Digital Logic Design

(TC-201)

Engr. Tajwar Sultana

Biomedical Engineering Department
NEDUET
 This lecture will cover:
• Digital and Analog Quantities
• Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital Waveforms
• Combinational and Sequential Logic Functions
• Introduction to Programmable Logic
• Fixed-Function Logic Devices

Introductory • Applications of Digital Logic

Concepts
Suggested Books:
Digital Fundamentals by
Floyd and Jain
Digital Logic and Computer
Design by M. Morris Mano
 Introduction
• The term digital is derived from the way operations are performed, by counting digits
• For many years, applications of digital electronics were confined to computer systems
• Today, digital technology is applied in a wide range of areas in addition to computers. Such
applications as:
• Television
• Communications systems
• Radar
• Navigation and guidance systems
• Military systems
• Medical instrumentation
• Industrial process control
• Consumer electronics
 Electronic Circuits divide into
1. Analog Circuits 2. Digital Circuits
Analog electronics involves quantities with Digital electronics involves quantities with discrete
continuous values values
More susceptible to noise Less susceptible to noise.
Difficult to design Easy to design.
Examples: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Examples: fire alarms, carbon monoxide detectors,
Basic audio public address system etc. vending machines, air conditioner and thermostat,
home security systems etc.
Digital Representation has several
advantages over Analog

• Digital data can be processed and

transmitted more efficiently and reliably
than analog data
• Digital form can be stored more compactly
and reproduced with greater accuracy and
clarity
• Noise (unwanted voltage fluctuations) does
not affect digital data nearly as much as it
does analog signals
 Digital Logic, Binary Digits, Logic Levels
• Digital logic is the representation of signals and sequences
of a digital circuit through numbers
5V
• Digital electronics involves circuits/systems in which there
are only two possible states HIGH & LOW
• Binary digits, 0 & 1 used to represent two different logic 2V
levels
• The voltages used to represent a 1 and a 0 are called logic
0.8V
levels
HIGH = 1 and LOW = 0 🡪 (Positive logic)
HIGH = 0 and LOW = 1 🡪 (Negative logic) 0V

• For high & low logics, there is specified range containing If the given input voltage is between 0V to 0.8 V, then it is
minimum (Vmin) and maximum voltages (Vmax) considered as logic 0.
If the given input voltage is between 2V to 5V, then it is
• The values between max and min are unacceptable considered as logic 1.
 Digital
• Digital waveforms consist of waveforms
voltage levels that are changing back and forth between the HIGH
and LOW levels or states
• The positive-going pulse is generated when the voltage (or current) goes from its normally LOW
level to its HIGH level and then back to its LOW level
• The negative-going pulse is generated when the voltage goes from its normally HIGH level to its
LOW level and back to its HIGH level.
• A digital waveform is made up of a series of pulses
• A pulse has two edges i.e. Leading edge and trailing edge
• The pulse in Figure is ideal because the rising and falling edges are assumed to change in zero
time (instantaneously)
Digital
Waveforms
• In practice, these transitions (ideal pulse) never
occur instantaneously, a pulse which exists is called
a Nonideal pulse
• The time required for a pulse to go from its LOW
level to its HIGH level is called the rise time (tr).
• The time required for the transition from the HIGH
level to the LOW level is called the fall time (tf).
• In practice, it is common to measure rise time from
10% of the pulse amplitude (height from baseline)
to 90% of the pulse amplitude and to measure the
fall time from 90% to 10% of the pulse amplitude
• The pulse width (tW) is a measure of the duration
of the pulse
 Waveform Characteristics
• Pulses can be classified as either periodic or nonperiodic
• A periodic pulse waveform is one that repeats itself at a fixed interval, called a period (T)
• A nonperiodic pulse waveform does not repeat itself at fixed intervals
• Frequency (f) is the rate at which it repeats itself and is measured in hertz (Hz)
• The frequency (f) of a pulse (digital) waveform is the reciprocal of the period
• An important characteristic of a periodic digital waveform is its duty cycle, which is the ratio of
the pulse width (tw) to the period (T)
 The Clock
• In digital systems, all waveforms are synchronized with a basic timing waveform called
the Clock
• The clock is a periodic waveform in which each interval between pulses (the period)
equals the time for one bit
• In this case, each change in level of waveform A occurs at the leading edge of the clock
waveform. In other cases, level changes occur at the trailing edge of the clock
• During each bit time of the clock, waveform A is either HIGH or LOW
 Timing Diagrams
A timing diagram is a graph of digital waveforms showing the actual time relationship of two or more
waveforms and how each waveform changes in relation to the others.
 Data Transfer
• Data refers to groups of bits that convey some type of
information
• Binary data, which are represented by digital waveforms,
must be transferred from one device to another within a
digital system or from one system to another in order to
accomplish a given purpose
• Binary data is transferred in two ways: serial and parallel
Serial Transfer Parallel Transfer

