IGCSE: Biology
Topic B1: Cells
Summary Notes
1. Characteristics of Living organisms
All living organisms undergo the following processes:
Movement: living organisms are able to move all or part of themselves. Animals can
move to find food or escape predators, whilst plants can move their leaves to catch
more sunlight.
Respiration: this is a series of chemical reactions that occurs in cells. Leading to
the breakdown of nutrient molecules to release energy for metabolism.
Sensitivity: living organisms can detect changes in their internal or external
environments and respond to these changes.
Growth: organisms grow, leading to a permanent increase in size. This can be
measured through dry mass, cell size or number of cells.
Reproduction: living organisms reproduce to create more organisms of their kind.
Excretion: waste products from metabolic reactions are removed from the
organism. This includes toxic material, excess substances and carbon dioxide from
respiration.
Nutrition: organisms take in materials for development. These materials are used
in chemical reactions to produce energy for growth and repair.
Viruses are not classified as living as they do not have the ability to complete these
processes. Viruses and acellular (meaning they aren’t true cells) and consist of genetic
material surrounded by a protein coat.
2. Organisation of the Organism.
Cells can be viewed using a microscope to study their structure. To calculate the size
of a specimen under a microscope, use the following equation:
Image size
Actual size =
Magnification
Adapted from: https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/biology-revision/igcse-cie/characteristics-and-
classification-of-living-organisms/ and https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/biology-revision/igcse-
cie/organisation-of-organism/
Functions of (eukaryotic) cell structures:
Cell membrane: a thin membrane that surrounds the cell and controls entry and
exit of substances (i.e., it is a partially permeable membrane).
Cytoplasm: A jelly-like material within the cell in which reactions occur. The
cytoplasm contains structures such as ribosomes and mitochondria.
Mitochondria: site of respiration. Provides energy for the cell to function.
Nucleus and DNA: the nucleus contains genetic material in the form of DNA which
codes for proteins. DNA replication also occurs in the nucleus.
Ribosomes: these are the structures where protein synthesis occurs.
In addition to these, plant cells also contain a vacuole, chloroplasts and are surrounded by
a cell wall.
Vacuole: is a fluid-filled sac containing mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, waste
substances and pigments which colour the cell and attract pollinating insects.
Chloroplasts: are the site of photosynthesis, which allows plants to convert light
energy to glucose. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll.
Cell wall: gives the cell structure and prevents bursting. It also controls what enters
and exits the cell.
3. Levels of organisation
Tissue: a group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular function
(or process).
Organ: a group of tissues working together to carry out a specific function.
Organ system: a group of related organs working together to carry out functions
in the body.
Remember:
Organ
Cells Tissues Organs Organisms
systems
4. Specialised cells
Cells and tissues are specialised to carry out their particular function.
Examples of specialised cells are:
Adapted from: https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/biology-revision/igcse-cie/characteristics-and-
classification-of-living-organisms/ and https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/biology-revision/igcse-
cie/organisation-of-organism/
Ciliated cells: cells found lining the respiratory passages. They have hair-like
projections (called cilia) which move together to transport mucus, dust and bacteria
upwards towards the throat.
Root hair cells: are adapted to have a large surface area. This speeds up the rate
of osmosis and mineral ion uptake in plants.
Xylem vessels: used to transport water through plants in transpiration. The xylem
is made from hollowed-out dead cells that have the ends removed to make a tube
for water to pass through. They gave a thick cell wall to provide structural strength
and are thin to allow capillary action.
Palisade mesophyll cells: this is where photosynthesis occurs in the leaves.
Mesophyll cells are tall and closely packed to efficiently absorb light and contain lots
of chloroplasts for photosynthesis. They are also placed at the top of the leaf where
most of the light hits enabling them to absorb as much light energy as possible.
Nerve cells: are adapted to rapidly transmit electrical impulses. Nerve cells are
myelinated, which insulated the cell and prevents the impulse weakening and slowing
down. They also contain lots of mitochondria to provide energy. Dendrites have a
large surface area and are branched to receive impulses from many neurons.
Red blood cells: contain haemoglobin which allows them to carry oxygen around
the body. They have a biconcave shape which increases their surface area, allowing
for rapid diffusion. They also have thin cell membranes to decrease the diffusion
distance. They do not contain a nucleus and thus have more space for oxygen.
Sperm cells: are adapted by containing lots of mitochondria so that they cell has
enough energy to reach the egg cell. It has a tail to allow movement and contains
digestive enzymes to help penetrate the egg cell membrane.
Adapted from: https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/biology-revision/igcse-cie/characteristics-and-
classification-of-living-organisms/ and https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/biology-revision/igcse-
cie/organisation-of-organism/
