v1 = v2 (5.7)

The two characteristics can be exploited by Thus, an ideal op amp has zero current into its two input
noting that for voltage calculations the input terminals and negligibly small voltage between the two input
port behaves as a short circuit, while for current terminals. Equations (5.5) and (5.7) are extremely important
calculations the input port behaves as an open and should be regarded as the key handles to analyzing op amp
circuit. circuits.

E X A M P L E 5 . 2
Rework Practice Prob. 5.1 using the ideal op amp model.
Solution:
We may replace the op amp in Fig. 5.7 by its equivalent model in Fig.
5.9 as we did in Example 5.1. But we do not really need to do this. We
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 171

just need to keep Eqs. (5.5) and (5.7) in mind as we analyze the circuit in
i2 = 0
Fig. 5.7. Thus, the Fig. 5.7 circuit is presented as in Fig. 5.9. Notice that v2
−
v2 = vs (5.2.1) v1
+ i0
i1 = 0
Since i1 = 0, the 40-k and 5-k resistors are in series because the same
current flows through them. v1 is the voltage across the 5-k resistor. vs +
Hence, using the voltage division principle, − 40 kΩ O
+
5 kΩ
5 vo vo 20 kΩ
v1 = vo = (5.2.2) −
5 + 40 9
According to Eq. (5.7),
v2 = v1 (5.2.3) Figure 5.9 For Example 5.2.

Substituting Eqs. (5.2.1) and (5.2.2) into Eq. (5.2.3) yields the closed-loop
gain,
vo vo
vs = ⇒ =9 (5.2.4)
9 vs
which is very close to the value of 8.99955796 obtained with the nonideal
model in Practice Prob. 5.1. This shows that negligibly small error results
from assuming ideal op amp characteristics.
At node O,
vo vo
io = + mA (5.2.5)
40 + 5 20
From Eq. (5.2.4), when vs = 1 V, vo = 9 V. Substituting for vo = 9 V
in Eq. (5.2.5) produces
io = 0.2 + 0.45 = 0.65 mA
This, again, is close to the value of 0.649 mA obtained in Practice Prob.
5.1 with the nonideal model.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.2

Repeat Example 5.1 using the ideal op amp model.
Answer: −2 , 0.2 mA.

5.4 INVERTING AMPLIFIER

In this and the following sections, we consider some useful op amp circuits
that often serve as modules for designing more complex circuits. The first
of such op amp circuits is the inverting amplifier shown in Fig. 5.10. In this Throughout this book, we assume that an op amp
circuit, the noninverting input is grounded, vi is connected to the inverting operates in the linear range. Keep in mind the
input through R1 , and the feedback resistor Rf is connected between the voltage constraint on the op amp in this mode.
inverting input and output. Our goal is to obtain the relationship between
the input voltage vi and the output voltage vo . Applying KCL at node 1, A key feature of the inverting amplifier is that
v i − v1 v1 − vo both the input signal and the feedback are applied
i1 = i2 ⇒ = (5.8) at the inverting terminal of the op amp.
R1 Rf
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172 PART 1 DC Circuits

But v1 = v2 = 0 for an ideal op amp, since the noninverting terminal is

grounded. Hence,
vi vo
=−
R1 Rf
or

Rf
vo = − vi (5.9)
R1

Note there are two types of gains: the one here The voltage gain is Av = vo /vi = −Rf /R1 . The designation of the
is the closed-loop voltage gain Av , while the op circuit in Fig. 5.10 as an inverter arises from the negative sign. Thus,
amp itself has an open-loop voltage gain A.

An inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal while amplifying it.

Notice that the gain is the feedback resistance divided by the input
resistance which means that the gain depends only on the external ele-
ments connected to the op amp. In view of Eq. (5.9), an equivalent circuit
for the inverting amplifier is shown in Fig. 5.11. The inverting amplifier
is used, for example, in a current-to-voltage converter.

i2
Rf + +
– Rf
vi R1 + v vo
i1 0A R1 i
R1 v1 − −
1 − −
0V
vi + v2 + + Figure 5.11 An equivalent circuit
− + for the inverter in Fig. 5.10.
vo
−

Figure 5.10 The inverting amplifier.