Advantage is a minimum of only Advantage is all the bits in a

one line is required. group are sent out on separate
lines at the same time.
Disadvantage is that it takes A disadvantage of parallel
longer to transfer a given transfer is that it takes more
number of bits than with lines than serial transfer.
parallel transfer at the same
clock frequency.
 Basic Logic Functions
• Three basic logic functions (NOT, AND, and OR) are indicated by standard distinctive shape
symbols
• The lines connected to each symbol are the inputs and outputs
• The inputs are on the left of each symbol and the output is on the right
• A circuit that performs a specified logic function (AND, OR, etc.) is called a logic gate
• The total number of possible combinations of binary inputs to a gate is determined by formula
N =2n i.e.
For two input variables: N = 22 = 4 combinations
For three input variables: N = 23 = 8 combinations
For four input variables: N = 24 = 16 combinations
The NOT Function

Input Output

0 1

1 0

Truth Table
 The AND FUNCTION
• The AND function produces a HIGH output only when all the inputs are HIGH, for the
case of two inputs
• When one input is HIGH and the other input is HIGH, the output is HIGH
• When any or all inputs are LOW, the output is LOW
• Logical expression for AND gate is either A.B or AB

A B Output
(A.B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Truth Table
 The OR Function
• The OR function produces a HIGH output when one or more inputs are HIGH, for the case of
two inputs
• When one input is HIGH or the other input is HIGH or both inputs are HIGH, the output is
HIGH
• When both inputs are LOW, the output is LOW
• Logical expression for OR is A + B

A B Output
(A+B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Truth Table
 Combinational & Sequential Logic Functions
The three basic logic functions AND, OR, and NOT can be combined to form various other types of
more complex logic functions, such as
• Comparison
• Arithmetic
• Code conversion
• Encoding
• Decoding
• Data selection
• Counting
• Storage
 Comparator
• Magnitude comparison is performed by a logic circuit called a comparator
• A comparator compares two quantities and indicates whether they are equal or not
 The Arithmetic Functions
Addition:
• Addition is performed by a logic circuit called an Adder
• An adder adds two binary numbers (on inputs A and B with a carry input Cin) and generates a sum
(∑) and a carry output (Cout)
Subtraction:
• Subtraction is also performed by same logic circuit.
• A subtractor requires three inputs: the two numbers that are to be subtracted and a borrow input.
• The two outputs are the difference and the borrow output
• Subtraction can be performed by an adder because subtraction is simply a special case of addition
Multiplication:
• Multiplication is performed by a logic circuit called a multiplier
• Numbers are always multiplied two at a time, so two inputs are required
• It can be performed by using an adder in conjunction with other circuits

Division:
• Division can be performed with a series of subtractions, comparisons, and shifts, and thus it can
also be done using an adder in conjunction with other circuits
 Code Conversion
• A code is a set of bits arranged in a unique pattern and used to represent specified information
• A code converter changes one form of coded information into another coded form
• Examples are conversion between binary and other codes such as the binary coded decimal
(BCD) and the Gray code

