Digital Protective Relay

 A digital protective relay is an industrial

Introduction to
Modern Power System
microprocessor system operating in real time
Dr Murari Mohan Saha
ABB AB Protection  It measures digitally the currents and/or voltages
and/or some other signals associated with a
KTH/EH2740 Lecture 3
protected element
 It applies in a digital way certain operating criteria
to recognize automatically and fast whether or
not a protected element suffers an internal fault
 In the case of an internal fault a relay asserts a
tripping signal

Digital Protective Relay Advantages Major Elements of a Digital Relay

 Accurate measurement
voltages
 More sophisticated operating principles Data TRIP
Measurement Logic
Acquisition
 Self--monitoring and improved availability
Self currents ALARM

 Better
B security
i anddddependability
d bili
 Faster operation  The major functional components of a digital
 Communication, data storage, easy relay are:
reprogramming, and other functional  Data Acquisition (analog
(analog filtering & sampling)
sampling)
improvements  Measurement (phasor
(phasor estimation)
estimation)
 Logic (tripping,
(tripping, alarming, carrier send, etc.)
etc.)

Data Acquisition Block Sampling

Input Signal Analog S/H and A/D

Transducer Conditioner Filter Converter 0.62
Window

0.95
0.62
Data W

0.0
 The front
front--end of a digital relay consists of four
-0.62
elements:
-0.95
 input transducer
 signal conditioner
 Sampling - taking samples of the analog input
 Analog anti-
anti-aliasing Filter (AF)
signal (usually at regular time intervals) and
 Analog to Digital (A/D) converter
representing them in the sampled form

1
 Sampling Frequency Analog Filters

 The sampling theorem: A signal to be  AF is used to eliminate both the aliasing frequencies
reconstructed from its digital (sampled) form must and the signal spectrum not utilized by the relay
be sampled at least twice in its period  Usually a low-
low-pass active filter of the order 2 (up to
 A given relaying principle uses certain frequency 4) with the cut-
cut-off frequency below half of the
components from its input signals. The highest sampling rate is used
frequency component determines the minimum  Standard AF approximations are often used to
sampling frequency provide optimal time and frequency responses
 The higher the sampling frequency, the better  AF introduces certain phase shift (time delay)
representation of the analog signal between its input and output signals. This delay may
slow down operation of a relay

Word Length of an A/D Converter Data Acquisition Conclusions

 an A/D converter covers certain range of the
input signal (2Xmax) using certain number of bits  The AF must be used to eliminate the aliasing
(N) frequencies; it may also eliminate some noise
 the minimum recognizable change of the signal  The sampling frequency must meet the needs of the
assumes: applied relaying principle
X = 2Xmax / 2N  The word length of the A/D converter must meet the
expected range of input signals

 for example, Xmax=100, N = 12, X=0.0488

 12 bits are usually sufficient for the voltage
channels
 16 bits are sufficient for the current channels

Phasor Definition Phasor Application

 A pure sine signal of a known frequency may be

mathematically represented by two numbers: the  Most of the contemporary digital relays are based
magnitude and the phase on the classical relaying principles using phasors
 The pair of the magnitude and phase is called  Those principles use phasors of the input signals
a phasor and the relations between the phasors (such as
 Mathematically, a phasor is often denoted as a impedance or power) to make the tripping
complex number: magnitude / phase decision
 Usually the phasors of the fundamental frequency
components are used for protection

2
 Phasor Estimation Requirements Fourier Algorithm

 Fourier algorithm is often used in today’s digital

 After a step change of a signal (due to a fault), relays
the estimate of a phasor should reflect this  Mathematically, the Fourier algorithms is a linear
changeg as fast as ppossible with the dynamic
y transformation of input signal’s
signal s samples into a
errors as small as possible phasor
 The estimate of a phasor should not be sensitive  In the Fourier algorithm the data window covers
to signal distortions such as off-
off-nominal either a full cycle of the fundamental frequency
frequencies including the d.c. component, high-
high- (full--cycle algorithm) or half a cycle (half
(full (half--cycle
frequency noise, etc. algorithm)