E X A M P L E 5 . 3
25 kΩ Refer to the op amp in Fig. 5.12. If vi = 0.5 V, calculate: (a) the output
voltage vo , and (b) the current in the 10 k resistor.
10 kΩ
− Solution:
+
+
+ (a) Using Eq. (5.9),
vi − vo
vo Rf 25
− =− =− = −2.5
vi R1 10

vo = −2.5vi = −2.5(0.5) = −1.25 V

Figure 5.12 For Example 5.3.
(b) The current through the 10-k resistor is
vi − 0 0.5 − 0
i= = = 50 µA
R1 10 × 103
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 173

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.3

Find the output of the op amp circuit shown in Fig. 5.13. Calculate the 15 kΩ
current through the feedback resistor.
5 kΩ
Answer: −120 mV, 8 µA. −
+ +
+
40 mV − vo
−

Figure 5.13 For Practice Prob. 5.3.

E X A M P L E 5 . 4
Determine vo in the op amp circuit shown in Fig. 5.14. 40 kΩ
Solution:
20 kΩ a
Applying KCL at node a, −
b +
va − vo 6 − va +
= +
40 20 6V − 2V +
− vo
−
va − vo = 12 − 2va ⇒ vo = 3va − 12
But va = vb = 2 V for an ideal op amp, because of the zero voltage drop
across the input terminals of the op amp. Hence, Figure 5.14 For Example 5.4.
vo = 6 − 12 = −6 V
Notice that if vb = 0 = va , then vo = −12, as expected from Eq. (5.9).

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.4

Two kinds of current-to-voltage converters (also known as transresistance
amplifiers) are shown in Fig. 5.15.
(a) Show that for the converter in Fig. 5.15(a),
vo
= −R
is
(b) Show that for the converter in Fig. 5.15(b),


vo R3 R3
= −R1 1 + +
is R1 R2
Answer: Proof.

R R1 R2

− R3
+ −
+ +
is +
vo is vo
− −

(a) (b)

Figure 5.15 For Practice Prob. 5.4.

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174 PART 1 DC Circuits

5.5 NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

Another important application of the op amp is the noninverting amplifier
i2 shown in Fig. 5.16. In this case, the input voltage vi is applied directly at
Rf
the noninverting input terminal, and resistor R1 is connected between the
R1 i1
v1
ground and the inverting terminal. We are interested in the output voltage
− and the voltage gain. Application of KCL at the inverting terminal gives
+
v2 + 0 − v1 v1 − vo
i1 = i2 ⇒ = (5.10)
vi + vo R1 Rf
−
− But v1 = v2 = vi . Equation (5.10) becomes
−vi vi − vo
=
R1 Rf
Figure 5.16 The noninverting amplifier. or


Rf
vo = 1 + vi (5.11)
R1

The voltage gain is Av = vo /vi = 1 + Rf /R1 , which does not have a

negative sign. Thus, the output has the same polarity as the input.

A noninverting amplifier is an op amp circuit designed

to provide a positive voltage gain.

Again we notice that the gain depends only on the external resistors.
Notice that if feedback resistor Rf = 0 (short circuit) or R1 = ∞
(open circuit) or both, the gain becomes 1. Under these conditions (Rf =
0 and R1 = ∞), the circuit in Fig. 5.16 becomes that shown in Fig. 5.17,
which is called a voltage follower (or unity gain amplifier) because the
output follows the input. Thus, for a voltage follower
vo = vi (5.12)

Such a circuit has a very high input impedance and is therefore useful as an
intermediate-stage (or buffer) amplifier to isolate one circuit from another,
as portrayed in Fig. 5.18. The voltage follower minimizes interaction
between the two stages and eliminates interstage loading.

