CSE 312/BTB312: PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

1.1. Background
Most of the analyses have been based on the elastic behaviour of structures. In these
analyses, superposition is often used since it is valid for a linearly elastic structure.
However, an elastic analysis does not give information about the loads that will actually
cause collapse of a structure.
It should be known that an indeterminate structure may sustain loads greater than the
load that first causes a yield to occur at any point in the structure. In fact, a structure
will stand as long as it is able to find redundancies to yield. It is only when a structure
has exhausted all of its redundancies will extra load cause it to fail.
Plastic analysis is the method through which the actual failure load of a structure is
calculated, and as will be seen, this failure load can be significantly greater than the
elastic load capacity. Therefore, plastic analysis can be defined as the analysis in which
the criterion for the design of structures is the ultimate load. It can also be defined as
the analysis of materials which are loaded beyond their elastic limit.
Plastic analysis derives from a simple mode failure in which plastic hinges form.
Actually, the ultimate load is found from the strength of steel in plastic range. This
method of analysis is quite rapid and has rational approach for analysis of structure. It
controls the economy regarding to weight of steel since the sections required by this
method are smaller than those required by the method of elastic analysis. Plastic
analysis has its application in the analysis and design of indeterminate structures.
From the foregoing, plastic analysis is the process of determining the structural
behaviour of structures when they are loaded beyond the elastic limit. It concerns with
establishment of:
a) Locations which are likely to yield when loaded to failure;
b) How the structure will fail at ultimate limit state;
c) The load that cause the structure to fail; and
d) The internal force distribution at the instance of collapse
Experience has shown that design based on plastic methods results in structures that
are light weight and economical than those whose design is based on elastic methods.
It is in this light that structural design evolution has gradually shifted from elastic based
method to limit state-based methods. For instance, the change from BS 449 to BS 5950,
from CP 114 to CP 110 then to BS 8110 and from CP 111 to BS 5628.
1.2. Restrictions
The mechanical behaviour of materials beyond elastic limit is highly variable depending
on the type of material that one is dealing with. The most important property of the
material making up the element of a structure is that of ductility. This property ensures
that the element/structure can undergo large deflection/deformations before collapse
to enable moment redistribution to take place as collapse nears. Thus, the material
should not be brittle nor strain harden in the process of being loaded.
Before analysing complete structures, we review material and cross section behaviour
beyond the elastic limit.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION

1.3. Basis of Plastic Design

Plastic analysis is based on the idealization of stress-strain curve as elastic-perfectly-

plastic (as shown in Figure 1.1). It is further assumed that width-thickness ratio of plate
elements is small so the local buckling does not occur: in other words, the section
classifies as plastic. With these assumptions, it can be said that the section will reach its
plastic moment capacity and then undergo considerable rotation at this moment
(referred to as plastic hinge).
Stress, σ

σy

Elastic Plastic Strain, ε

Figure 1.1: Idealized stress-stress diagram as elastic-perfect plastic

With these assumptions, we now look at the behaviour of a beam up to collapse.

Consider a prismatic beam fixed at both ends and being acted on by a service load P at
its centre as shown in Table 1.1 (state 1). If the load is monotonically increased to
failure of the structure, as depicted by the loading configurations in Table 1.1, the cross-
section of the beam will behave as shown by the stress and strain distributions in Table
1.1. The overall load-displacement is as shown in Figure 1.2.
Load, P

State 2

State 1 State 3 State 4 State 5

Pu
Py2

Py1

Deflection of beam, δ
Figure 1.2: Load-central deflection curve for the beam

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1: Stages of loading a beam to failure

STATE LOADING CONFIGURATION STATE OF STRESS STRAIN

OF BEHAVIOUR OF THE DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION AT
LOAD BEAM AT A SECTION A SECTION
State 1 -σs1 -εs1
Ps1 At service load Ps1<Py
All sections are elastic.

σs1 εs1

State 2 -σs1<-σy -εs1<-εy

Ps2 At service load Ps2; but
Ps1 < Ps2 < Py
All sections are elastic.

σs1<σy εs1<εy

State 3 -σy -εy

Py1 At load Py1> Ps2; and
Ps2 < Py
Some sections have
yielded while others
are still elastic.

σy εy

State 4 Py2 -σy

-ε4>-εy
At load Py2> Py1; and
Py < Py2
As state 3 but more
areas having yielded.

