EASTERN VISAYAS GRADUATE SCHOOL

TACLOBAN CITY
Second Semester
S.Y.2022- 2023

Notes in EDUC 501:

Philo- Sociological
Foundations of Education

Submitted by:

SHAIRA MAE S. CAJANDAB

MAED- MS

Submitted to:

Prof. Rosemarie Abocot

Subject Professor
Notes in EDUC 501: Philo- Sociological Foundations of Education

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
1. PHILOSOPHY

What is Philosophy?
If you’ve ever wondered whether God exists, whether life has purpose, whether beauty is in
the eye of the beholder, what makes actions right or wrong, or whether a law is fair or just,
then you’ve thought about philosophy. And these are just a few philosophical topics. (Thomas
Metcalf, October 2020)

Quite literally, the term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad sense, philosophy
is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths about
themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the world and to each other.
As an academic discipline philosophy is much the same. Those who study philosophy are
perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and arguing for their answers to life as most basic
questions. To make such a pursuit more systematic academic philosophy is traditionally
divided into major areas of study. (philosophy.fsu.edu)

Whenever people think about deep, fundamental questions concerning the nature of the
universe and ourselves, the limits of human knowledge, their values and the meaning of life,
they are thinking about philosophy. Philosophical thinking is found in all parts of the world,
present, and past.

In the academic world, philosophy distinguishes a certain area of study from all other areas,
such as the sciences and other humanities. Philosophers typically consider questions that are,
in some sense, broader and/or more fundamental than other inquirers’ questions: [3] e.g.,
physicists ask what caused some event; philosophers ask whether causation even exists;
historians study figures who fought for justice; philosophers ask what justice is or whether their
causes were in fact just; economists study the allocation of capital; philosophers debate the
ethical merits of capitalism.
 When a topic becomes amenable to rigorous, empirical study, it tends to be “outsourced” to
its own field, and not described in the present day as “philosophy” anymore: e.g., the natural
sciences were once called “natural philosophy,” but we don’t now just think about whether
matter is composed of atoms or infinitely divisible: we use scientific experiments.[4] And most
of the different doctoral degrees are called “Doctor of Philosophy” even when they’re in
sociology or chemistry.

Philosophical questions can’t be straightforwardly investigated through purely empirical

means:[5] e.g., try to imagine a lab experiment testing whether societies should privilege
equality over freedom—not whether people believe we should, but whether we actually should.
What does moral importance look like in a microscope?

The main method of academic philosophy is to construct and evaluate arguments (i.e.,
reasons intended to justify some conclusion). Such conclusions might be that some theory is
true or false or might be about the correct analysis or definition of some concept. These
arguments generally have at least some conceptual, intellectual, or a priori, i.e., non-empirical,
content. And philosophers often incorporate relevant scientific knowledge as premises in
arguments.
(https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2020/10/10/philosophy/)

History of Philosophy
The study of philosophy involves not only forming one’s own answers to such questions,
but also seeking to understand the way in which people have answered such questions in the
past. So, a significant part of philosophy is its history, a history of answers and arguments
about these very questions. In studying the history of philosophy, one explores the ideas of
such historical figures as:
Plato Locke Marx
Aristotle Hume Mill
Aquinas Kant Wittgenstein
Descartes Nietzsche Sartre

What often motivates the study of philosophy is not merely the answers or arguments
themselves but whether or not the arguments are good and the answers are true. Moreover,
many of the questions and issues in the various areas of philosophy overlap and, in some
 cases, even converge. Thus, philosophical questions arise in almost every discipline.
(https://philosophy.fsu.edu/undergraduate-study/why-philosophy/What-is-Philosophy)

 Essential Concerns of Philosophy

The primary concern of philosophy is to explore ideas that are central to the ways we
live and that we commonly use without much reflection, ideas such as truth and justice,
the notion of consciousness, and good and evil.

Rousseau explained: What his philosophy means for us today

 Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss Enlightenment philosopher who praised a simple life

and inspired the worst of the French Revolution. J ean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss
Enlightenment philosopher with some radical ideas. 
 He argued passionately for democracy, equality, liberty, and supporting the common
good by any means necessary. 
 While his ideas may be utopian (or dystopian), they are thought-provoking and can
inform modern discourse.

 How do different philosophers define Philosophy? (Ulrich Balbian, 2019)

 According to Aristotle - "Philosophy is a science which discovers the real nature
of supernatural elements".
 According to Levison- "Philosophy is mental activity".
 According to Karl Marks - "Philosophy is the interpretation of the world in order
to change it".
 According to Hegel - "Philosophy is that which grasps its own era in thought."
 Kant Immanuel regards philosophy as "the science and criticism of cognition."
 According to Russel- "Philosophy proper deals with matters of interest to the
general educated public, and loses much of its value if only a few professionals
can understand it."
 According to Henderson - "Philosophy is a rigorous, disciplined, guarded
analysis of some of the most difficult problems which men have ever faced."
 According to John Dewey - "Philosophy is not a panacea (remedy for all kinds of
diseases/troubles) for the problems of men, but is that which emerges out of the
methods employed by them to solve their problems."
 Aristippus thinks that philosophy is "the ability to feel at ease in any society."
 According to Socrates- "Philosophy is a daily activity".
 According to Phenix - "Science attempts only at the discovery of facts.
Philosophy is not interested in the discovery of facts. Rather, it is interested in
facts insofar as to provide an attitude towards them. It tries to organize, interpret,
clarify and criticize the already discovered facts of science.
 D.J. Connar defines philosophy "as an activity of criticism or clarification."
 According to Plato - "He who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is
curious to learn and is never satisfied may be justly termed as a philosopher."
 According to G.T.W Patreck - "Between science and philosophy the very closest
relationship exists. They spring from the same root, the love of knowledge and
they aspire to the same end, the knowledge of reality. While science describes
the facts, philosophy interprets them."
 According to Brubacher - "Science is interested in the proximate or efficient
causes of the facts, while philosophy is concerned with its ultimate or final
causes."
 Henderson thinks that philosophy is a research for "a comprehensive view of
nature, an attempt at a universal explanation of the nature of things."
 Millard and Bectrocci defined philosophy as the persistent, critical and
systematic attempt to discover and consistently formulate in relation to each
other the basic characteristics, meanings and values of our experience in its
widest perspectives."
 According to Ludwig Wittgenstein- "The object of philosophy is the logical
clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a theory, but an activity. A
philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is
not a number of ‘philosophical propositions’, but to make propositions clear.
Philosophy should make clear and delimit sharply the thoughts which otherwise
are, as it were, opaque and blurred."
 According to Raymont - "Philosophy is an unceasing effort to discover the
general truth that lies behind the particular fact, to discover also the realities that
lies behind appearance."
 According to Carlies Lamont - "philosophy is the tenacious attempts of
reasoning men to think through the most fundamental issues of life, to reach
reasonable conclusions on first and last things to suggest worthwhile goals that
can command the loyalty of individuals and groups."
 According to Kilpatric- "Philosophy is a point of view, outlook on life."
 According to Dr. Radhakrishnan - "Philosophy is a view of life. It gives a
direction to life, offers a design for living."
 According to Existentialists - "Philosophy is not a search for truth, but a trail of
truth".
 According to Hiryana - "Philosophy is a emerged as a result of reflection over the
experiences and problems of everyday living."
 According to Cicero, Marcus Tullius - "Philosophy is the mother of all arts and
"the true medicine of the mind."
 According to George Berkeley- "Philosophy, being nothing but the study of
wisdom and truth..."
 According to Brightman - "Philosophy may be defined as an attempt to think
truly abouthuman experience or a whole or to make out whole experience
intelligible."
 Kant regards as - "the science and criticism of cognition."
 According to Fichte - "Philosophy is the science of knowledge."
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor defined it as the "Science of science."
 According to John Armstrong - "Philosophy is the successful love of thinking."
 According to Marilyn Adams - "Philosophy is thinking really hard about the most
important questions and trying to bring analytic clarity both to the questions and
the answers."
 According to Edger S. Brightman - "Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method
of approaching experiential rather than a body of conclusions about the
experience."
 According to Richard Bradley- "Philosophy is 99 per cent about critical reflection
on anything you care to be interested in.”
 According to Bramold- "Philosophy is a persistent effort of both ordinary and
persistent people to make life as intelligible and meaningful as possible."
 According to Herbert Spencer - "Philosophy is concerned with everything as a
universal science."
 According to Don Cupitt - "Philosophy is critical thinking: trying to become aware
of how one’s own thinking works, of all the things one takes for granted, of the
way in which one’s own thinking shapes the things one’s thinking about."
 According to Joseph A. Leighton - "Philosophy like science, consist of theories
of insights arrived at as a result of systematic reflection."
  According to Simon Blackburn - "[Philosophy is] a process of reflection on the
deepest concepts, that is structures of thought, that make up the way in which we
think about the world. So it’s concepts like reason, causation, matter, space,
time, mind, consciousness, free will, all those big abstract words and they make
up topics, and people have been thinking about them for two and a half thousand
years and I expect they’ll think about them for another two and a half thousand
years if there are any of us left."
 According to R.W. Sellers- "Philosophy is a persistent attempt to gain insight into
the nature of the world and ourselves by systematic reflection."
 According to C. J. Ducasse- "Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I
should say that philosophy is a general theory of criticism."
 According to Humayun Kabir - philosophy "seeks to give knowledge of the
whole."
 According to Anthony Kenny- "Philosophy is thinking as clearly as possible
about the most fundamental concepts that reach through all the disciplines."
 Huxley, Aldous observes "Men live in accordance with their Philosophy of life."
 H. Dumery defines philosophy as a "critical reflection on concrete action."
 According to Plato –"Philosophy is the acquisition of knowledge."
 According to Clifford Barrat -"It is not the specific content of these conclusions,
but the spirit and the method by which they are reached, which entitles them to
be described as philosophical..."
 Curtis, George William states "During the course of centuries, the meaning
attached to philosophy has undergone many changes, and even in the present
day, thinkers, are not incomplete agreement about the aims and subject-matter
of this branch of knowledge."
 According to Michael S. Russo -"A critical examination of reality characterized
by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the sake of attaining wisdom."
 Milton K. Munitz suggests that "philosophy is a quest for a view of the world and
of man'splace in it, which is arrived at and supported in a critical and logical way."