− −
+ +
+ First + + Second
stage vi vo stage
vi + vo = vi
− − −
−
Figure 5.18 A voltage follower used to
isolate two cascaded stages of a circuit.
Figure 5.17 The voltage
follower.
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 175

E X A M P L E 5 . 5
For the op amp circuit in Fig. 5.19, calculate the output voltage vo . 10 kΩ
Solution:
4 kΩ a
We may solve this in two ways: using superposition and using nodal −
b +
analysis. +
+
6V − 4V + vo
METHOD 1 Using superposition, we let −
−
vo = vo1 + vo2

where vo1 is due to the 6-V voltage source, and vo2 is due to the 4-V input. Figure 5.19 For Example 5.9.
To get vo1 , we set the 4-V source equal to zero. Under this condition, the
circuit becomes an inverter. Hence Eq. (5.9) gives
10
vo1 = − (6) = −15 V
4
To get vo2 , we set the 6-V source equal to zero. The circuit becomes a
noninverting amplifier so that Eq. (5.11) applies.


10
vo2 = 1 + 4 = 14 V
4
Thus,

vo = vo1 + vo2 = −15 + 14 = −1 V

METHOD 2 Applying KCL at node a,

6 − va va − vo
=
4 10
But va = vb = 4, and so
6−4 4 − vo
= ⇒ 5 = 4 − vo
4 10
or vo = −1 V, as before.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.5

Calculate vo in the circuit in Fig. 5.20. 4 kΩ
+
Answer: 7 V. − +

3V + 8 kΩ
− 5 kΩ vo
2 kΩ
−

Figure 5.20 For Practice Prob. 5.5.

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176 PART 1 DC Circuits

5.6 SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Besides amplification, the op amp can perform addition and subtraction.
The addition is performed by the summing amplifier covered in this sec-
tion; the subtraction is performed by the difference amplifier covered in
the next section.

A summing amplifier is an op amp circuit that combines several inputs and produces
an output that is the weighted sum of the inputs.

R1
i1 Rf i The summing amplifier, shown in Fig. 5.21, is a variation of the
v1 inverting amplifier. It takes advantage of the fact that the inverting con-
i2 i 0 figuration can handle many inputs at the same time. We keep in mind that
R2
v2 − the current entering each op amp input is zero. Applying KCL at node a
a gives
i3 + +
R3
v3 0 vo i = i1 + i 2 + i 3 (5.13)
−
But
v1 − va v2 − v a
i1 = , i2 =
Figure 5.21 The summing amplifier. R1 R2
(5.14)
v3 − va v a − vo
i3 = , i=
R3 Rf
We note that va = 0 and substitute Eq. (5.14) into Eq. (5.13). We get


Rf Rf Rf
vo = − v1 + v2 + v3 (5.15)
R1 R2 R3

indicating that the output voltage is a weighted sum of the inputs. For
this reason, the circuit in Fig. 5.21 is called a summer. Needless to say,
the summer can have more than three inputs.

E X A M P L E 5 . 6
Calculate vo and io in the op amp circuit in Fig. 5.22.

5 kΩ 10 kΩ

a
− io
+
+ 2.5 kΩ b
2V − +
2 kΩ vo
+ 1V −
−

Figure 5.22 For Example 5.6.

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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 177

Solution:
This is a summer with two inputs. Using Eq. (5.15),
 
10 10
vo = − (2) + (1) = −(4 + 4) = −8 V
5 2.5
The current io is the sum of the currents through the 10-k and 2-k
resistors. Both of these resistors have voltage vo = −8 V across them,
since va = vb = 0. Hence,
vo − 0 vo − 0
io = + mA = −0.8 − 0.4 = −1.2 mA
10 2

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.6

Find vo and io in the op amp circuit shown in Fig. 5.23.

20 kΩ 8 kΩ

10 kΩ io
−
6 kΩ +
+
1.5 V −
+ +
2V − + 4 kΩ vo
− 1.2 V −

Figure 5.23 For Practice Prob. 5.6.

