Module

9
WATER POLLUTION
N

W ater is essential for the existence of all life forms. In addition to household uses,
water is vital for agriculture, industry, fishery and tourism etc. Increasing population,
urbanization and industrialization has led to the decreased availability of water. The quality
of water used is also being deteriorated as it is getting more and more polluted. You may
be aware of at least some health hazards and harmful effects of water pollution. In this
lesson a detailed account of various types, sources and effects of water pollutants is
given. Some methods of water pollution control and legislatures involved have also been
discussed.

Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 list earth’s water resources;

 define water pollution and its different parameters;

 list the major types of water pollutants, their sources and effects;

 distinguish between natural and man -made pollutants;

 use the concept of biological oxygen demand (BOD) and account for the changes in
a water body;

 state methods for the prevention of water pollution;

 compare primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of sewage and

 know necessary legislative measures for prevention of water pollution in the country.

34.1 Water Resources on Earth

You may be aware that about three fourths of our planet earth’s surface is covered by
water. However, very little of it is available for consumption. Most (about 97%) of the
water on earth is present in the seas and oceans. It is too salty to be of any use for
 Water Pollution

drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes. The remaining 3% is fresh water; 75% of
which is locked up in the polar ice caps and in glaciers and quite deep under the earth’s
surface as underground water. The fresh water, which we can use, comes to us from two
sources:
i) Surface water
ii) Ground water
Let us learn about these in detail.
(i) Surface Water: Rain and snow are good natural resources of fresh water. It is estimated
that of all the precipitation (rain water and snow) that falls on the earth, about one-third is
absorbed by the plants and another one-third seeps down into the soil and the remaining
one third runs off the surface into streams and rivers. This part of precipitation, which
runs off to form streams, rivers and lakes, is called the surface water.
Precipitation (rain or snow) that runs-off into stream, rivers and lakes is called
surface water.
The small fraction of usable surface water is continuously replenished by means of the
hydrological cycle, Fig 33.1.

Sun

Clouds
Precipitation
on Land
Precipitation Snow
Evapotranspiration
on Oceans
Percolation
Water Table
Evaporation River
Ground
Water Flow
Ocean

Fig. 1: A schematical representation of Hydrological cycle

The hydrological cycle involves evaporation of water from oceans, rivers and other sources
to form clouds. The clouds on saturation with water vapors cause precipitation falling
back on earth’s surface. On surface, the water runs off to rivers and finally to oceans.
The water again evaporates and the cycle continues.
Surface water has a natural tendency to clean itself as it contains certain organisms that
break down pollutants into harmless substances.
(ii) Ground Water: The part of precipitation that seeps into the ground as a result of
gravity and fills the pores between soil particles and rocks under it is called ground
 OPTIONAL MODULE - 1
Environmental Chemistry water. The water bearing layers of soil and rocks are called aquifers. Ground water is
very important for agricultural and industrial purposes. Ground water in the form of wells
and springs is often the only source of water supply especially in villages and small towns.
In spite of a good number of water resources, we have shortage of usable water. This is
due to increasing population, urbanization and industrialization. There is a need to optimize
use of water and also conserve surface run off of water by means of rainwater harvesting,
groundwater conservation, making use of recycling methods etc.
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Water Pollution – Parameters
A large amount of water is discharged back after domestic and industrial usage. This is
contaminated with domestic waste and industrial effluents. When this contamination
reaches beyond certain allowed concentrations, it is called pollution and the contaminants
are called the pollutants. Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of
streams, lakes, seas, underground water or oceans by substances, which are harmful for
living beings. If the concentration of substances naturally present in water increases then
also the water is said to be polluted.
Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas,
underground water or oceans by substances, which are harmful for living beings.
Industrialization and population explosion are two important factors for water
pollution.
Water may be called polluted when the following parameters stated below reach beyond
a specified concentration in water.
i) Physical parameters. Color, odor, turbidity, taste, temperature and electrical
conductivity constitute the physical parameters and are good indicators of
contamination.
For instance, color and turbidity are visible evidences of polluted water while an
offensive odor or a bitter and difference than normal taste also makes water unfit
for drinking.
ii) Chemical parameters: These include the amount of carbonates, sulphates, chlorides,
fluorides, nitrates, and metal ions. These chemicals form the total dissolved solids,
present in water.
iii) Biological parameters: The biological parameters include matter like algae, fungi,
viruses, protozoa and bacteria. The life forms present in water are affected to a
good extent by the presence of pollutants. The pollutants in water may cause a
reduction in the population of both lower and higher plant and animal lives. Thus, the
biological parameters give an indirect indication of the amount of pollution in water.