 Implications on the educational purposes (according To Erikson Saragih, 2012:

Implication of Philosophy in Modern Education)
The interdependence of philosophy and education is clearly seen from the fact
that the great philosophers of all times have also been great educators and their
philosophy is reflected in their educational systems. This inter-dependence can be
 better understood by analyzing the implications of philosophical principles in the field of
education

Education and philosophy are inseparable because the ends of education are the
ends of philosophy i.e., wisdom; and the means of philosophy is the means of education
i.e. inquiry, which alone can lead to wisdom. Any separation of philosophy and
education inhibits inquiry and frustrates wisdom. Education involves both the world of
ideas and the world of practical activity; good ideas care lead to good practice and good
practices reinforce good ideas. In order to behave intelligently in the educational
process, education needs direction and guidance philosophy can provide. Hence
philosophy is not only a professional tool for the educator but also a way of improving
the quality of life because it helps us to gain a wider and deeper perspective on human
existence and the world around us. The chief task of philosophy is to determine what
constitutes good life whereas the main task of education is how to make life worth living.
So, philosophy and education are mutually re-constructive.

They give and take from each other. Philosophy deals with the goals and essentials of
good life while education provides the means to achieve those goals of good life. In this
sense philosophy of education is a distinct but not a separate
discipline. It takes its contents from education and its methods from philosophy. The
process of philosophizing about education requires an understanding of education and
its problems. Hence, we can say that philosophy of education is the application of
philosophical ideas to educational problems.

 Philosophy of Education
When articulating philosophy of education, it is essential to reflect on the multiple
dimension of teaching that would impact your philosophy. As demonstrated by the
diagram, there are a lot of factors to consider. Take a moment to reflect on the diagram,
are there any elements you feel are more important than the others? Are there elements
missing that you would include? If so, what are they and why do you feel they are
important?
2. IDEALISM
 Idealism is the metaphysical view that associate reality to ideas in the mind rather than
to material objects. It lays emphasis on the mental or spiritual components of
experience, and renounces the notion of material existence. Idealists regard the mind
and spirit as the most essential, permanent aspects of one’s being. The philosophical
views of Berkeley, Christian Science, and Hinduism embrace idealist thought as they
relate it to the existence of a supreme, divine reality that transcends basic human
understanding and inherent sensory awareness. - Omonia Vinieris (2002)

 Plato, a philosopher in ancient Greece (428-347 B.C.). Plato believed that the physical
world around us is not real; it is constantly changing and thus you can never say what it
really is. There is a world of ideas which is a world of unchanging and absolute truth.
This is reality for Plato. - Omonia Vinieris (2002)
 Berkeley asserted that man’s ideas are emitted from the Divine, and thus all humans
are merely ideas in the mind of God.

 Idealism is the oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origins go back to
ancient India in the East, and to Plato in the West. Its basic viewpoint stresses the
human spirit as the most important element in life. The universe is viewed as essentially
non-material in its ultimate nature. Although Idealist philosophers vary enormously
on many specifics, they agree on the following two points; the human spirit is the most
important element in life; and secondly the universe is essentially nonmaterial in its
ultimate nature. Idealism should not be confused with the notion of high aspirations that
is not what philosophers mean when they speak of Idealism. In the philosophic sense,
Idealism is a system that emphasizes their pre-eminent importance of mind, soul, or
spirit. The word idealism is derived from two distinct sources-the idea and the ideal.
Idea means true and testified knowledge. The word ideal stands for the perfected form
of an idea or ideas. If we study the basic principles, Idealism puts forth the argument
 that reality, as we perceive it, is a mental construct. It means that experiences are result
of sensory abilities of the human mind and not because reality exists in itself, as an
independent entity. In the philosophical term this means that one cannot know the
existence of things beyond the realm of the intellect. Plato describes “reality” in his
Theory of Forms. For him the “Form” is actual substance of 'Things' which
'Formed' matter and perceptible reality. Plato wants convey the message that matter is
real and can be experienced as a rational living entity; it is not a mere projection of
consciousness. According to Knight (1998) Augustine (354-430), Rene
Descartes (1596-1650),George Berkeley and the German philosopher Immanuel Kant
and George William Hegel are the prominent names who represent idealism. Berkeley
and Kant have interpreted idealism in very different ways. Kant described idealism
as transcendent, whereas Berkeley called it’ immaterialism' which is commonly
termed as subjective materialism. George Berkeley says that the material world exists
because there is a mind to perceive it and that things which are not within the
conceptual framework of the human mind cannot be deemed real. Berkeley admits that
objects exist, but their presence in the physical realm is as long as there is a mind to
perceive them. For this Berkeley has used a Latin phrase 'Esse estpercipi' (to be
perceived).On the other hand Kant is of the opinion that reality exists
independently of human minds but its knowledge is inherently unknowable to man
because of sensory filters in our consciousness. These filters slow down our ability to
see the 'thing in itself'. Thus our ultimate perception of things is always through the
mind's fixed frame of reference (Shahid, 2008).

 Implications of this philosophy

 Idealistic education aim is the preservation; enrichment and transmission of

culture. Education must contribute to the development of overall culture.
 Helps a person to become much more rational.
 Idealism in education means to develop a good relation between
student and a teacher.

 Educational Aim
 • Develop and apply
practical knowledge and
skills for life in a progressive
democratic
 society.
 • Individual growth
through processes,
experience and problem
solving.
 Roles of a Teacher
 • Accept the ideas of
the student.
 • Facilitate thinking
through generation of ideas.
 • Encourages the
students to share their own
ideas.
 Goal of an Idealist
Classroom
 1. Sharing of ideas.
 2. It is not right for the
students to think that the
teacher’s words or what is in
the book
 are the only things that are
important.
 3. Student’s ideas are also
equally important.
 4. Teachers must refine the
student’s ideas.
 5. Involve students through
their own ideas
 Its educational goal is
transformation thru ideas that
 change lives because through
ideas
 that was being perceived it
was translated into language
and then it was being put into
action.
 So the idea was not forever
be an idea but instead it will
be put into action so that it
can
 useful to the community.
For instance, the cell phone,
computer and other things
that we had
 right now is the product of
the ideas.
 Methods of Instruction