Answer: −3.8 V, −1.425 mA.

5.7 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

Difference (or differential) amplifiers are used in various applications The difference amplifier is also known as the sub-
where there is need to amplify the difference between two input signals. tractor, for reasons to be shown later.
They are first cousins of the instrumentation amplifier, the most useful
and popular amplifier, which we will discuss in Section 5.10.

A difference amplifier is a device that amplifies the difference between two inputs
but rejects any signals common to the two inputs.

Consider the op amp circuit shown in Fig. 5.24. Keep in mind that
zero currents enter the op amp terminals. Applying KCL to node a,
v 1 − va va − vo
=
R1 R2
or


R2 R2
vo = + 1 va − v1 (5.16)
R1 R1
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178 PART 1 DC Circuits

R2

R1 0
va
−
R3 0
vb
+ +
v1 +
− vo
+ v
− 2 R4
−

Figure 5.24 Difference amplifier.

Applying KCL to node b,

v2 − vb vb − 0
=
R3 R4
or
R4
vb = v2 (5.17)
R3 + R 4
But va = vb . Substituting Eq. (5.17) into Eq. (5.16) yields


R2 R4 R2
vo = +1 v2 − v1
R1 R3 + R 4 R1
or
R2 (1 + R1 /R2 ) R2
vo = v2 − v1 (5.18)
R1 (1 + R3 /R4 ) R1

Since a difference amplifier must reject a signal common to the two inputs,
the amplifier must have the property that vo = 0 when v1 = v2 . This
property exists when
R1 R3
= (5.19)
R2 R4
Thus, when the op amp circuit is a difference amplifier, Eq. (5.18) be-
comes
R2
vo = (v2 − v1 ) (5.20)
R1
If R2 = R1 and R3 = R4 , the difference amplifier becomes a subtractor,
with the output
vo = v2 − v1 (5.21)

E X A M P L E 5 . 7
Design an op amp circuit with inputs v1 and v2 such that vo = −5v1 +3v2 .
Solution:
The circuit requires that
vo = 3v2 − 5v1 (5.7.1)

This circuit can be realized in two ways.

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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 179

DESIGN 1 If we desire to use only one op amp, we can use the op

amp circuit of Fig. 5.24. Comparing Eq. (5.7.1) with Eq. (5.18),
R2
=5 ⇒ R2 = 5R1 (5.7.2)
R1
Also,
6
(1 + R1 /R2 ) 3
5 =3 ⇒ 5
=
(1 + R3 /R4 ) 1 + R3 /R4 5
or
R3
2=1+ ⇒ R3 = R4 (5.7.3)
R4
If we choose R1 = 10 k and R3 = 20 k, then R2 = 50 k and
R4 = 20 k.

DESIGN 2 If we desire to use more than one op amp, we may cascade

an inverting amplifier and a two-input inverting summer, as shown in Fig. 3R3
5R1
5.25. For the summer, R6
v2 − 5R1
vo = −va − 5v1 (5.7.4) + va −
vo
+
and for the inverter,
R1
v1
va = −3v2 (5.7.5)

Combining Eqs. (5.7.4) and (5.7.5) gives

Figure 5.25 For Example 5.7.
vo = 3v2 − 5v1
which is the desired result. In Fig. 5.25, we may select R1 = 10 k and
R2 = 20 k or R1 = R2 = 10 k.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.7

Design a difference amplifier with gain 4.
Answer: Typical: R1 = R3 = 10 k, R2 = R4 = 40 k.