The Encoding Function

• The encoding function is performed by a logic circuit
called an Encoder
• The encoder converts information, such as a decimal
number or an alphabetic character, into some coded
form
• For example, one certain type of encoder converts
each of the decimal digits, 0 through 9, to a binary
code
 The Decoding Function
• The decoding function is performed by a logic circuit called a Decoder
• The decoder converts coded information, such as a binary number, into a non-coded form, such
as a decimal form
• For example, one particular type of decoder converts a 4-bit binary code into the appropriate
decimal digit

A simple illustration of one type of decoder that is used to activate

a 7-segment display. Each of the seven segments of the display is
connected to an output line from the decoder. When a particular
binary code appears on the decoder inputs, the appropriate output
lines are activated and light the proper segments to display the
decimal digit corresponding to the binary code.
 The Data Selection Function
• Two types of circuits that select data are the multiplexer and the demultiplexer
• The multiplexer (mux) is a logic circuit that switches digital data from several input lines onto a
single output line in a specified time sequence
• The demultiplexer (demux) is a logic circuit that switches digital data from one input line to
several output lines in a specified time sequence
• Multiplexing and demultiplexing are used when data from several sources are to be transmitted
over one line to a distant location and redistributed to several destinations
 The Storage Function
• Storage is a function that is required in most digital systems, and its purpose is to retain binary
data for a period of time
• A storage device can “memorize” a bit or a group of bits and retain the information as long as
necessary
• Some storage devices are used for short-term storage and some are used for long-term storage
• Common types of storage devices are:
• Flip-flops
• Registers
• Semiconductor Memories
• Magnetic Disks
• Magnetic tape
• Optical Disk
 Flip-Flops
• A flip-flop is a bistable (two stable states) logic circuit that can store only one bit at a time,
either a 1 or a 0
• The output of a flip-flop indicates which bit it is storing
• A HIGH output indicates that a 1 is stored and a LOW output indicates that a 0 is stored