Fourier Algorithm Properties Frequency Response

 Full--cycle algorithm:
Full
 Response time (data window) of one full cycle
Full cycle Fourier
 Not sensitive to harmonics nor to the d.c. component
 Half--cycle algorithm:
Half
 Response time (data window) of half of a cycle
 Not sensitive to odd harmonics
 Sensitive to the d.c. component and even harmonics

Phasor measurement Conclusions Logic

 There is a number of different measuring  The logic block of a digital relay performs the
algorithms developed for power system following tasks;
protection  it applies certain characteristics to the measured
 Short--window algorithms are fast but inaccurate;
Short signals
g ((such as zones in an impedance
p relay)
y)
long--window algorithms are more accurate but
long  it applies certain timing functions (such as delay for the
second zone trip in a distance relay)
slower
 it asserts the relay outputs (such as the tripping signal,
 Always certain compromise between the speed alarms, carrier send signal in a distance relay, etc.)
and accuracy requirements must be made

3
 Overcurrent Relay
An example of a digital relay Overcurrent Relay Design Issues

 Sampling frequency
 The three major components of a digital  rate
overcurrent relay are:  constant vs. variable
 Data Acquisition
q unit  Analog filter
 Phasor measuring unit for estimation of the current  cut-off frequency
cut-
amplitude
 order and approximation
 Decision making unit for implementation of a given
tripping characteristic  Vertical resolution
 Measuring algorithm
 Tripping logic

Overcurrent Relay Modes of Operation Overcurrent Relay Tripping Logic Issues

 Instantaneous tripping  The way of resetting

 Definite time tripping (a  immediate reset
constant delay)
y)  delayed reset
 reversed timing when re-
re-set
 Time dependent
tripping  The operating current
 present current amplitude used for reading the time-
time-out
t parameter
 average amplitude used to time-
time-out

Summary Digital Distance Relay

 A digital relay is an on
on--off controller which asserts  Operating principle:
principle: impedance seen from the
its output signals (trip signal primarily) in the way relaying point is a measure of the distance to a
of on
on--line computations fault, thus a base for trip/no
trip/no--trip decision
 Since an algorithm run on a relay determines the
relay properties, there is a large space for distance to fault
research and improvement of digital relays
Z

4
 Digital Distance Relay Digital Distance Relay Starting Element

 All the key elements of a digital distance relay,  Changes of certain signals can be measured very
i.e., fast digitally enabling ultra-
ultra-high speed activation
 starting element (pick-
(pick-up) of a relay
 phase selection element  Advanced principles can be used to start a relay
 zone measuring elements (relative increase of certain signals between two
 power swing blocking element samples or within a cycle, for example)
 directional element  Adaptable techniques can be used to auto-
auto-tune
 tripping, carrier and alarm logic the starting element to the existing load
 are realized in a digital way conditions

Digital Distance Relay Phase Selection Digital Distance Relay Zone Elements

 Fast and accurate digital measurement of phase  A number of diverse measuring algorithms are
voltages, currents and impedances enables available for fast and accurate impedance
robust and fast recognition of the type of fault estimation
 Advanced techniques can be used to make the  Zone characteristics can be shaped freely in a
recognition more robust digital relay
 First zone trip can be accelerated by adaptive
self--adjustment of the first zone depending on
self
fault location and scale of the transient

Digital Distance Relay

Digital Distance Relay Zone Elements Sample Impedance Trajectory

 Digitally measured impedance moves on the

impedance plane as the transient develops
marking an impedance trajectory
 Measuring algorithms can be optimized to
provide favorable trajectories under various
system and fault conditions

5
 Digital Distance Relay Digital Distance Relay
Sample Impedance Trajectory Sample Impedance Trajectory

Digital Distance Relay Digital Differential Relay

 Power swing and directional elements can apply  Operating principle:

principle: for internal faults, the
sophisticated checkings in order to block the differential current is substantially larger than the
relay when needed, but without decrease of the restraining current
e ay se
relay sensitivity
s y protected zone (transformer
(transformer, busbar,
busbar line,
line etc.)
etc )

Digital Differential Relay Advantages

 Software compensation for the ratio mismatch,

transformer vector group and CTs connections
 Adaptive bias for high sensitivity
 Fast measurement and trip of clear cases
 Sophisticated operating principles for inrush or
saturation of CTs
 Functional improvement by integrating protection,
control (tap changer) and monitoring functions
(transformer, breakers, etc.)