E X A M P L E 5 . 8
An instrumentation amplifier shown in Fig. 5.26 is an amplifier of low-
level signals used in process control or measurement applications and
commercially available in single-package units. Show that


R2 2R3
vo = 1+ (v2 − v1 )
R1 R4
Solution:
We recognize that the amplifier A3 in Fig. 5.26 is a difference amplifier.
Thus, from Eq. (5.20),
R2
vo = (vo2 − vo1 ) (5.8.1)
R1
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180 PART 1 DC Circuits

+ vo1 R1 R2
v1 + − A1
−
R3
0 va

−
R4 i A3 vo
0 +
vb

R3
− R1
A2
+ vo2
R2
v2 +
−

Figure 5.26 Instrumentation amplifier; for Example 5.8.

Since the op amps A1 and A2 draw no current, current i flows through

the three resistors as though they were in series. Hence,
vo1 − vo2 = i(R3 + R4 + R3 ) = i(2R3 + R4 ) (5.8.2)

But
va − vb
i=
R4
and va = v1 , vb = v2 . Therefore,
v1 − v2
i= (5.8.3)
R4
Inserting Eqs. (5.8.2) and (5.8.3) into Eq. (5.8.1) gives


R2 2R3
vo = 1+ (v2 − v1 )
R1 R4
as required. We will discuss the instrumentation amplifier in detail in
Section 5.10.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.8

Obtain io in the instrumentation amplifier circuit of Fig. 5.27.

8.00 V +
40 kΩ
−
20 kΩ
−
+
io
20 kΩ
−

8.01 V + 40 kΩ 10 kΩ

Figure 5.27 Instrumentation amplifier; for Practice Prob. 5.8.

Answer: 2 µA.
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 181

5.8 CASCADED OP AMP CIRCUITS

As we know, op amp circuits are modules or building blocks for designing
complex circuits. It is often necessary in practical applications to connect
op amp circuits in cascade (i.e., head to tail) to achieve a large overall
gain. In general, two circuits are cascaded when they are connected in
tandem, one behind another in a single file.

A cascade connection is a head-to-tail arrangement of two or more op amp circuits

such that the output of one is the input of the next.

When op amp circuits are cascaded, each circuit in the string is

called a stage; the original input signal is increased by the gain of the
individual stage. Op amp circuits have the advantage that they can be
cascaded without changing their input-output relationships. This is due
to the fact that each (ideal) op amp circuit has infinite input resistance and
zero output resistance. Figure 5.28 displays a block diagram representa-
tion of three op amp circuits in cascade. Since the output of one stage is
the input to the next stage, the overall gain of the cascade connection is
the product of the gains of the individual op amp circuits, or
A = A 1 A2 A 3 (5.22)

Although the cascade connection does not affect the op amp input-output
relationships, care must be exercised in the design of an actual op amp
circuit to ensure that the load due to the next stage in the cascade does
not saturate the op amp.

+ + + +
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
v1 v2 = A1v1 v 3 = A2v2 vo = A3v 3
A1 A2 A3
− − − −

Figure 5.28 A three-stage cascaded connection.

E X A M P L E 5 . 9
Find vo and io in the circuit in Fig. 5.29. + a +
− −
Solution: +
io
This circuit consists of two noninverting amplifiers cascaded. At the 12 kΩ
b
output of the first op amp, 20 mV +
10 kΩ
− vo

 3 kΩ
12 4 kΩ
va = 1 + (20) = 100 mV
3 −

At the output of the second op amp,


10 Figure 5.29
vo = 1 + va = (1 + 2.5)100 = 350 mV For Example 5.9.
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182 PART 1 DC Circuits

The required current io is the current through the 10-k resistor.

vo − vb
io = mA
10
But vb = va = 100 mV. Hence,
(350 − 100) × 10−3
io = = 25 µA
10 × 103

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.9

+ + Determine vo and io in the op amp circuit in Fig. 5.30.
− − + Answer: 10 V, 1 mA.

4V + vo
− 6 kΩ
4 kΩ
io −

Figure 5.30 For Practice Prob. 5.9.

E X A M P L E 5 . 1 0
If v1 = 1 V and v2 = 2 V, find vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.31.