 • Lecture method is
considered the most
important one in which a
delivers lecture and
 students listen to the
teacher (teacher-centered
approach).
 • the Socratic Method
in which the teacher involves
the students in learning
activities
 (student-centered
approach)
 Role of the School
 • A miniature society
 • Gives the child
balance and genuine
experience in preparation for
life democratic
 living.
 • Place where ideas
are tested, implemented and
restructured.
 Educational Aim
 • Develop and apply
practical knowledge and
skills for life in a progressive
democratic
 society.
 • Individual growth
through processes,
 experience and problem
solving.
 Roles of a Teacher
 • Accept the ideas of
the student.
 • Facilitate thinking
through generation of ideas.
 • Encourages the
students to share their own
ideas.
 Goal of an Idealist
Classroom
 1. Sharing of ideas.
 2. It is not right for the
students to think that the
teacher’s words or what is in
the book
 are the only things that are
important.
 3. Student’s ideas are also
equally important.
 4. Teachers must refine the
student’s ideas.
 5. Involve students through
their own ideas
 Its educational goal is
transformation thru ideas that
change lives because through
ideas
 that was being perceived it
was translated into language
and then it was being put into
action.
 So the idea was not forever
be an idea but instead it will
be put into action so that it
can
 useful to the community.
For instance, the cell phone,
computer and other things
that we had
 right now is the product of
the ideas.
 Methods of Instruction

 • Lecture method is
considered the most
important one in which a
delivers lecture and
 students listen to the
teacher (teacher-centered
approach).
 • the Socratic Method
in which the teacher involves
the students in learning
activities
 (student-centered
approach)
 Role of the School
 • A miniature society
 • Gives the child
balance and genuine
experience in preparation for
life democratic
 living.
 • Place where ideas
are tested, implemented and
restructured.
 Educational Aim
 • Develop and apply
practical knowledge and
skills for life in a progressive
democratic
 society.
 • Individual growth
through processes,
experience and problem
solving.
 Roles of a Teacher
 • Accept the ideas of
the student.
 • Facilitate thinking
through generation of ideas.
 • Encourages the
students to share their own
ideas.
 Goal of an Idealist
Classroom
 1. Sharing of ideas.
 2. It is not right for the
students to think that the
teacher’s words or what is in
the book
 are the only things that are
important.
 3. Student’s ideas are also
equally important.
 4. Teachers must refine the
student’s ideas.
 5. Involve students through
their own ideas
 Its educational goal is
transformation thru ideas that
change lives because through
ideas
 that was being perceived it
was translated into language
and then it was being put into
action.
 So the idea was not forever
be an idea but instead it will
be put into action so that it
can
 useful to the community.
For instance, the cell phone,
computer and other things
that we had
 right now is the product of
the ideas.
 Methods of Instruction

 • Lecture method is
considered the most
important one in which a
delivers lecture and
 students listen to the
teacher (teacher-centered
approach).
 • the Socratic Method
in which the teacher involves
 the students in learning
activities
 (student-centered
approach)
 Role of the School
 • A miniature society
 • Gives the child
balance and genuine
experience in preparation for
life democratic
 living.
 • Place where ideas
are tested, implemented and
restructured.
 Educational Aim
 • Develop and apply
practical knowledge and
 skills for life in a progressive
democratic
 society.
 • Individual growth
through processes,
experience and problem
solving.
 Educational Aim
 Develop and apply practical knowledge and skills for life in a progressive democratic
society.
 Individual growth through process, experience and problem solving.
 Roles of a Teacher
 Accept the ideas of the student
 Facilitate thinking through generation of ideas
 Encourages the students to share their own ideas.

 Goal of an Idealist Classroom

1) Sharing of ideas
2) It is not right for the students to think that the teacher’s words or what is in the
book are the only things that are important.
3) Student’s ideas are also equally important.
4) Student’s ideas are also equally important
5) Teachers must refine the student’s ideas
6) Involve students though their own ideas

Its educational goal is to transform thru ideas that change lives because through
ideas that was being perceived it was translated into language and then it was being
put into action. So, the idea was not forever be an idea but instead it will be put into
 action thus that it can be useful to the community. For instance, the cellphone,
computer and other things that we had right now is the product of the ideas.

 Methods of Instruction
 Lecture method is considered the most one in which a delivers lecture and students
listen to the teacher involves the students in learning activities (student- centered
approach)
 The Socratic Method in which the teacher involves the students in learning activities
(student- centered approach)
 Role of the School
 A miniature society
 Gives the child balance and genuine experience in preparation for life democratic
living.
 Place where ideas are tested, implemented and restructured.

 Reference list
 Ozmon, H.A (2012).
Philosophical Foundations of
th
Education (9 ed). New
jersey, Upper
 Saddle River: Pearson
education, Inc.
 Singh, Y.K. (2007).
Philosophical foundations of
 education. New Delhi: APH
Publishing
 Corporation.
 Shahid, S.M. (2008).
Foundations of education.
Lahore: Majeed.
 Willace, O.P. & William,
A. (1977). The elements of
philosoph; Compadium for
 Philosophers and
Theologians. New York: Alba
House.
 Idealism’s Goal in Education
 Transformation thru ideas that change lives
 Idealist Curriculum
 Must examine the roots of the contemporary problems in the past.
 Must be focused on the subject matter
 Students must have the basic foundations.

Reference

listOzmon, H.A (2012). Philosophical Foundations of Education (9th ed). New

jersey, UpperSaddle River: Pearson education, Inc. Singh, Y.K. (2007). Philosophical
 foundations of education. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.Shahid, S.M.
(2008). Foundations of education. Lahore: Majeed.Willace, O.P. & William, A.
(1977). The elements of philosoph; Compadium for Philosophers and
Theologians. New York: Alba House.

3. REALISM IN PHILOSPHY OF EDUCATION

 Nature of Realism
 The term realism come from the Latin “realists” who is to be really, really real.
 Realism refer
 MEANING OF REALISM
 The term realism come from the Latin “realists” who is to be really, really real.
 Realism refers to the things exist whether or not the human mind perceives them.
 Did you know that…. Aristotle was the leading proponent of realism and the first
philosopher to develop a systematic theory of logic.
 In a deeper meaning of realism, it is a philosophy that assumes that there is a real
external world that can be recognized.
 Realist
 THOMAS AQUINAS
 God made it possible to acquire true knowledge so that we may know Him better.
 Because we are children of God our best thinking should agree with Christian tenets.
 Each person is born with an immortal soul.
 Aquinas epitomized the scholasticism of the Middle Ages.
 Scholasticism is an approach that emphasized the human’s eternal soul and salvation.

 PHILOSOPHY OF REALISM
 Facts about the philosophy of realism
 Philosopher profess realism also believes that the truth consists in a beliefs’
correspondence to reality.
 Realism believes in the world which we see or perceives to be true.
 Realists believe in the present life.
 Realists believes in the truth of life and aim of life are in the development of
unsystematic life.
 Knowledge is Real and Can be Assimilated by the Human beings.
  Realists distinguish between “appearance” and “reality”
 Individual s does not make reality, they only discover it.
 Realist s tend to believe that what we believe now is only an approximation of reality
and that every new observation brings us closer to understanding reality.

 FIVE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF REALISM

 Phenomenal word is true.
 Senses are the doors of knowledge
 Opposition of Idealism
 Man is a part of material world
 Emphasis on experiment and observation.

 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REALISM

Existence
 Realists claim about existence
Independence

 VALUES IN REALISM
-External world is the reality.
-Man will discover reality with the use of science and common sense through education or
learning.
-Mind is functioning &is geared towards creativity.
-Reality can be proved by observation, experience, experiment and scientific reasoning.
-Values must be studied to be applied in the actual setting.

 FORMS OF REALISM IN EDUCATION

 Scholastic Realism- it started when medieval thinkers wanted to bring together a
relation between faith (Christian theology) and reason (Classical philosophy).
 St. Thomas Aquinas who wrote summa theological used philosophy to help explain the
doctrine and mysteries of the church.
 Characteristics: Relied on authorities from the past; synthesizing of knowledge;
Deductive approach to reasoning; use of syllogistic logic.
 Scholastic schools had two methods of teaching
 ”lectio”(the simple reading of a text by a teacher / no questions were permitted.
  “disputatio “ (where question to be disputed was announced beforedhand) Education
is the process by which he lifts himself up to the eternal.

 HUMANISTIC REALISM
 It sprang up after the renaissance.
 It studies the Present solution to each problem of life.
 Aimed to secure a knowledge of human society and its institutions of nature and man’s
reactions to nature, chiefly through the content and not the form of classics.

