GUNPOWDER AND FIREARMS DURING MUGHAL

INDIA
1500-1600 C.E.
ABSTRACT
“We owe to the Middle Ages the two worst inventions of humanity- romantic love and
gunpowder.”

Andre Maurois (French author)

There are several ways in which past is connected to the present, one among these is the
history of gunpowder and firearms which trace its emergence to middle ages. The formula of
gunpowder traces its origin to China of eleventh century. It was in 13th C that Chinese started
using cannons. Cannons or artillery piece worked with gunpowder were the earliest type of
firearm capable of throwing projectiles with the help of energy generated by igniting
gunpowder inside a barrel. The first use of it in Europe could be dated back to the first half of
14th century. This innovation not only marked the change in military where it gave edge over
the enemy but in political and economic sphere too. Highlighting its importance Geoffrey
Parker in The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and The Rise of West claimed that
gunpowder technology constituted the core of military transformation which enabled the
West to conquer the non western world.

In his work Michael Roberts, launched his thesis on military revolution which occurred
during the century after 1560 in Europe leading to replacement of small undisciplined cavalry
troops by huge, well disciplined and drilled gunpowder infantry armies. Complementing his
work Parker emphasizes the changes introduced in the style of European fortifications, the
trace italienne, as a response to the increased challenge of artillery.

The early handguns had its origin in light cannons that could be handled by a single man.
This new weapon, handgun first appeared in Europe towards the end of 14th C or the
beginning of 15th C. When first introduced it came to be called as ‘arquebus’ literally
meaning a “hook gun”. This handgun witnessed different phases of development. Towards
the middle of 15th C European handguns came to be fitted with a gun-lock, thus providing
the option for putting the burning match to the priming-pan by pressing the trigger. Such
handguns with this mechanism came to be known as Matchlocks. Somewhere during the
second decade of the 16th C, the European handguns came to be fitted with locks facilitating
the ignition of the charges without using the burning matches. These handguns were known
as wheellock guns with a small, hardened and serrated steel wheel which was rotated against
some hard material to produce sparks. And this technological modification came to its last
stage in the beginning of 17th C when flints came to be attached to the cock of the gunlock
for producing sparks. This sophisticated gun was called as a flintlock or firelock. Freom here
during 15th C the technology was introduced to Asia and Africa.
This diffusion of technology via trade in Central and South Asia holds different account for
these empires. According to two Chicago historians Marshall Hodgson and William Mc Neil
the term ‘gunpowder empire’ is applicable to the large 16th C and 17th C Muslim states of
the Ottomans, the Safavids and the Mughals.According to these historians these empires
owed their long term stamina to their effective and exclusive use of firepower employed by
both infantry and artillery. Akin to European powers coming of gunpowder to Muslim Asia
shook the feudal order of forts and heavy cavalry.

The early handguns or arquebuses when introduced in Ottoman empire in beginning of 15th
C and from there to other parts of Asia and Africa, came to be known as tufang or tafuk ,
term denoting crossbow and banduq, Arabic term for shots.However, there is a debate
revolving around the question that when was the first time that handguns were introduced in
South Asia. The Persian chronicles written in India during the late 16th and 17th C including
Nizamuddin Ahmad’s Tabaqat-i Akbari, Sikandar bin Manjhu’s Mirat-i Sikandari and Abdul
Qasim Firishta’s Tarikh-i Firishta refer to the use of tup-o tufang during the 14th and 15th C
give the reader impression of firearms, including handguns being in vogue in the whole of
South Asia from the second half of 14th C. These reference are not completely deniable since
the other contemporary evidence too reflect towards the primitive type of gunpowder based
artillery being in use during the middle of 15th C. But there are no such strong evidence for
the use of handguns.