A
6 kΩ

2 kΩ C
5 kΩ
v1 −
+ a 10 kΩ

B −
+ vo
8 kΩ

4 kΩ
15 kΩ
v2 −
+
b

Figure 5.31 For Example 5.10.

Solution:
The circuit consists of two inverters A and B and a summer C as shown
in Fig. 5.31. We first find the outputs of the inverters.
6 8
va = − (v1 ) = −3(1) = −3 V, vb = − (v2 ) = −2(2) = −4 V
2 4
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 183

These become the inputs to the summer so that the output is obtained as

  
10 10 2
vo = − va + vb = − 2(−3) + (−4) = 8.333 V
5 15 3

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.10

If v1 = 2 V and v2 = 1.5 V, find vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.32.

60 kΩ

20 kΩ
−
+ −
+ vo
v1 +
−
50 kΩ 30 kΩ

10 kΩ
−
+
v2 +
−

Figure 5.32 Practice Prob. 5.10.

Answer: 9 V.

5.9 OP AMP CIRCUIT ANALYSIS WITH PSPICE

PSpice for Windows does not have a model for an ideal op amp, although
one may create one as a subcircuit using the Create Subcircuit line in the
Tools menu. Rather than creating an ideal op amp, we will use one of the
four nonideal, commercially available op amps supplied in the PSpice
library eval.slb. The op amp models have the part names LF411, LM111,
LM324, and uA471, as shown in Fig. 5.33. Each of them can be obtained
from Draw/Get New Part/libraries · · ·/eval.lib or by simply selecting
Draw/Get New Part and typing the part name in the PartName dialog
box, as usual. Note that each of them requires dc supplies, without which
the op amp will not work. The dc supplies should be connected as shown
in Fig. 5.3.

U4 U2 U3
3 7 2 85 3 4 U1A 3 7
+ 5 + 6 + + 5
V+ B2 6 V+ BB ⁄S 7 V+ 1 V+ 052 6
B1 G 051
2 V− 3 V− 1 2 V− 2 V−
− 1 − − − 1
4 4 11 4
LF411 LM111 LM324 uA741
(a) JFET–input op amp (b) Op amp subcircuit (c) Five–connection (d) Five–connection
subcircuit op amp subcircuit op amp subcircuit

Figure 5.33 Nonideal op amp model available in PSpice.

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184 PART 1 DC Circuits

E X A M P L E 5 . 1 1
Use PSpice to solve the op amp circuit for Example 5.1.
Solution:
Using Schematics, we draw the circuit in Fig. 5.6(a) as shown in Fig.
5.34. Notice that the positive terminal of the voltage source vs is con-
nected to the inverting terminal (pin 2) via the 10-k resistor, while the
noninverting terminal (pin 3) is grounded as required in Fig. 5.6(a). Also,
notice how the op amp is powered; the positive power supply terminal
V+ (pin 7) is connected to a 15-V dc voltage source, while the negative
power supply terminal V− (pin 4) is connected to −15 V. Pins 1 and 5 are
left floating because they are used for offset null adjustment, which does
not concern us in this chapter. Besides adding the dc power supplies to
the original circuit in Fig. 5.6(a), we have also added pseudocomponents
VIEWPOINT and IPROBE to respectively measure the output voltage vo
at pin 6 and the required current i through the 20-k resistor.

0
V2
U1 +
−
VS + 2 V 3 7 15 V
+ 5 –3.9983 −
V+ 052 6
R1 V−
051 −
2
− 1 –15 V 0
4 +
10 K
uA741
V3

1.999E–04
R2

20 K

Figure 5.34 Schematic for Example 5.11.