4. PRAGMATISM
 INTRODUCTION
The term ‘Pragmatism’ derives its origin from a Greek word ‘Pragma’ meaning ‘Activity’ or
‘Practice’ or ‘Action’. As action gets priority over thought, Pragmatism is also known as
‘Expenditure’ which believes in ‘practicability’ or ‘utility’ depending upon the truth, reality,
goodness or badness which are all relative terms and are not predetermined or absolute.
Pragmatism tends to hold the idea that the truth/fact of yesterday needs to be experienced
truly, today and tomorrow. It idealizes the activity on the basis of its consequence over time
frame. In short, it conceptualizes an inference on the basis of changed or changing needs,
circumstances and places. Pragmatists believe that no truth is absolute and permanent as it is
ever changing from time to time and place to place and from circumstance to circumstance.
Thus, their fundamental start is “change”. Whatever was true
yesterday need not be the true today. The philosophy of pragmatists is predetermined to those
ideas and values which result in utility to mankind in certain time, place or circumstance rather
than any predetermined of life.

Pragmatic philosophy is a practical philosophy having no fixed or absolute standards. Man

always creates new values and education should help him in doing so. Being practical and
utilitarian school of philosophy, Pragmatism has influenced education to the maximum extent.
It has tried overcoming the limitations of other schools like idealism and naturalism and has
influenced the world to a great extent. The chief exponents of Pragmatism are: C.B. Pierce,
Archie J. Balm, John Dewey, William James, Will Durrant and Shiller.
For Pragmatism, “Experience’ is at the centre of the universe. Hence, it lays emphasis
upon man made ideas
and values resulted by the experimental activities.
 PRAGMATISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
Pragmatists believe that life is dynamic which is subjected to constant change; hence the aims
of education are bound to be dynamic. According to them, Education deals with human life, so
it must help the children to fulfill their biological and social needs. Education should enable a
child to create values in his life. In the words of Ross, education must create new values: “the
main task of educator is to put the educand into a position to develop values for him”.

The aims of education as formulated by the Pragmatists are the following:

 To create new values: The Pragmatists do not believe in the theory of any fixed aim of
education. In their opinion, the aim of education is to create new values and the act of
teacher is to help himself develop new values.
 To enable pupils to gather experience through activity: For the creation of new values,
activity and experience are essential. Education should therefore, provide physical,
intellectual, moral and aesthetic activities as the media for the creation of new values.
 To help the pupil to adjust with him and the society: The other important aim of
education according to pragmatism is to help the pupil to make adjustment with himself
and the society.
 To help the pupil to reconstruct his experience: Every individual has to solve different
types of complex problems in his life. So, another important aim of education,
according to Pragmatism is to enable the pupil to form such an outlook about life as
can help to tackle successfully the different problems of his life in future,
 To make all round development of the pupil: All round development of the individual is
also an important aim of education. The individual develops physically, mentally,
socially and aesthetically.

 CONTRIBUTION OF PRAGMATISM TO EDUCATION

“Activity lies at the centre of all educative process. The basis of all teaching is the
activity of the child” - Foster
Education is preparation for life. Pragmatism makes a man socially efficient. They
believe that the children should not be asked to work according to predetermined goals. They
should rather determine their goals according to their needs and interests. Pragmatism is
based on the psychology of individual differences. Pragmatists want education according to
 aptitudes and abilities of the individual. Every individual must be respected and education
should be planned to cater his inclinations and capacities.
According to pragmatism, the theory and practice of education is based on two main
principles, namely (i) Education should have a social function and (ii) Education should provide
real life experience to the child. Broadly, pragmatism and education can be discussed as
follows:
 Every continuous experience or activity is educative and all education in fact, resides in
having such experience. But continuous growth in experience is not the whole
education. Education is something more. It is constant reorganizing or reconstructing of
experience.
 Pragmatism provides definite aims of education. The student is prepared to live in a
society and learn skills and attitude.
 The teaching methods are based on learning by doing. The project method is the
contribution of pragmatism to modern education.
 Pragmatism encourages a democratic way to learning through purposeful and co-
operative projects and activities.
 Utility in the educative process is the first criterion. The school is expected to provide
learning experiences that are useful.
 Education is not bound to tradition. Pragmatic philosophers’ advise us to test everything
through our own experience.
 The teacher has to play a very challenging role in the education process under
pragmatism and he has to be very alert and watchful.
 PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM

In the field of curriculum development, the following principles have been prescribed by the
pragmatists.

 Principle of Utility:
According to this principle only those subjects, activities and experiences should be included in
the curriculum which are useful to the present needs of the child and also meet the future
expectations of adult life as well. The subjects are such as Language, Physical well- being,
Physical training, Geography, History, Science, Agriculture and Home Science for girls.
 Principle of Interest:
According to this principle, only those activities and experiences where the child takes interest
are of four varieties namely (i) Interest in conversation (ii) Interest in investigation (iii) Interest
in construction and (iv) Interest in creative expression. Keeping these varieties of interest in
 view at the primary stage, the curriculum should include writing, counting, art, craft-work,
natural science and other practical work of simple nature.
 Principle of Experience:
The third principle of pragmatics curriculum is the child’s activity, vocation and experience. All
these three should be closely integrated. The curriculum should consist of such varieties of
learning experiences which promote original thinking and freedom to develop social and
purposeful attitudes.
 Principle of Integration:
Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities. Pragmatists want to
construct flexible, dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the developing child and the
changing society more and more as he/she needs, demands and situation requires.

 PRAGMATISM AND METHOD OF TEACHING

Teaching-learning process is social and bi-polar process. Learning takes place as an interaction
between the teacher and the taught. Pragmatism gives priority to the taught. Similarly, between the
thought and action, it gives priority to action. They prefer practical over theory based teaching–
learning process. The pragmatists have completely discarded the conventional method of teaching
and laid emphasis on the invention of new methods. The whole emphasis of method of teaching in
pragmatism is on child, not the book of the teacher or the subject. The dominant interest of the child
is ‘to do’ and ‘to make’. The method should be flexible and dynamic. Pragmatists believe that minds
of different children are different. Hence, we cannot have a fixed method of teaching which can be
useful to all situations.

Learning by doing and the project methods have an important place in the methods of teaching
proposed by the pragmatists. All learning must come as a product of action. Learning by doing makes
a person creative, confident and co-operative. They also put on emphasis on the discovery and
enquiry method. The techniques which follow the principle of learning by doing can be used according
to pragmatists view.

 PRAGMATISM AND TEACHER

In the opinion of pragmatists the duty of the teacher is to create such an environment in the school
where pupils will have to face different problems relating to real life and will take interest in the
solution of those problems. Pragmatism regards teacher as a helper, guide and philosopher. The
chief function of a pragmatic teacher is to suggest problems to his pupil and to stimulate them to find
by themselves the solution which will work. The teacher must provide opportunities for the natural
development of innate qualities if the children. His main task is to suggest problem to his
student/pupils and to guide them to find out he solutions.

VII. PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE

Pragmatists have opposed against the imposition of rules and regulations to pupils. They
believes in social and personal discipline, In their opinion if we give them opportunities to participate
in different types of collective activities spontaneous discipline will grow in them. Pragmatists believe
that play and work should be combined and this combination will perform a mental attitude and
discipline. By taking part in such activities the qualities like tolerance, sympathy, mutual respect,
attitude of service will be developed in them. Discipline cannot be maintained through force and
domination. Children should be left free in order to develop freely and harmoniously.

According to pragmatists rewards and punishment are of no significance in the process of

learning. They believed that no moral standard of values are already established. The philosophy
believes in discipline, but the discipline should not be the outcome of external force it should be
backed by freedom and joy. It advocates on discipline based on the principles of child’s activities and
interests. It upholds discipline based on social and mutual understanding. It believes in engaging the
children free and real activities of human life.

According to Pragmatism, education is not the dynamic side of philosophy as advocated by the
idealists. It is the philosophy which emerges from an educational practice. Every individual has a
social self and he can be best developed in and through society. Thus, we can conclude by saying
that that Pragmatism has brought democracy in education. The students learn the technique of
managing their own responsibilities which would prepare them to face the different challenges of real
life. It makes a man socially efficient i.e. he can determine his goals according to his needs and
interests.