Therefore the introduction of gunpowder weaponry changed the world. It had a massive
impact on the Indian subcontinent where it resulted to the beginning of new rule. Indian
empires were first introduced to firearms in 1200 CE when Chinese rocket technology
diffused in the northern portion of the subcontinent . These weapons did not meaningfully
transform the battlefield. It was not until 1400 that truly effective firearms appeared in India.
This establishment of Mughal rule led to drastic change in the society where coming of
foreigners resulted to the political, economic and cultural shift. The history of gunpowder in
Indian context could be marked in three phases as done by I.A Khan in his work Gunpowder
and Fire Arms- Warfare in Medieval India-

i) Introduced in India towards the middle of 13th century, came in use by mid 14th century
from state run ‘barud-karkhanas’.During 14th and 15th century gunpowder in India was used
for military purposes. Even artillery was in use but Indian powers like Rajput didn’t pay the
required attention

ii) influenced by Ottoman experts, technology and methods brought into India by the
Mughals. Second phase began with the invasion of Babur and his success owing to use of
firearms in battle of Panipat (1526), Khanwa (1527) and Kanauj (1540) and it ended with the
death of Akbar in 1605, highlighted innovation and development. This phase coincides with
the expansion of Mughal empire

iii) Crisis and decline of Mughal empire and third phase was also marked by technological
stagnation in development of firearms. Starting from the reign of Jehangir to the mid 18th C,
when Battle of Plassey (1757), Panipat III (1761) and Buxar (1764) were fought, firearm
technology had stagnated.

This paper analyses the role of gunpowder and firearms in Mughal India between 1500-1600
C.E. The major aspects covered in the paper includes the role played by Mughals in bringing
the technology and the innovations under different rulers; and the resulted change in army
and society.

It was South Indian sea trade that brought the earliest firearms and technology to India. Since,
during that time Bahaman sultanate furnished middle eastern powers with textiles and spices
in exchange of muskets and cannons. Gunpowder in India was brought by Mongols in 13thC,
evident from the fireworks welcoming Hulegu’s envoy via ‘tir-i hawai’ also known as ‘ban.’

Cannons came to India via peninsular sea route, However, effective use of cannons was only
after Babur demonstrated their capability as siege and battlefield weapons. There are no
surviving cannons from 1400s but indirect evidence suggest that cannons were widely used
from 1460s. These evidence include the changes in the style of fortifications like the
introduction of walls that were being built with gun ports into major Bahamani forts. The two
main artilleries included heavy mortar and light cannons. These light cannons were the copy
of heavy mortars which witnessed change in design from 1500s indicating change from stone
cannon balls to lead cannonballs and more efficient use of gunpowder. It allowed the military
to target large number of people at same time giving them an advantage over local landlords
and warring groups. Thus, the field artillery became the crucial tool on battlefields. But, the
immobility and vulnerability of cannons was the major drawback which was later worked on
under Akbar.

As mentioned above, there are references of tufangs in Persian chronicles giving information
about 14th and 15th C, but there is a debate related to the context in which the term has been
used. This could be understood from two different usage of the term. In a Persian dictionary
compiled at Jaunpur in 1419-20 AD suggests the reader that at this juncture of time it denoted
crossbow. Thus, in North India during this point of time tufang didn’t denote firearms. This
has led to suspicion over the use of tufang by Abul Qasim Firishta in case of Vijaynagar
forces (1423 AD). Now one can’t be so sure that whether it was used for handguns or
crossbows. Therefore, the major problem with these references mentioning the presence of
tufangs in Deccan, Malwas , Gujarat and Kashmir are not clear, whether used for handguns or
mere crossbows. Again there are evidences supporting the other side of debate as highlighted
by I.A Khan, stating the depiction of handgun by one of the Gujarati artist in his
illustrations.The first explicit reference indicating the presence of arquebus in Gujarat and its
use in open battles dates back to 1518 AD. Durrate Barbosa during his visit to Gujarat notes
the presence of arquebus in the army. Although it is quiet clear from the statement that
arquebus didn’t hold a significant place in battlefield. This effective use of handgun could be
seen by Babur’s tufangchis (matchlockmen) at Bajaur in 1519 AD and by Vijaynagar forces
at Raichur in 1520 AD. Hence, indicating about the growing importance of tufangs in siege
operation in South Asia during the first half of the 16th C.

As per the description of the siege of Bajaur given by Babur, the handguns which were
widely in use in Gujarat, Deccan and Vijaynagar was not that a familiar firearm in North-
Western parts of South Asia. As recorded by Babur during the attack that Bajauris reacted
mockingly to handgun as if they had not seen it before answering with unusual gestures. So,
as mentioned by Khan it won;t be wrong in saying that in many parts of North-Western parts
of South Asia, handguns were first introduced by Babur between 1519-26 AD.