After saving the schematic, we simulate the circuit by selecting

Analysis/Simulate and have the results displayed on VIEWPOINT and
IPROBE. From the results, the closed-loop gain is

vo −3.9983
= = −1.99915
vs 2

and i = 0.1999 mA, in agreement with the results obtained analytically

in Example 5.1.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.11

Rework Practice Prob. 5.1 using PSpice.
Answer: 9.0027, 0.6502 mA.
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 185

† 5.10 APPLICATIONS
The op amp is a fundamental building block in modern electronic instru-
mentation. It is used extensively in many devices, along with resistors
and other passive elements. Its numerous practical applications include
instrumentation amplifiers, digital-to-analog converters, analog comput-
ers, level shifters, filters, calibration circuits, inverters, summers, inte-
grators, differentiators, subtractors, logarithmic amplifiers, comparators,
gyrators, oscillators, rectifiers, regulators, voltage-to-current converters,
current-to-voltage converters, and clippers. Some of these we have al-
ready considered. We will consider two more applications here: the Digital
Four-bit Analog
input
digital-to-analog converter and the instrumentation amplifier. DAC output
(0000 –1111)

5.10.1 Digital-to-Analog Converter (a)

The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) transforms digital signals into ana-
V1 V2 V3 V4
log form. A typical example of a four-bit DAC is illustrated in Fig. 5.35(a).
The four-bit DAC can be realized in many ways. A simple realization is
Rf
the binary weighted ladder, shown in Fig. 5.35(b). The bits are weights R1 R2 R3 R4
according to the magnitude of their place value, by descending value of
Rf /Rn so that each lesser bit has half the weight of the next higher. This −
MSB LSB + Vo
is obviously an inverting summing amplifier. The output is related to the
inputs as shown in Eq. (5.15). Thus,
(b)
Rf Rf Rf Rf
−Vo = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 (5.23) Figure 5.35 Four-bit DAC: (a) block diagram,
R1 R2 R3 R4 (b) binary weighted ladder type.

Input V1 is called the most significant bit (MSB), while input V4 is the
least significant bit (LSB). Each of the four binary inputs V1 , . . . , V4 can
assume only two voltage levels: 0 or 1 V. By using the proper input In practice, the voltage levels may be typically 0
and feedback resistor values, the DAC provides a single output that is and ± 5 V.
proportional to the inputs.

E X A M P L E 5 . 1 2
In the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.35(b), let Rf = 10 k, R1 = 10 k,
R2 = 20 k, R3 = 40 k, and R4 = 80 k. Obtain the analog output
for binary inputs [0000], [0001], [0010], . . . , [1111].
Solution:
Substituting the given values of the input and feedback resistors in Eq.
(5.23) gives

Rf Rf Rf Rf
−Vo = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
R1 R2 R3 R4
= V1 + 0.5V2 + 0.25V3 + 0.125V4

Using this equation, a digital input [V1 V2 V3 V4 ] = [0000] produces an

analog output of −Vo = 0 V; [V1 V2 V3 V4 ] = [0001] gives −Vo =
0.125 V. Similarly,
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186 PART 1 DC Circuits

[V1 V2 V3 V4 ] = [0010] ⇒ −Vo = 0.25 V

[V1 V2 V3 V4 ] = [0011] ⇒ −Vo = 0.25 + 0.125 = 0.375 V
[V1 V2 V3 V4 ] = [0100] ⇒ −Vo = 0.5 V
..
.
[V1 V2 V3 V4 ] = [1111] ⇒ −Vo = 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125
= 1.875 V

Table 5.2 summarizes the result of the digital-to-analog conversion. Note

that we have assumed that each bit has a value of 0.125 V. Thus, in
this system, we cannot represent a voltage between 1.000 and 1.125,
for example. This lack of resolution is a major limitation of digital-to-
analog conversions. For greater accuracy, a word representation with a
greater number of bits is required. Even then a digital representation of
an analog voltage is never exact. In spite of this inexact representation,
digital representation has been used to accomplish remarkable things such
as audio CDs and digital photography.