Reference: PRAGMATISM AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION 1Pratima Chamling Rai,

2Rupen Lama 1Assistant Professor, 2Assistant Professor, 1Department of Economics, 1Balurghat
College, Balurghat, India © 2020 IJCRT | Volume 8, Issue 3 March 2020 | ISSN: 2320-2882

5. EXISTENTIALISM
 HISTORY
  2nd World War years- Existentialism became popular in 2nd World War years as a way
for humans to reassert the importance of individuality and freedom.
 1930’s – 1970’s- Became a well-known philosophical and cultural movement from
1930’s- 1970’s

 EXISTENTIALIST
 Nietzche- Nietzsche's contribution to existentialism was the idea that men must
accept that they are part of a material world, regardless of what else might exist.
As part of this world, men must live as if there is nothing else beyond life. A
failure to live, to take risks, is a failure to realize human potential.
 MARTIN HEIDEGGER'S (1889–1976)- His extensive and illuminating
meditations on what he described as the ontological "question of being"
established his reputation as one of the most original and important philosophers

of the twentieth century. Heidegger refused to associate his own thinking with
the term existentialism. However, his focus on human existence, anxiety, death,
and authenticity – themes shared by both his predecessors (Kierkegaard,
Dostoevsky, and Nietzsche) and his contemporaries (Sartre and Camus) – place
him at the center of this movement
 Beauvoir- Beauvoir maintains the existentialist belief in absolute freedom of
choice and the consequent responsibility that such freedom entails, by
emphasizing that one's projects must spring from individual spontaneity and not
from an external institution, authority, or person.
 Soren Kierkegaard (1813- 1855)- Danish philosopher born in Copenhagen. He
is the father of existentialism. According to him, human existence is always
individual in character, never social. Man functions, grows, develops, makes
choices, suffers, experiences intense feelings, and faces God as an individual.
 Life is not a problem to be solved, but a reality to be experienced.”
 Felt individual was responsible for giving life meaning and living that life
passionately.
 Focused on subjective experiences of humans rather that the objective
truth provided by math and sciences.
 Jean- Paul Sartre ( 1905- 1980)- French philosopher and principal spok French
philosopher and principal spokesman for the existentialist movement in post-
 war France. He is an atheistic existentialist. Arguably the best known
philosopher of the twentieth century. In 1945 adopted Existential term to
describe his philosophy.
 Major concept of his philosophy was freedom and responsibility.
 Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world and
defines himself afterward.
 Existence precedes essence.”
 Essence is created by existence; human nature is a product of existence.
 Man first exists without purpose or definition, finds himself in the world
and only then, as a reaction to experience, defines the meaning of life.
 According to him, since there is no God or designer to give man a
purpose, it is up to the individual to choose the life they think best.
 We are responsible for everything we do.
 “Man is condemned to be free.”
 “The destiny of the man is placed within himself.”
 Albert Camus (1913- 1960)- French- Algerian journalist, editor and editorialist,
playwright and director, novelist, and author of short stories, political essayist
and activist- and arguably, although he came to deny it, a philosopher. He
opposed systematic philosophy. He Dealt over such questions as the meaning
of life in the face of death. According to him, “ I would rather live my life as if
there is a God and die to find out there isn’t, than live as if there isn’t and to die
to find out that there is.”

 Existence comes from the Latin words Ex (out) and (stare (to stand) meaning to
appear, to arise, to become, and to be. Essence on the other hand refers to meaning,
purpose, what it is, and nature.
 What is Existentialism?
 It is subjective.
 Humans possess free will and stand in an absurd and meaningless world or
universe.
 Every individual is unique.
 Individuals have to take responsibility for their
 own actions and shape their own destinies.
 Emphasis on human responsibility and judgement in ethical matters.
 The individual is the sole judge of his or her own actions.
  Human freedom is understood precisely as the freedom to choose.
 “Existence precedes essence.”
 Human persons do not possess the essence; they make choices that create
their own nature.
 Choice is vital and inevitable to human existence; even the refusal to choose is
a choice.
 “At birth , man lacks human nature. Man creates himself; what he is, he himself
made. Man is only what he himself will himself to be. Man is nothing else but
what he makes of himself… (Sahakian and Sahakian, pp 563- 565)
 The will enables man to make a conscious decision of what he will be.
 Choice or decision makes one responsible for the effects of his choice not only
to himself but also to others since his choice also affects other people.
 The value of existentialism are:
 Freedom of choice
 Individual dignity
 Personal love
 Creative effort
 What is Existentialism?
 Existentialism on metaphysics: reality is subjective, with existence preceding
essence. Existence creates essence.
 Existentialism on Epistemology: knowing is to make personal choices. To
choose or apply what I want to know.
 Existentialism on Axiology : Values should be freely chosen.
 Existentialism on Epistemology Classroom dialogues stimulate awareness that
each person creates self- concept through significant choices.
 Beliefs of Existentialists
 Humans take a “leap of faith’ that no matter the outcome, success or failure,
they will make it.
 We live in sorrow. We have no one to blame for our choices but ourselves. This
responsibility can lead to dread by and anxiety over choosing.
 If you choose not to make a choice, you are not living authentically.
 A limitation and condition of our freedom is our facticity. Our past consists of
things one can’t chose (birthplace, parents, etc.) and we depend on values we
 develop in our past. We are part of our past, present and future self. Not one
self-lives independently.
 Existentialism Philosophy in Education
 Educational philosophy would fit most likely in the period it was created- Post
World War. Today’s education is too focused on accountability.
 Teacher must facilitate choices for students.
 Let the child take the first step and the teacher guide the next.
 Teachers prepare students for success and failure. When schools give children
the freedom to make choices they are helping the child develop their identity
and authentic self.
 Aim of Education
 To help students understand and appreciate themselves as a unique individuals
who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and actions.
 To educate the whole person, not just the mind, since feeling is not divorced
from reason in decision making.
 To help the learner become fully his authentic self.
 RULES WITHIN PHILOSOPHY
 Student has freedom to make choices within their education. They are ultimately
responsible for those choices.
 Teacher, administrators and school work to facilitate, guide and accept the
student’s choices
 The consequences, good or bad, must be taught to student.
 Curriculum
The Existential curriculum would be one of experience:
 Those experiences set up by the school for the purpose of disciplining students
and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
 Series of things that children and youth must do and experience.
 All the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers.
 A goal or set of values that is activated through a development process and
culminated in classroom experiences for students.
 Existentialism in the Academic Content Standards
Effective social studies integrates history, geography, economics, political science,
other social sciences and humanities in order to prepare students to be participating
 citizens. Specifically, social studies. Helps students develop the ability to make
informed and reasoned decisions for themselves and the common good.
Prepares students for their role as citizens and decision makers in a diverse,
democratic society. Fosters students ability to act responsibly and become successful
problem solvers in an interdependent world of limited resources.
 The Existentialist Curriculum
 Learning is self- paced, self- directed.
 Students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose.
 Students are afforded great latitude in their choice of subject matter.
 The humanities are given emphasis to provide students with their various
experiences that will help them unleash their own creativity and self- expression.
 Composed of fine arts, drama, creative expression, literature, and philosophy.
 Vocational education is seen more as a means of teaching students about
themselves and their potentials than that of earning a livelihood
 Methods of Teaching
 Focus is on the individual
 In teaching history, existentialists focus on the actions of historical individuals
who provide possible models for the students’ own behavior, rather than
emphasizing historical events.
 In arts, existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than
copying and imitating established models. Creativity is an expression of oneself.
 In teaching values, teachers employ values clarification strategy to help students
know themselves and their place in society. Here, teachers remain non-
judgmental and take care not to impose their students since values are personal.
 Though values clarification strategy, the learners will be able to practice sound
moral reasoning skills, choose the appropriate response for a value conflict and
commit themselves to personal, moral and societal values.
 Values education is a matter of choice that goes throughout existence.
 There should be private and open spaces in the classroom to facilitate
dialogues, small group discussions, and individualization to lessen the tension,
formality, and constraint experienced by the learners.
 Criticism to any individual work is less important.
 To help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths
they take in life.
  To create an environment in which they freely choose their own preferred way.
 To relates with each student openly and honestly.