Water Pollution – Sources

Water pollutants refer to the substances which are capable of making any physical, chemical
or biological change in the water body. These have undesirable effect on living organisms.
As mentioned earlier, the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes is
discharged with some undesirable impurities in it. This contamination leads to the pollution
 Water Pollution
of water, which is generally called the fresh water pollution. Fresh water pollution may
be classified into two types: surface water pollution and ground water pollution.

Surface Water Pollution

When pollutants enter a stream, river or lake these gives rise to surface water pollution.
The surface water pollution has a number of sources. These can categorized as:
 Point and Non-point Sources
 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources
(i) Point and Non-point Sources
The well-defined sources that emits pollutants or effluents directly into different water
bodies of fresh water are called point sources. Domestic and industrial waste are examples
of this type. The point sources of pollution can be effectively checked. On the other hand,
the non-point sources of water pollution are scattered or spread over large areas. This
type of sources deliver pollutants indirectly through environmental changes and account
for majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes. For example, the contaminated
water that runs off from agriculture farms, construction sites, abandoned mines, enters
streams and lakes. It is quite difficult to control non-point sources.
(ii) Natural and Anthropogenic Sources
As mentioned earlier, an increase in the concentration of naturally occurring substances is
also termed pollution. The sources of such an increase are called natural sources.
Siltation (which includes soil, sand and mineral particles) is one such natural source. It is
a common natural phenomenon, which occurs in most water bodies. Indiscriminate
deforestation makes soil loose and flood waters bring silt from mountains into streams,
rivers and lakes.
On the other hand, the human activities that result into the pollution of water are called
anthropogenic or manmade sources of water pollution. For example, domestic (sewage
and waste water), industrial and agricultural wastes that goes into the rivers, lakes, streams
and seas are anthropogenic sources. Certain materials that are leached from the land by
run-off water and enter the various water bodies also belong to this category. The
anthropogenic sources of water pollution are shown in Fig. 34.2.

Precipitation
Land fill dump Pumping
or refuse pile well
Imigation
Sewer
Stream
Scptic tank
or cesspool Water
table
Percolation Leakage Aquifer (fresh)
Leakage Discharge

Leakage Aquifer (fresh)

Intentional input Discharge or injection

Unintentional input
Direction of ground water movement Aquifer (saline)
Fig. 2: Anthropogenic Sources of water pollution
 OPTIONAL MODULE - 1
Environmental Chemistry Ground Water Pollution
When the polluted water seeps into the ground and enters an aquifer it results into ground
water pollution. The most of our villages and many townships, ground water is the only
source of drinking water. Therefore, pollution of groundwater is a matter of serious concern.
Groundwater gets polluted in a number of ways. The dumping of raw sewage on soil,
seepage pits and septic tanks cause pollution of groundwater. The porous layers of soil
hold back solid particles while the liquid is allowed to pass through. The soluble
N pollutants are able to mix with the groundwater. In addition to these, the excessive use of
otes nitrogenous fertilizers and unchecked release of toxic wastes and even carcinogenic
substances by industrial units many result in slow trickling down through the earth’s
surface and mixing with the groundwater. This problem is very serious especially in areas
where water table is high (i.e., where water is available near surface of earth).
The ground water can move over large distances by virtue of the large empty space
available below the earth’s surface. This way if some impurities seep into the ground
water at one point, they may be observed at a different point far removed from the point
of source. In such a case it is difficult to estimate the source of water pollution. However,
suspended impurities and bacterial contaminants are removed in the process of seepage
by the soil acting as an absorbent and filter, and water acting as a solvent.
Since the movement of groundwater through the porous rock is very slow, pollutants
which get mixed with the groundwater are not readily diluted. Furthermore, groundwater
does not have access to air (in contrast to surface water) therefore, oxidation of pollutants
into harmless products in groundwater does not occur.