Registers
• A register is formed by combining several flip-flops so that groups of bits can be stored
• For example, an 8-bit register is constructed from eight flip-flops
• Registers can be used to shift the bits from one position to another within the register or out
of the register to another circuit; therefore, these devices are known as shift registers
• The two basic types of shift registers are serial and parallel
• The bits are stored in a serial shift register one at a time
• The bits are stored in a parallel register simultaneously from parallel lines
 The Counting Function
• The counting function is important in digital systems
• There are many types of digital Counters, its basic purpose is to count events represented by
changing levels or pulses
• To count, the counter must “remember” the present number so that it can go to the next
proper number in sequence
• Therefore, storage capability is an important characteristic of all counters, and flip-flops are
generally used to implement them
 Introduction to Programmable Logic
• Programmable logic requires both hardware and software
• Programmable logic devices can be programmed to perform
specified logic functions and operations by the manufacturer
or by the user
• One advantage of programmable logic over fixed-function
logic is that the devices use much less board space for an
equivalent amount of logic
• Another advantage is that, with programmable logic, designs
can be readily changed without rewiring or replacing
components
• A logic design can generally be implemented faster and with
less cost with programmable logic than with fixed-function
logic
• Two major categories of user-programmable logic are PLD
(programmable logic device) and FPGA (field-programmable
gate array)
 Simple Programmable Logic Device (SPLD)
• SPLD was the original PLD and is available for small-scale applications
• Generally, an SPLD can replace up to ten fixed-function ICs and their interconnections,
depending on the type of functions and the specific SPLD
• Most SPLDs are in one of two categories: PAL and GAL
• A PAL (programmable array logic) is a device that can be programmed one time. It consists of a
programmable array of AND gates and a fixed array of OR gates
• A GAL (generic array logic) is a device that is basically a PAL that can be reprogrammed many
times. It consists of a reprogrammable array of AND gates and a fixed array of OR gates with
programmable outputs
 Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD)
• CPLD is a device containing multiple SPLDs and can replace many fixed-function Ics
• Depending on the specific CPLD, there can be from two to sixty-four LABs (Logic Array blocks)
• Each logic array block is roughly equivalent to one SPLD
• Generally, CPLDs can be used to implement any of the logic functions discussed earlier, for
example, decoders, encoders, multiplexers, demultiplexers, and adders
• They are available in a variety of configurations, typically
ranging from 44 to 160 pin packages
 Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)
• An FPGA is generally more complex and has a much higher density than a CPLD, although their
applications can sometimes overlap
• The SPLD and the CPLD are closely related because the CPLD basically contains a number of
SPLDs
• But the FPGA has a different internal structure (architecture)
• The three basic elements in an FPGA are the logic block, the programmable interconnections,
and the input/output (I/O) blocks
• The logic blocks in an FPGA are not as complex as the logic array blocks (LABs) in a CPLD, but
generally there are many more of them
• When the logic blocks are relatively simple, the FPGA architecture is called fine-grained
• When the logic blocks are larger and more complex, the architecture is called coarse-grained
• These types of packages can have over 1000 input and output pins
 The Programming Process
An SPLD, CPLD, or FPGA can be thought of as a “blank slate” on which you implement a specified
circuit using a certain process. This process requires a software development package installed on
a computer to implement a circuit design in the programmable chip. The computer must be
interfaced with a development board or programming fixture containing the device
 Fixed-Function Logic Devices
• All the logic elements and functions are generally available in integrated circuit (IC) form
• Digital systems have incorporated ICs for many years because of their small size, high
reliability, low cost, and low power consumption
• A monolithic integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit that is constructed on a single small
chip of silicon
• All the components that make up the circuit—transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors—are
an integral part of that single chip
• Fixed-function logic and programmable logic are two broad categories of digital ICs
 IC Packages
• Integrated circuit (IC) packages are classified according to the way they are mounted on
printed circuit boards (PCBs) as either through-hole mounted or surface mounted
• The through-hole type packages have pins (leads) that are inserted through holes in the PCB
and can be soldered to conductors on the opposite side
• The most common type of through-hole package is the dual in-line package (DIP)
 IC Packages
• Another type of IC package uses surface-mount technology (SMT)
• Surface mounting is a space-saving alternative to through-hole mounting
• The pins of surface-mounted packages are soldered directly to conductors on one side of the
board, leaving the other side free for additional circuits
• An example of a surface mounted package is the small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC)
 Pin Numbering
• All IC packages have a standard format for numbering the pins (leads)
• The dual inline packages (DIPs) and the shrink small-outline packages (SSOP) have the
numbering arrangement for a 16-pin package as shown
• The PLCC and LCC packages have leads arranged on all four sides
 Complexity Classifications for
Fixed-Function ICs
Fixed-function digital ICs are classified according to their complexity. They are listed here from the
least complex to the most complex.
• Small-scale integration (SSI) describes fixed-function ICs that have up to ten equivalent gate
circuits on a single chip, and they include basic gates and flip-flops.
• Medium-scale integration (MSI) describes integrated circuits that have from 10 to 100
equivalent gates on a chip include logic functions such as encoders, decoders, counters,
registers, multiplexers, arithmetic circuits, small memories, and others
• Large-scale integration (LSI) is a classification of ICs with complexities of from more than 100
to 10,000 equivalent gates per chip, including memories
• Very large-scale integration (VLSI) describes integrated circuits with complexities of from
more than 10,000 to 100,000 equivalent gates per chip
• Ultra large-scale integration (ULSI) describes very large memories, larger microprocessors, and
larger single-chip computers with complexities of more than 100,000 equivalent gates per chip
are classified as ULSI
Some Applications of
Digital Logic
Block diagram of a
tablet-bottling system.
Block Diagram of Elevator
Controller system
Block diagram of Traffic Signal
Controller
Block diagram of
tank level and
temperature
controller
Block diagram of Security code logic with
keypad
The End