 Role of teachers
 To assist and guide the learner in the process of becoming intelligent, sensitive,
choosing, and acting individual who knows the obligation and responsibility of
freedom
 To help the individual identify and know himself better.
 To be a questioner
 Poser of alternatives
 Identified of choices who challenges the learner to become fully existent

6. RE-STATING AND REVIEWING SCHOOLS OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

a) PRAGMATIC
b) According to Pragmatism, education is not the dynamic side of philosophy as advocated
by the idealists. It is the philosophy which emerges from an educational practice. Every
individual has a social self and he can be best developed in and through society. Thus,
we can conclude by saying that that Pragmatism has brought democracy in education.
The students learn the technique of managing their own responsibilities which would
prepare them to face the different challenges of real life. It makes a man socially
efficient i.e. he can determine his goals according to his needs and interests.

c) ROMANTICM
 The artists emphasized that sense and emotions - not simply reason and order -
were equally important means of understanding and experiencing the world.
 Romanticism celebrated the individual imagination and intuition in the enduring
search for individual rights and liberty.
 A movement in art and literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in revolt
against the Neoclassicism of the previous centuries...The German poet Friedrich Schlegel,
who is given credit for first using the term romantic to describe literature, defined it as
"literature depicting emotional matter in an imaginative form." This is as accurate a general
definition as can be accomplished, although Victor Hugo's phrase "liberalism in literature" is
also apt. Imagination, emotion, and freedom are certainly the focal points of romanticism. Any
list of particular characteristics of the literature of romanticism includes subjectivity and an
emphasis on individualism; spontaneity; freedom from rules; solitary life rather than life in
society; the beliefs that imagination is superior to reason and devotion to beauty; love of and
worship of nature; and fascination with the past, especially the myths and mysticism of the
middle ages.
 English poets: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe
Shelley, and John Keats
 American poets: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, Henry
David Thoreau, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman
 Artists who felt limited by Neoclassicm, began creating more emotional artwork giving
rise to Romaticism
 Named after the revival of interest in medieval stories like King Arthur- heroic stories
referred to as “romances”.
 Sometimes inspired by current events, particularly tragedies.
 Also inspires by Africa and the Orient.
 Shows a respect for nature and a desire for a simpler time, before industrialism.
 Characterized by color, emotions, content and passion.
 The movement is also in poetry (eg. Wordsworth and Keats) and Music (eg. Beethoven
and Schubert.)

 Francisco Goya, Saturn Devouring one of his Sons. (1819-23) on canvas

 Goya was a rebel and libertarian- opposed to tyranny of all

kinds
 Worked as a court painter for King Charles IV of Spain
 Saw the vices of both church and state
 Many of his work focus on social protest
 Came to hate humanity-saw only the brutalities of war/
torture.
 Late career- created these “black paintings” focused on
violence and his dark imagination.
 This piece is based on Classical Mythology- Saturn tries to
prevent a prophecy about one of his son’s taking his place (ultimately Jupiter/
Zeus overthrows him)
 Henry Fuseli. The Nightmare: (1781) Oil on canvas
 Iconic image of horror
 Shows a demon and a horse to represent
nightmare
 Might be an allegory of disappointment if the model
is the artist’s love: Anna Landolt
 Eugene Delacroix: Liberty Leading the People. (1830) Oil on canvas
 Delacroix was one of the most successful Romatic painters after Gericault
 Subject: the French Revolution of 1789 (Bourgeoisie uprising)
 The number three is symbolic= the French flag, 3 rebels, 3 guns, use of
triangular composition
 Chiaroscuro used
 Shows energy and activity- hope for a promising future.

d) NATURALISM
 Ace in Joyce: “Naturalism is a system whose salient characteristics in the
exclusion of whatever is spiritual or indeed whatever is transcendental of
experience from our philosophy of nature and man.”
 Naturalism is an attitude rather than a specific system of philosophy
 Naturalism is concernew with “natural self” or “real self”. It contends that the
ultimate reality is matter, and not mind or spirit.
 Does not believe in spiritualism. It denies the existence of spiritual universe- the
universe of ideas and values
 The material world is the only real world. It is the only reality. I tis being governed
by a system of natural laws and the man, who is the creation of the material world,
must submit to them.
 The naturalists have regard for actual facts.a ctual situations and realities. For
them, nature is everything. It is the whole reality
 According to the naturalist there is inherent goodness in man. Man is born rational.
The naturalists, thus, have idolized man.
 Nature, is complete in itself, having its own laws. It does not, therefore, require us
to have insight or intuition to understand nature.

Forms of Naturalism
1) Physical Naturalist (Instinctivists)- emphasizes purely on physical nature
2) Biological Naturalist (Darwinians): Darwin and Lamark are the greatest exponents of
biological naturalism. It derives its data and first principles from the biological rather
than the physical science. With a great faith in biological evolution, it accepts man as
the highest form of living organism in the evolutionary process.

Naturalism in Education

“it decries all external restraint in education and it condemns all unnecessary
formalities in education.”
 In the naturalistic system of education there is no place for classroom,
textbooks, time table, formal lessons, curricula or examination. The chalk and
talk method has no scope.
 The teacher has no significant role to play. External discipline has no place in
naturalistic system of education.
 Natralism in education stands for the doctrine of “follow nature” in education.
 It stands for complete freedom to be given to the child in learning. He is
to be left alone, absolutely free.

Naturalism and Aims of Education

 Under the naturalistic school of philosophy, the aim of education is self-
expression. Some naturalists consider man as a machine and they opine that
the aim of education s to make the human machine as perfect and efficient as
possible.
 According to Spencer, self- preservation and self- satisfaction constitute the
highest good in life, and, hence, the primitive instinct aims natural impulses
should be used in such a way that this highest good can be achieved.
 McDougall (1877-1938), the famous exponent of the Naturalistic school pf
psychology, does not accept the theory of pleasure. He holds that our instinct
are to be directed towards certain natural goals. Hence the aim to education,
according to him, is the sublimation of the native instinct and energies of the
 individual- the redirection, coordination and harmonious working of the native
impulses.
 According to Darwinian school of Naturalists, the aim of education should be to
“equip the individual for struggle for existence and thus to ensure his survival.”
 The individual must be “in harmony with ans well- adapted to his surroundings.
 Rousseau’s statement of naturalistic aim of education is the most
comprehensive and lucid. Education, he holds, should aim at the development
of the child in conformity with his nature

e) RECONSTRUCTIONISM
Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social
questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy.
Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the
aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social
reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized the
potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the
capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion.
George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing
people for creating this new social order.
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionist, believe that systems must be changed to
overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a
Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and
literacy as the vehicle for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist
oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog
and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome domination and
oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator deposits
information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of
inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionist and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student
experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger,
international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial
issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple
 perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the world into the
classroom are also strategies.

f) EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy Just as its namesake sprang from a strong
rejection of traditional philosophy, educational existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of
the traditional, essentialist approach to education. Existentialism rejects the existence of any
source of objective, authoritative truth about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead,
individuals are responsible for determining for themselves what is "true" or "false," "right" or
"wrong," "beautiful" or "ugly." For the existentialist, there exists no universal form of human
nature; each of us has the free will to develop as we see fit. In the existentialist classroom,
subject matter takes second place to helping the students understand and appreciate
themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings,
and actions. The teacher's role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them
to various paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely
choose their own preferred way. Since feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making,
the existentialist demands the education of the whole person, not just the mind. Although many
existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, existentialism, more than other
educational philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of subject matter. In an
existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose. To
the extent that the staff, rather than the students, influence the curriculum, the humanities are
commonly given tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of providing students
with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression. For
example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon the actions of
historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students' own behavior. In
contrast to the humanities, math and the natural sciences may be deemphasized, presumably
because their subject matter would be considered "cold," "dry," "objective," and therefore less
fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover, vocational education is regarded more as a means of
teaching students about themselves and their potential than of earning a livelihood. In teaching
art, existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and
imitating established models. Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-
paced, self directed, and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates
to each student openly and honestly. Although elements of existentialism occasionally appear in
public schools, this philosophy has found wider acceptance in private schools and ill alternative
public schools founded in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
g) ORGANICISM
 Knowledge is organic; the "body" of it grows, and this growth creates change. Thus, it
is not finite, it is not final, for while we may view it in some particular point in time as a
static entity, over time it will not appear so. This essence of knowledge, what we may
call Organicism, has ontological, epistemological, and teleological implications for
education, as well as embodies an ethos for knowing.
 Organicism refers to the idea that some object or entity shares an important property or
quality in common with a living or animate being. It is related to, although remains
distinct from, holism, in the sense that organicist doctrines tend to uphold the view that
the living creature is an integrated whole containing precisely the range and number of
parts necessary for the maintenance of its existence and for its flourishing. Hence,
organicism is closely aligned with the concept of "organic unity." Organicism enjoys a
long intellectual history in a number of fields of endeavor, including metaphysics and
logic, aesthetics, theology, and social and political thought. While perhaps most fully
articulated by Western thinkers, organic ideas seem to have a global purchase.
(Encyclopedia.com)

h) IDEALISM
i) REALISM AND/OF SCHOLASTIC REALISM
j) RATIONAL HUMANISM
 Humanistic Learning theory in education
 The humanistic learning theory was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
and James F. T. Bugental in the early 1900’s.
 Humanism was a response to the common educational theories at the time, which
were behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Abraham Maslow is considered the father
of the movement, with Carl Rogers and James F.T. Bugental adding to the
psychology later down the line.
 Humanistic teachers believe that knowledge and feelings go hand-in-hand in the
learning process. Cognitive and affective learning are both important to humanistic
learning. Lessons and activities should focus on the whole student and their
intellect and feelings, not one or the other.
 A safe learning environment. Because humanistic learning focuses on the entire
student, humanistic educators understand that they need to create a safe
environment so students can have as many as their needs met as possible. They
need to feel safe physically, mentally, and emotionally in order to be able to focus
 on learning. So humanistic educators are passionate about the idea of helping
students meet as many of their needs as possible.