Water Pollutants
You have read the various sources from where pollutants enter the water bodies. Let us
now learn about the various types of pollutants arising out of these sources. These can be
broadly put under the following types.
(i) Sewage Pollutants (Domestic and Municipal Waste)
(ii) Industrial Pollutants
(iii) Agricultural Pollutants
(iv) Radioactive and Thermal Pollutants
(i) Domestic and Municipal Pollutants: The sewage contains garbage, soaps,
detergents, waste food and human excreta and is the single largest sources of water
pollution. Pathogenic (disease causing) microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
algae) enter the water system through sewage making it infected. Typhoid, cholera,
gastroenteritis and dysentery are commonly caused by drinking infected water. Water
polluted by sewage may carry certain other bacteria and viruses cannot grow by
themselves, but reproduce in the cells of host organisms. They cause a number of
diseases, such as, polio, viral hepatitis and may be cancer which are resistant to like
the organic matter are oxygen demanding substances. They are responsible for
deoxygenation of water-bodies which is harmful for aquatic life.
Other ingredients which enter the various water bodies are the plant nutrients,
i.e., nitrates and phosphates. They support growth of algae, commonly called algal
bloom (blue-green species). This process is called eutrophication.
 Water Pollution

(ii) Industrial Pollutants: Many industries are located near rivers or fresh water
streams. These are responsible for discharging their untreated effluents into rivers
like highly toxic heavy metals such as chromium, arsenic, lead, mercury, etc. along
with hazardous organic and inorganic wastes (e.g., acids, alkalines, cyanides,
chlorides, etc.). River Ganges receives wastes from textile, sugar, paper and pulp
mills, tanneries, rubber and pesticide industries. Most of these pollutants are
resistant to breakdown by microorganisms (called non-biodegradable), therefore
damage the growth of crops and the polluted water is unsafe for drinking purposes.
Factories manufacturing plastic, caustic soda and some fungicides and pesticides
release mercury (a heavy metal) along with other effluents in nearby water body.
Mercury enters the food chain through bacteria, algae, fish and finally into the human
body. The toxicity of mercury became evident by the Minamata Bay tragedy in
Japan during the period 1953-60. Fish died due to mercury consumption and those
who ate fish were affected by mercury poisoning and quite a few died. The milder
symptoms of mercury poisoning are depression and irritability but acute toxic effects
can cause paralysis, blindness, insanity, birth defects and even death. The high
concentration of mercury in water and in fish tissues results from formation of soluble
monomethylmercury ion, (CH , Hg+) and volatile dimethylmercuty [(CH ) Hg] by
3 3 2
anaerobic bacteria in sediments.
(iii) Agricultural Waste: Manure, fertilizers, pesticides, wastes form farms,
slaughterhouse, poultry farms, salts and silt are drained as run-off from agricultural
lands. The water body receiving large quantities of fertilizers (phosphates and nitrates
or manures becomes rich in nutrients which leads to eutrophication and consequent
depletion of dissolved oxygen. Consumption of water rich in nitrates is bad for human
health especially for small children.
Pesticides (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, malathion, carbaryl etc.) are used to kill insect and
rodent pests. Toxic pesticide residues enter the human body through drinking water
or through food chain (biomagnification). These compounds have low solubility in
water but are highly soluble in fats. For example, the concentration of DDT in river
water may be very low but some fish over a period of time accumulate so much of
DDT that they become unfit for human consumption. The use of pesticides in our
country is increasing very rapidly.
Some of these chemicals which are highly toxic become metabolized by animals that
graze on fields. Therefore, these poisonous chemicals have been often observed in
the human food chain. The presence of these chemicals in humans even in minute