TABLE 5.2 Input and output values

of the four-bit DAC.
Binary input Output
[V1 V2 V3 V4 ] Decimal value −Vo

0000 0 0
0001 1 0.125
0010 2 0.25
0011 3 0.375
0100 4 0.5
0101 5 0.625
0110 6 0.75
0111 7 0.875
1000 8 1.0
1001 9 0.125
1010 10 0.25
1011 11 1.375
1011 12 1.5
1100 13 1.625
1101 14 1.75
1111 15 1.875

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.12

A three-bit DAC is shown in Fig. 5.36.
(a) Determine |Vo | for [V1 V2 V3 ] = [010].
(b) Find |Vo | if [V1 V2 V3 ] = [110].
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 CHAPTER 5 Operational Amplifiers 187

10 kΩ 10 kΩ
(c) If |Vo | = 1.25 V is desired, what should be [V1 V2 V3 ] ? v1
(d) To get |Vo | = 1.75 V, what should be [V1 V2 V3 ] ? 20 kΩ
Answer: 0.5 V, 1.5 V, [101], [111]. v2 − vo
+
40 kΩ
v3

Figure 5.36 Three-bit DAC; for Practice

Prob. 5.12.

5.10.2 Instrumentation Amplifiers

One of the most useful and versatile op amp circuits for precision mea-
surement and process control is the instrumentation amplifier (IA), so
called because of its widespread use in measurement systems. Typical
applications of IAs include isolation amplifiers, thermocouple amplifiers,
and data acquisition systems.
The instrumentation amplifier is an extension of the difference am-
plifier in that it amplifies the difference between its input signals. As
shown in Fig. 5.26 (see Example 5.8), an instrumentation amplifier typ-
ically consists of three op amps and seven resistors. For convenience,
the amplifier is shown again in Fig. 5.37(a), where the resistors are made
equal except for the external gain-setting resistor RG , connected between
the gain set terminals. Figure 5.37(b) shows its schematic symbol. Ex-
ample 5.8 showed that
vo = Av (v2 − v1 ) (5.24)

where the voltage gain is

2R
Av = 1 + (5.25)
RG
As shown in Fig. 5.38, the instrumentation amplifier amplifies small dif-
ferential signal voltages superimposed on larger common-mode voltages.
Since the common-mode voltages are equal, they cancel each other.
The IA has three major characteristics:

Inverted input v1 + R R
Gain set −1
R
−
+3 vo Output
RG R

R
Gain set −
Noninverting input v2 +2
−
R

(a) (b)

Figure 5.37 (a) The instrumentation amplifier with an external resistance to adjust the gain, (b) schematic diagram.
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188 PART 1 DC Circuits

−
RG
+

Small differential signals riding on larger Instrumentation amplifier Amplified differential signal,
common–mode signals No common-mode signal

Figure 5.38 The IA rejects common voltages but amplifies small signal voltages.
(Source: T. L. Floyd, Electronic Devices, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996, p. 795.)

1. The voltage gain is adjusted by one external resistor RG .

2. The input impedance of both inputs is very high and does not
vary as the gain is adjusted.
3. The output vo depends on the difference between the inputs v1
and v2 , not on the voltage common to them (common-mode
voltage).
Due to the widespread use of IAs, manufacturers have developed
these amplifiers on single-package units. A typical example is the
LH0036, developed by National Semiconductor. The gain can be var-
ied from 1 to 1,000 by an external resistor whose value may vary from
100  to 10 k.

E X A M P L E 5 . 1 3
In Fig. 5.37, let R = 10 k, v1 = 2.011 V, and v2 = 2.017 V. If RG is ad-
justed to 500 , determine: (a) the voltage gain, (b) the output voltage vo .
Solution:
(a) The voltage gain is
2R 2 × 10,000
Av = 1 + =1+ = 41
RG 500
(b) The output voltage is

vo = Av (v2 − v1 ) = 41(2.017 − 2.011) = 41(6) mV = 246 mV

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5.13

Determine the value of the external gain-setting resistor RG required for
the IA in Fig. 5.37 to produce a gain of 142 when R = 25 k.
Answer: 354.6 .

5.11 SUMMARY
1. The op amp is a high-gain amplifier that has high input resistance
and low output resistance.
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