 The role of teacher and student in humanistic learning theory.

In the humanistic learning theory, teachers and students have specific roles for success.
The overall role of a teacher is to be a facilitator and role model, not necessarily to be the
one doing the teacher. The role of the teacher includes:
 Teach learning skills. Good teachers in humanistic learning theory focus on
helping students develop learning skills. Students are responsible for learning
choices, so helping them understand the best ways to learn is key to their
success.
 Provide motivation for classroom tasks. Humanistic learning focuses on
engagement, so teachers need to provide motivation and exciting activities to help
students feel engaged about learning.
 Provide choices to students in task/subject selection. Choice is central to
humanistic learning, so teachers have a role in helping work with students to
make choices about what to learn. They may offer options, help students evaluate
what they’re excited about, and more.
 Create opportunities for group work with peers. As a facilitator in the classroom,
teachers create group opportunities to help students explore, observe, and self-
evaluate. They can do this better as they interact with other students who are
learning at the same time that they are.

 Humanistic approach examples in education.

Some examples of humanistic education in action include:

 Teachers can help students set learning goals at the beginning of the year, and then
help design pathways for students to reach their goals. Students are in charge of their
learning, and teachers can help steer them in the right direction.
 Teachers can create exciting and engaging learning opportunities. For example,
teachers trying to help students understand government can allow students to create
their own government in the classroom. Students will be excited about learning, as
well as be in-charge of how everything runs.
  Teachers can create a safe learning environment for students by having snacks,
encouraging students to use the bathroom and get water, and creating good
relationships with students so they will trust speaking to their teacher if there is an
issue.
 Teachers can utilize journaling to help students focus on self-evaluation and their
feelings as part of learning. Using prompt questions can help students better
understand their feelings and progress in learning.
Reference:
https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-humanistic-learning-theoryeducation2007.html#close

k) FASCISM, DEMOCRACY, COMMUNISM

1) Fascism-
 “everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the
state”
 Benito Mussolin- founder of Fascism

 Characteristics of Fascist Philosophy

 Glorification of the state and the total subordination of the individual to it.
 Doctrine of survival of the fittest and the necessity of struggle for life.
 Elitism
 Education as a Character Building
 Emphasized character building over intellectual growth,
 Devalued the transmission of information,
 Inculcated blind obedience to authority, and
 Discouraged critical and independent thinking that challenged fascist
ideology.
 “the teacher is not just an instructor and transmitter of knowledge… he is a
soldier, serving on the cultural and political front of national socialism. For
intellectuals to the people or they are nothing. – Herman Klaus, Nazi writer
2) Communism
 “from each according to his ability, to each according to his need.”
 Karl Marx- founder of Communism
 Education under Communism
  Education was recognized as playing a strategic role in achieving the
revolution and development.
 Specifically, it was called upon to produce zealous revolutionaries ready
 Planning Education to fit the economy
 A very low priority is given to satisfying individual or family demand for
education at the upper secondary and higher educational levels.
 Public investment in the education of the population would yield
handsome returns.

 Ideological role of education

 Communism can accomplish the tasks of the capital formation, capital
exploitation, and elevation of standards of life for the mass of the
population markedly better.
 It teachers that men and women are perfectible, given the appropriate
environment, especially in their youth.
 Schools are the chosen instrument to counteract undesirable legacies of
the past carried over by families into the present.

3) Democracy
 “Democratic education begins not only with children who are to be taught but also with
citizens who are to be their teachers.”
 It derives from the Greek word “demos” the people and “kratos” meaning rule
 It is a society in which the “people rule.”
 Democracy was essentially educative: it sought the education of an entire people to the
point, where their intellectual, emotional and moral capacities have reached their full potential
and they are joined freely and actively in a genuine community.
 Democratic education is a theory of learning and school governance in which students and
staff participate freely and equally in a school democracy.
 In a democratic school, there is typically shared decision- making among students and
staff on matters concerning living, working, and learning together.

 The democratic Conception in Education

 Two traits which precisely characterizes the democratically constituted
 society.
 Not only more numerous and more varied points of shared common
interest, but GREATER RELIANCE UPON THE RECOGNITION OF
MUTUAL INTERESTS as a factor in social control.
 Not only freer interaction between social groups (once isolated so far as
intention could keep up a separation) but CCHANGE IN SOCIAL HABIT-
its continuous readjustment though meeting the new situations produced
by varied intercourse.
 For Dewey, the educational system of democracy is one in which schools
re themselves organized so as to promote the kind of social intelligence
which is the prerequisite to individual freedom and growth. And learners
become members of a community in which the problems of communal life
are resolved through collective deliberation and a shared concern for the
common good.
 Democratic School- it is a common school providing a broad social community to
which children of different race, class, gender and religion can belong.
 Democratic classrooms are highly structured classrooms
 Primary Aim- is to ensure that learners’ capacity to act intelligently in changing
situation and circumstances can develop and grow.
 Five values of a Democratic Learning Environment
1) Each student has an equal opportunity to learn
2) The welfare of each individual is maximized
3) The system of rewards and penalties is responsive to individual performance.
4) Each individual is held responsible for his/ her effect on the welfare of others.
5) Knowledge, skills, and attitudes are taught which promote each individual’s
welfare and the welfare of the classroom group and the larger society in such a way that they
in turn are likely to enhance each individual’s welfare.
 Democracy does not mean freedom to do anything one wishes. Democracy does
mean FREEDOM TO PARTICIPATE in and to INFLUENCE THE DECISION-
MAKING PROCEDURES affecting one’s life.

References
 Fascism. (n.d.). In Yahoo Education Encyclopedia online. Retrieved from
http://education.yahoo,com/reference/encyclopedia
 Communism.(n.d.) In Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retreieved from
http://www/britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education/47697/Educati
on-under-communism
 Dewey, J.(2008). Democracy and Education. Retreived from
http://www.gutenberg.orhg/files/852/852-h/852-h.htm
7. INDIGENOUS FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY
Philippine indigenous philosophy and worldviews are based on the Filipino experience. Unique
life experiences pave the way for these worldviews, and are most often than not based on
literature, art, ethics, practices and attitudes towards life.