amounts can cause hormonal imbalance and may lead to cancer.
(iv) Physical Pollutants: Physical pollutants can be of different types. Some of them
are discussed below :
(a) Radioactive Wastes: Radionucleides found in water are radium and potassium-40.
These isotopes originate from natural sources due to leaching from minerals. Water
bodies are also polluted by accidental leakage of waste material from uranium and
thorium mines, nuclear power plants and industries, research laboratories and hospitals
which use radioisotopes. Radioactive materials enter human body through water and
food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain vital organs. They cause tumors
and cancer.
(b) Thermal Sources: Various industries, nuclear power plants and thermal plants require
water for cooling and the resultant hot water is often discharged into rivers or lakes.
 OPTIONAL MODULE - 1
Environmental Chemistry This results in thermal pollution and leads to the imbalance in the ecology of the
water body. Higher temperature lowers the dissolved oxygen level (which is very
essential for marine life) by decreasing the solubility of oxygen in water. Fish and
other aquatic organism can get affected by a sudden change in water temperatures.
(c) Sediments: Soil particles carried to streams, lakes or oceans form the sediments.
The sediment become polluting due to their large amount. Soil erosion defined as the
soil carried by flood water from crop land, is responsible for sedimentation. The
sediments may damage the water body by introducing a large amount of nutrient
N otes matter.
(v) Petroleum Products: Petroleum products are widely used for fuel, lubrication,
plastics manufacturing, etc. and happen to be poisonous in nature. Crude oil and
other related products generally get into water by accidental spillage from ships,
tankers, pipelines etc. Besides these accidental spills, oil refineries, oil exploration
sites and automobile service centers pollute different water bodies. Oil slick which
floats on the water surface causes death of marine life and severely affects the
ecosystem of the ocean.
A list of various types of water pollutants, their sources and effects have been summarized
in Table 1.
Table 1: Types of water pollutants, their sources and effects
Pollutant Sources of Pollutants Effects and Significance
1 Pathogens Sewage, human and animal Depletion of dissolved oxygen
wastes, natural and urban runoff in water (foul odor) health
from land, industrial waste effects (outbreaks of water
borne diseases)
2 Organic pollutants Automobile and machine waste, Disruption of marine life,
 Oil and grease tanker spills, offshore oil leakage aesthetic damage
 Pesticides and Chemicals used for better yield from Toxic effects (harmful for
weedicides agriculture aquatic life), possible genetic
 Plastics Industrial and household waste defects and cancer; kills fish
 Detergents Industrial and household waste Eutrophication, aesthetics
3 Inorganic pollutants Agricultural runoff Algal bloom and
Fertilizers eutrophication, nitrates
(phosphates and cause methemoglobenemia
nitrates)
Acids and alkalines Mine drainage, industrial wastes, Kill fresh water organisms,
natural and urban runoff unfit for drinking, irrigation
and industrial use.
4 Radioactive Natural sources, uranium mining Cancer and genetic defects
materials and processing, hospitals and
research laboratories using
radioisotopes
5 Heat Cooling water for industrial, Decreases solubility of oxygen
nuclear and thermal plants in water, disrupts aquatic
ecosystems
6 Sediments Natural erosion, runoff from Affects water quality, reduces
agricultural land and construction fish population
sites
 Water Pollution

Water Pollution and Some Biological Effects

The natural source of water in the form of precipitation or rain is the purest form available
in nature. However after reaching the surface and then underground it gets contaminated
by a number of pollutants. There are some biological factors also mentioned earlier
responsible for spoiling the quality of water. These include the lower plants like algae and
bacteria which are the causes of nutrient accumulation in aquatic systems. This nutrient
accumulation gives rise to a condition called eutrophication explained below.

Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a process by which a water body slowly becomes rich in plant nutrients
such as nitrates and phosphates due to soil erosion and run off from the surrounding land.
Let us try to understand this phenomenon. A water system like a lake or any reservoir may
get a large inflow of organic matter from domestic wastes and run off from the surrounding
land. Increasing human population, intensive agriculture and rapid industrial growth have
led to an increasing release of domestic waste, agricultural residues, industrial wastes and
land run-off into various water bodies. Nutrients are released from organic waste by
aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria which start decomposing it. Dissolved oxygen is
consumed in this process. As more and more organic matter enters a water body, more is
the deoxygenation of the water body and larger is the production of nutrients. These
nutrients fertilize an abnormal growth of algae and other large water plants such as
duckweed. As more plants grow, some of them die also due to larger oxygen demand and
therefore oxygen deficiency in the water body (i.e., deoxygenation of the water body).
Such a water body is said to be eutrophied and the process is called eutrophication.
The word eutrophication is derived from the Greek word which means well-nourished as
(eu:true, trophos:feeding)
Eutrophication of a water body results due to the release of large amount of
nutrients by the action of aerobic bacteria on organic wastes entering a water
body naturally or by human activity.
The above discussion leads us to a concept called biological oxygen demand (BOD). Let
us try to understand by the description given below.
 OPTIONAL MODULE - 1
Environmental Chemistry Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The quality of oxygen used up by microorganisms at 27ºC and in darkness during 3 days
in breaking down organic wastes in a water body is called its biological oxygen demand
(BOD).
It can be explained in the following manner.
You know that there are many organic compounds or waste present in a water body. The
N otes microorganisms present in the system act upon this waste for their own consumption and
growth. In the process the metabolic activity requires oxygen which is met by the dissolved
oxygen present in water. It is this amount of oxygen which is defined as biological
oxygen demand (BOD). The BOD value of an aquatic system depends upon:
 the type and amount of organic waste
 the organisms acting on it
 temperature and pH
The greater the amount of organic waste in the water body, the greater is the amount of
oxygen required to break it down biologically and therefore higher is the BOD value of
water. This value is a good measure in evaluating the degree of pollution in a water body.
The less polluted water shows comparatively low value of BOD. Its value is used as a
criterion for managing water pollution of a water body. An evaluation is made by determining
oxygen concentration in water before and after incubation at 20ºC in dark for 5 days.

Biomagnification
A variety of toxic chemicals move through food chains. Toxic pesticides may be sprayed
for controlling insect pests, fungi, herbs, but they concentrate in the food chain and harm
to other (non-target) organisms. For example, DDT was sprayed in the U.S. to control
mosquitoes at a concentration expected to be harmless to non-target organisms like fish
and birds. DDT accumulated in the marshes and planktons. Planktons were eaten by fish
and the fish had a higher concentration of DDT in its body. Further, when birds ate the
fish, they accumulated still higher concentration. This increase in concentration of
accumulated toxic chemicals as one goes higher in the food chain is termed
biomagnification. Biomagnification has at times threatened the reproduction and survival
of carnivores (secondary consumers) who occupy the highest level of the food chain.
Aerobic bacteria converts organic
Sewage and agriculture wastes into nutrients and consumes
run-off enter a water body. oxygen leading to oxygen deficiency
in the water-body.