Babur marking his skills in the field became the first one to solve the problem of effectively
using firearms-cannons and handguns in war. In his First Battle of Panipat (1526 AD), he
adopted what was known as the Battle Plan of the “ Ghazis of Rum”. The main feature of this
plan was the deployment of tufang and artillery in such a manner that it provided the
protection of fortifications without hampering the free movement of cavalry. Another major
breakthrough was the “volley techniques” i.e., using of tufangchi while standing on ground
which resulted to increase in efficiency in comparison to using of support for the handgun.
Thus, such techniques gave an edge to his military over enemy.

The importance of tufangchis could be borne from the fact that they kept on increasing in
category of troops in service of Mughals as well as Surs. Babur had 1200 tufangchis with him
during the battle of Panipat. Humayun had 5000 tufangchis at the eve of Battle of Kannauj in
1540 AD. According to Abbas Khan Sarwani’s testimony, Sher Shah had 25000 tufangchis in
his service guarding the important parts of his empire.

It is difficult to state the exact nature of handguns during this period (1526-1546 AD)but as
mentioned by Khan that the matchlocks were superior in performance in comparison to the
arquebuses present in Gujarat and Calicut prior to the establishment of Mughal rule. One
thing that is sure from the Hamzanama prepared on the orders of Akbar during 1560-75 AD
that the standard handgun used in the Mughal empire as well as in Deccan was a matchlock
fashionable among Ottomans. Another thing which is clear that the matchlocks in use in
whole of South Asia during 16th C were inferior to the muskets of Portuguese on the western
coast of India highlighting the stagnation of technology brought from Europe to South Asia
from contact with Mamluks and Ottomans at early stage which was continuously developing
in Europe.

Although it was under enthusiastic Akbar that several changes were marked in the field. The
Mughal empire reached its zenith under the reign of Akbar the great (1543-1605 AD).
Several factors were in role making his reign that of a successful one, one of them being the
effective use of gunpowder and firearm technology in his army. During his reign,gunpowder
played a very important and key role in the siege of grand forts. According to P.K Gode
cannons and muskets were in use from 15th century in Gujarat, Malwa and Kashmir but the
most effective military strategy was adopted by Akbar.

Even it is highlighted in Ain-i Akbari that Akbar had a great interest in artillery and
handguns. Abul Fazl in his work emphasized over the frequent visit of gunsmiths for
submitting guns to Akbar for testing and getting instructions at all stages of manufacturing. In
his commentary Monserrate while stating about Akbar’s interest in crafts and arms mentioned
about a workshop where Akbar had a room for arts such as tapestry making, carpet and
curtain, making and manufacturing of arms. Such reference stating Akbar’s interest in
mechanical arts could also be found in the work of Rudolf Acquaviva. Thus, such references
back the claims made by Abul Fazl related to Akbar’s interest in craft and technology. It was
this interest only that led to innovations. The major one being introducing the new type of
handgun, known as wheellock which was invented in Europe in 16th century. The description
of this new type of handgun is given in Ain-i Akbari that a gun from which fire is discharged
without fatila but only with a slight movement of trigger and pillet is discharged. Abul Fazl
also assigns Akbar the invention of two new methods that led to strengthening of gun barrels
that were ,by a) twisting a flat iron sheet, continuously fired, to fold round and round in an
elongated fashion with its edges overlapping each other and than b) joining such twisted
pieces over an iron rod to create a barrel. Thus, making it withstand the high explosive
pressure. In this state it is called damanak.

The importance of handguns had increased to such an extent that nobles were supposed to
maintain their own contingent of imperial musketeers and even tufangchis themselves were
very well rewarded, at times were included in the framework of mansabdari. Sources state
that Mughal corps of musketeers were organized into ‘hazari’ downwars and they were
crucial to state revenue collection drives. Their importance grew steadily through 16th and
17th century ,during Akbar’s reign the ratio of muskets to horses was 1:8 and it grew to 1:5
during Aurangzeb’s reign.