a) THE PRE- HISPANIC NATIVE

 The Importance of Topography
 Communities before lived near bodies of water. Houses were lined near bodies of
water. Houses were lined along the coast of seas, bays, rivers and lakes.
Why?
 Food from the water resources
 Easy access to food
 Means of transportation
 Not easily attacked by enemy
 Early Shelter
 Caves- Early Filipinos lived in caves because according to them the caves
were safer.
But later, he moved to the plains and coastal areas.
Plains for farming and coastal areas for fishing.
 Tree houses- to keep safe from enemies and wild animals. Ladders were
hoisted in at night
 Agriculture- there are 2 methods
 Kaingin Method- prepare the area for farming by cutting and burning dead
plants/ grasses. But before cutting or burning, they performed rituals. After
burning, the soil was cleaned thoroughly.
 Wet Method- rice was planted in areas where dikes were built to collect
water.
 Hunting- the men used bow and arrows to hunt for deer.
 Choosing a Leader
 Age- the oldest of the group was the leader
 Inheritance- based on blood relations to the datu. (son or daughter of the
datu, next immediate relative)
 Extent of Knowledge- had enough knowledge of the customs and traditions
of the tribe
 The Trial
 Trial by Datu
Datu = Judge
Council of Elders= Jury
 Oath: “May the crocodile devour me if I lie.
 May lighting strike me if I give a wrong statement
 “May I die where I am standing if I am not telling the truth”
  Trial by Ordeal- boiling water and stone, lighting candle, swimming underwater
 Trial by war- fight it out until one gives up
 Practices/ Beliefs Brought About by the Close Family Ties:
 Balata- wife does not eat until the husband returns from the battle.
 Ginggil- a practive of non- remarrying
 Insults/ Revenge: Relationships turn Sour because of Insults
 Visayans: Aswang, alakawat, barangan, dalondongan
 Tagalogs: mangkukulam, mangagaway

b) THE COLONIZED NATIVE

AMERICAN AND JAPANESE COLONIAL INTERLUDES
The explosion and sinking of the American warship, Maine, in a harbor of another
Spanish colony, Cuba, provided the reason for the United States to 11 intervene in the
revolutionary situation of the Philippines. What began as an American friendly
intervention in the Philippine revolution against Spain turned into the suspicion by
Filipino leaders that America, under the Republicans, had no intention of leaving the
country. A misunderstanding of a military command to halt by an American sentry led to
the shooting of three Filipino revolutionists, and the incident became the American
excuse for waging a war against the Filipinos. As expected in this Philippine-American
War, after leaving behind several thousand American soldiers and Filipinos dead or
wounded, 6 the Filipino military eventually succumbed to American superior military
might.

FILIPINO ENLIGHTENMENT
• Jose Rizal: Reformist
• Andres Bonifacio: Revolutionist
• Emilio Jacinto: Revolutionist
• Manuel Luis Quezon: Political Philosopher
 Jose P. Laurel: Political Philosopher

c) THE POST- COLONIAL FILIPINO

A number of Filipino thinkers after independence in 1946 believed that the Philippines
had remained a colony—a neocolony—of the United States. We have Claro M. Recto,
 Jose Ma. Sison, Lorenzo Tañada, and Renato Constantino, among others. They called
for an independent economic and foreign policy. They were the left and the left-leaning
nationalists who 15 wanted the Filipinos to cut their umbilical cord, so to speak, from
their
colonial past, that is, get rid of their colonial hangover. For lack of space, I will only
discuss the nationalist philosophy of Renato Constantino.

Postcolonial philosophies of education in the Philippines emerged from a newly

independent government’s desire to unite disparate populations under a common
national identity, which was heavily influenced by Western conceptions of personhood
and patriotism. The islands collectively known as the Philippines, however, are home to
nearly 200 distinct ethnolinguistic groups. The imposition of a universal national identity
upon such a diverse populace entails the erasure of identities, knowledge systems,
practices, and ways of life that differ from state-imposed norms. Education is a critical
site for this subjugation of difference, as evidenced by the state’s imposition of a
national curriculum. Yet the national curriculum not only serves to submerge difference,
as decolonizing pedagogies and philosophies of education in the Philippines often rise
out of collective resistance to the marginalizing aspects of schooling in the region.
Postcolonial philosophies of education in the Philippines are, as such, situated within
the historical tensions between the national curriculum, the central government’s
economic and political agendas, collective calls for human rights, and the philosophies,
practices, and knowledge systems of Indigenous peoples (IPs).

d) THE FILIPINO AS A WORLD CITIZEN

 Why Filipinos are in the Forefront of Global Citizenship? The Filipino Diaspora
was happening long before the term was even coined during the height of
Overseas Filipino Workers’ deployment in the late 1970s and early 1980s. From
the pre-Spanish times where, navigational pilots helped traders from China to
navigate through Southeast Asia, up to today’s welders in Riyadh or Eastern
Siberia, the Filipinos have made a mark as one of true global citizen.

 According to the results of the 2016 Survey on Overseas Filipino Workers

conducted by The Philippine Statistics Authority, there are 2.2 million Filipinos
working outside the country as contract workers. This is a headcount exclusive of
those Filipinos who have chosen to migrate to another country – but all the same
 becoming ambassadors of goodwill in their adopted lands and making the Filipino
professional and skilled workers known as a people of exceptional skill.

 This has led to a vibrant overseas recruitment industry – the keepers of the
doorsteps to the Filipino job market. The Philippine Overseas Employment
Administration (POEA) is the main government agency tasked to regulate the
recruitment industry in the country. This means that all foreign employers are
required to be accredited at the POEA, all candidates are to be certified, and all
recruitment agencies must bear a legitimate license. The POEA ensures that as
we send our compatriots to foreign countries that we bring nothing but the best of
our people.

 It can be argued that this has really left that indelible mark among human
resources professionals that when it comes to staff augmentation, the best
recourse if the local population will not be able to supply the needs, is to look
towards the Philippines. Overall, it has become beneficial to all concerned – the
host country gained the skills that Filipinos brought with them, the employers met
their objectives, and the contracted Filipino workers were able to gain experience
and pursue greater heights for their own careers.

 If we can sum up, why Filipinos are in the forefront of Global Citizenship, we can
say the following:

 Filipinos have an educational system that thinks global. This has generated
student graduates who know that the horizon ahead of them is not limited to
the shores of the archipelago, but the world is their playground. This has
also made most Filipinos to be bilingual speakers.
 Filipinos are highly skilled. Be it the aviation industry or hospitality industry,
Filipinos are known to have been on the leading edge of the talent pool.
 Filipinos are very adaptive. You visit Filipinos in Germany, Saudi Arabia, or
Japan, and you will find them assimilating easily into the local culture.
Filipinos never have a mentality of “Us vs. Them.”
  Filipinos are hardy. Whether they are in a 50-degree Celsius project site in
the middle of the desert, or in freezing temperatures in Siberia, they stick to
the job.
 Filipinos are naturally service oriented. This is truly a trait that Filipinos are
proud of. We take care of our customers as if they are guests at our own
home.

References: https://rensol.com/filipinos-forefront-global-citizenship/

8. THE POST- MODERN MIND: BEYOND EXISTENTIALISM

Since existentialism lost its influence in philosophy in the 1960s, postmodern theory has taken
over criticizing basic concepts of western thought. From a postmodern point of view, the main
shortcomings of existentialism is that it criticizes traditional unitarian concepts, while re-
inventing new unitarian models. Against these unitarian approaches postmodernism holds that
the world can only be described in terms of difference.
uring the Twentieth Century the advanced technological societies of the West and some in the
East experienced a decline in the number of people who practiced their religion regularly and
accepted a morality based upon Natural Law Theory. There was a decline in the belief that:

1. there is a single reality and that humans can have knowledge of it.
2. there is objective truth
3. there are absolutes

This decline can be attributed to a number of factors:

1. the increase in information about other cultures and their various practices, beliefs and
values,

2. advances in what science and technology could provide for humans in improvements in
their basic living along with an appreciation for material goods,
3. the spreading influence of ideas from the existentialist and pragmatist movements
4. the spread of democratic ideals

In the Post Modern view there are no absolutes of any kind and there are no universal
truths nor universal criteria for beauty and nor are there universal principles of the GOOD.
 Thus, there is a return of relativism in the sphere of morality. With that return there is also the
threat of chaos which relativism spawns. As reaction to this trend there is an increase in the
numbers of people returning to religion and religious principles as the foundation for their moral
lives. The fastest growing religion in the world is Islam. Islam is increasing in its population
through a birth rate higher than average and through conversions. Islam fundamentalism is
growing in the number of adherents. Fundamentalists of Islam and of Christianity and Judaism
are all declaring their condemnation of the current state of moral decline and the rise of
relativism and materialism.
In moral theory there has developed a number of traditions that extol alternatives to the
teleological and deontological approaches based upon reason and the belief that universal
principles can be reached through the exercise of reason.
The Existentialists called for an acceptance of the inescapable role of human emotions.
The Pragmatists focused on the impossibility of reason reaching beyond the frailties of
limitations of human reason.
Feminist theoreticians have devised a number of approaches to ethics that have at least this
much in common: the denial of previous theories as being biased and deluded. (Philip
Pecorino, Ph.D)

a) Ambiguities and Ambivalences

b) Order and Chaos in Science
c) Order and Chaos in Art
d) Order and Chaos in Religion
e) Order and Chaos in Education

9. THE NEW WORLD ORDER AND DIS- ORDER