Eutrophication, i.e.,
high nutrient content

Increased growth of algae leading to Oxygen depletion causes

algal bloom. Also more plants die off. death of marine life. Water
Both steps lead to increased use up of body is rendered useless and
dissolved oxygen water smells.
 Water Pollution

Water Pollution – Some Control Measures

Waste water generated by household activity, industries or garbage landfills is called sewage
which is classified as the municipal water pollution. Sewage contains solid matters in the
form of suspended colloidal and dissolved organic matter, detergent, mineral matter, nutrients
and gases. Sewage is one of the major causes of water borne diseases and therefore the
treatment of sewage is one of the important tasks. For a long time treatment of municipal
waste in the form of sewage involved mainly of the removal of suspended solids, oxygen
demanding materials and harmful bacteria. Now the disposal of the solid residue from
sewage has been improved by applying municipal treatment processes.
The treatment of this waste water is carried out in the following three stages:
(i) Primary treatment
(ii) Secondary treatment, and
(iii) Tertiary treatment
Primary Treatment: When the waste water is to be dumped off into a river or flowing
steam, the treatment is carried out by sedimentation, coagulation and filtration. This is
known as primary treatment. If the water is required for drinking purposes, it has to
undergo further treatment called secondary and tertiary treatments. The following steps
are performed to do primary treatment of water:
(i) Sedimentation: This step is carried out in large tanks specially built for this purpose
in sewage treatment plant. The polluted water is allowed to settle so that silt, clay
and other matter settle to be bottom and water is slowly allowed to move out. Fine
particles do not settle and are thus required to be removed in the next step.
(ii) Coagulation: Fine particles and colloidal suspension are combined into large particles
by a process called coagulation. This step is carried out by the addition of special
chemicals called coagulants (flocculants) such as potash alum. The large particles
either settle to the bottom or are moved in the next step.
(iii) Filtration: Suspended particles, flocculants, bacteria and other organisms are filtered
by passing the water through a bed of sand or finely divided coal or through some
fibrous materials. The total impurities collected in these steps are called sludge. It
is used as a valuable fertilizer. On composting (i.e. the action of anaerobic bacteria),
it releases sludge gas. It consists mainly of methane gas which is used for cooking
purposes.
Secondary or Biological Treatment: The water after primary treatment is not fit for
drinking purposes and has to undergo further treatment. This is done through secondary
or biological treatment. A commonly used method is to allow polluted water to spread over
a large bed of stones and gravel so that the growth of different microorganisms needing
nutrients and oxygen is encouraged. Over a period of time a fast moving food chain is set
up. For example, bacteria consume organic matter from the polluted water; protozoa live
on bacteria. Every form of life including algae and fungi help in the cleaning up process.
This is called secondary treatment of water. It involves the following processes
(i) Softening: By this treatment undesirable cations of calcium and magnesium are
removed from hard waters. Either water is treated with lime and soda ash to
precipitate Ca2+ ions as carbonates or it is passed through cation exchangers. This
makes water soft.
 OPTIONAL MODULE - 1
Environmental Chemistry (ii) Aeration: In this process, soft water is exposed to air by forcing air through it to add
oxygen to water. This encourages bacterial decomposition of organic matter into
harmless products such as carbon dioxide and water. The addition of oxygen reduces
carbon dioxide. sulphide etc.. The water is as yet not fit for drinking purposes. The
pathogenic and other microorganisms need to be killed. This is done in the next
treatment.
Tertiary Treatment: The tertiary treatment is actually disinfecting water. Chlorine is
the most commonly used disinfectant used for killing bacteria. However, chlorine also
N otes
reacts with traces of organic matter present in water and forms undesirable chlorinated
hydrocarbons (toxic and potentially carcinogenic). It is therefore desirable to reduce the
organic matter in water before passing chlorine gas. Other methods of disinfection such
as ultraviolet radiation, ozone gas treatment or reverse osmosis are preferred over chlorine
treatment. But these methods are more expensive. Fig.34.3 gives a clear picture of the
process of sewage treatment in total.

Fig. 3: Treatment process of sewage

In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series of screens, chambers and
chemical processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. During primary treatment a large
percentage of suspended solids and inorganic material is removed from sewage. The
secondary stage reduces organic material by accelerating natural biological processes.
Tertiary treatment is done when water is to be reused. Here 99% of solids are removed
and various chemical processes are used to ensure that water is free from infecting
materials.