Not only handguns, Akbar holds the appraisal in his platter for innovations in cannon
technology too. The first one addressing the problem of immobility of cannons, he had one
cannon piece made which could be transported easily by dismantling the parts and
assembling when wanted. The second one was that he imparted seventeen cannon pieces such
unison that one match could fire all of them. The pieces of cannons were classified after thier
size. Based on pictorial representations there are four types: one drawn my man, narnal;
pulled by an elephant,gajnal; pulled by camels, shaturnals and light animal drawn, zarbzans.

As a consequence of all these reference and mentions, one can agree with Irfan Habib that
Akbar’s technological interest was undoubtedly impressive. Even if he was not the inventor
of all the inventions at his court the spate of technological activity derived essentially from
his interest and patronage.

Strategy to retain the best:

It is quiet clear that artilleries and handguns came to hold an important place. Hence, army
too became an important factor for making the reign a successful one. Being smart enough as
highlighted by Jos Gommans in his work Gunpodwer and Fire Arms that Mughals adopted
the strategy of using “Mawas” as their imperial asset.Mughal powers exploited the enormous
Indian military labor market by mustering support of what Joseph Fletcher termed as
‘surrogate nomads’-highly talented movable warlords and their mounted following.The
introduction of muskets led to swell of army since training of using handguns could be
imparted within short period of time.

Debate:

There is a huge debate revolving around the question whether muskets promoted
centralization or decentralization. Jos Gommans in his work Forts Guns and Sails emphasized
on the duality that how in Europe emergence and spread of modern firearms led to
centralization whereas in Ottoman empire it led to decentralization. Even in case of South
India Stein highlights this paradox that in Vijaynagar it led to centralization but there were
various vigorous regional chieftains in existence.

Small body of matchlockmen inflicted heavy casualities on large parties of rebels. Even as
late as the last quarter of of 17th C evidence pertinent to Rathor rebellion (1678-80) validate
the salience of Mughal musketry and the major role played by it in putting down the
rebellions Acording to Halil Inalick, spread of modern firearms provided the local elited and
peasantry with military and financial means to withstand the central authorities. The same is
applicable in this case. As mentioned by I.A Khan that Sikhs ad Jats had mastered musketry
thus helping to keep Mughal power under check. By 17th C fear of tufang was over and
handguns had percolated to people outside Mughal aristocracy. Even cannons came to be
used by local zamindars which posed a threat to Mughal army. It not only hampered
politically but economically too, since the growing burden of manufacturing and subsequent
increase of tufangchis led to increase in revenue which acted as a firing element.

Now there was no area left where peasants didn’t revolt before accepting and giving the
revenue. This led to the formation of ‘zortalab’ areas in Mughal administration.This
increasing resistance led to agrarian and political revolts in 17th C where Jats and Sikhs
played an important role.To keep them under check rulers took steps like initiating a license
and state controlled system for the production of handguns but these attempts didn’t bear
fruit. Therefore I.A Khan is correct in saying that in case of India, firearms proved to be the
double edged weapons.

Conclusion:

The history of gunpowder and firearms in Mughal India is a story of both development and
stagnation and expansion and collision. Even after witnessing the development from arquebus
to matchlock to wheellock, matchlock guns were widely used during 16th century owing to
the refusal of army for switching to the new technology. They continued to rely on Rumi gun
founders and experts and their artillery followed the Ottoman empire which made them
inferior to the development of Europeans. Thus, the tool which became the instrument of
expansion owing to its power of subjugating forces and establishing superiority after 17th C
became the instrument for chaos and decline. However, ‘banduq’ acted as an instrument of
upward mobility and employment. Koff draws the attention towards this factor while
highlighting the prominence of baksariya and purbia matchlockmen all over India. Hence, the
emergence and development of gunpowder and firearms can’t just be seen from the lens of
warfare and military but is entangled with power dynamics and society.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Khan, Iqtidar Alam.1991 ’The Nature of Handguns in Mughal India : 16th and 17th
Centuries’

2. Habib,Irfan.1992 ‘Akbar and Technology’

3. Gommans,Jos.2004 ‘The Military Labour Market’

4. Gommans,Jos.‘Forts, Guns and Sails’

5. Verma,S.P. 2000 ‘Firearms in Sixteenth Century India : A Study based on Mughal

6. Deshpande Anirudh .2005 ‘Review of Firearms in Medieval India’ (Reviewed work