σy ε4>εy

State 5 Pu
-σy -εst
At ultimate load Pu
Further yielding takes
place.
Structure fails on any
Pu attempt to increase
the load Pu.
σy εst

The elastic bending moment at the ends is wl2/12 and at mid-span is wl2/24, where l is
the span. The stress distribution across any cross section is linear. As P is increased
gradually, the stresses and strains also increase. At state 3, the sections close to the
support where the bending moment is maximum have their stresses in the extreme
fibres reach the yield stress. The moment corresponding to this state is called the first

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION

yield moment My, of the cross section. But this does not imply failure as the beam can
continue to take additional load. As the load continues to increase, more and more
fibres reach the yield stress and the stress distribution is as shown in Table 1.1 (state 4).
Eventually the whole of the cross section reaches the yield stress and the corresponding
stress distribution is as shown in Table 1.1 (state 5).
The moment corresponding to this state is known as the plastic moment of the cross
section and is denoted by Mp. In order to find out the fully plastic moment of a yielded
section of a beam, we employ the force equilibrium equation, namely the total force in
compression and the total force in tension over that section are equal.
As can be seen, the material can sustain strains far in excess of the strain at which yield
occurs before failure. This property of the material is called its ductility. This property
ensures that the element/structure can undergo large deflection/deformations before
collapse to enable moment redistribution to take place as collapse nears. Thus, one of
the major restrictions in the application of plastic analysis is that the material should
not be brittle nor strain harden in the process of being loaded.
1.4. Fundamental Approaches to Analysis and Design

The current design codes BS 5628 (for masonry), BS 5268 (for timber), BS 5950 (for
steel) and BS 8110 (for reinforced concrete) allow the use of both elastic and plastic
approaches in analysis. There are fundamental differences in the two approaches:
For elastic analysis and design, the basic assumption is that failure occurs when the
material reaches its yield stress. In design, the allowable stress is kept within this limit
by using a Factor of Safety given by:
ଢ଼୧ୣ୪ୢ ୱ୲୰ୣୱୱ
Factor of safety = …………………………………………………………. 1.1
୛୭୰୩୧୬୥ ୱ୲୰ୣୱୱ

This leads to two important consequences:

a) The distribution of stress resultants can be found by method of analysis which
assumes a linear relationship between force and displacement.
b) Stress levels can be found by use of the simple theory of bending which assumes
a linear stress-strain relationship i.e.
୑ ஢
ூ
= ୷
……………………………………………………………….……………………………... 1.2

or
‫………………………………………………………………………………………… ܵߪ = ܯ‬... 1.3
The various methods of structural analysis which you have learnt previously are based
on these consequences. So, to find the distribution of bending moment throughout the
structure we can use the methods of flexibility, stiffness or moment distribution.
In plastic analysis and design, the working loads are multiplied by a partial safety factor
γf, to produce a collapse load and the structure is designed so that it will be on point of
collapse under this load. To be on further safe side, the material strength is reduced by a
partial safety factor γm, as stipulated in design standards.
To achieve a practical design method, we need to:
a) Define mathematically what we mean by collapse

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b) Develop a method of analysis, which will enable us to determine the distribution

of bending moment etc. BUT for a material which is stressed beyond its yield
point; and
c) Derive an expression akin to the simple theory of bending but for a material,
which is stressed beyond its yield point.
1.5. The simple plastic theory
Assumptions of simple plastic theory are:
a) Flexural/bending stresses dominate
b) Plane section under bending remain plane after deformation, i.e. strains are
linearly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis (N-A);
-ε

Compression
N A
Tension

+ε
Cross-section Strain Diagram

c) The stress-strain relationship for steel is idealized to consist of two straight line
in both tensile and compression zones given as:
ߪ = ‫ߝܧ‬ (0 < ߝ < ߝ௬ ) and
ߪ = ߪ௬ (ߝ௬ < ߝ < ∞) ……………………………………………………………… 1.4
Stress, σ

σy

Tension

Strain, ε
Compression

d) The properties of the element in compression are assumed to be same as in

tension for reinforcing steel while the tensile strength of concrete is ignored;
e) Deformations are sufficiently small thus the effect of the change of geometry of
the structure on the equation of equilibrium is neglected; and
f) The equilibrium conditions are given by:
Normal force, ܲ = ‫׬‬୅୰ୣୟ ߪ݀‫ܣ‬ and
Moment, ‫׬ = ܯ‬୅୰ୣୟ ߪ݀‫ܣ‬. ‫ݕ‬ …………………………………………………. 1.5
where σ is the stress at a distance y from the neutral axis.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION

1.6. Fundamental concepts of plastic behaviour

The fundamental concepts of plastic behaviour are:
a) The stress in the material cannot exceed the yield stress
b) With increasing moment, more and more of the cross-section reaches its yield
stress until eventually the whole section yields. The moment of resistance of the
section now has a maximum value called the plastic moment. The plastic moment is
given by:
‫ܯ‬௉ = ܼߪ௬ ……………………………………………………………………………………… 1.6
Where Z is the plastic section Modulus which is a geometrical property but not a
material property. It thus depends on the geometry of the section of the element.
c) The idealised moment rotation curve i.e. the plastic moment is maximum that can
be achieved at any section although there is no theoretical limit to rotation.

Mp

d) When the fully plastic moment is reached at any section, a hinging action takes
place, rotation occurring but with the moment transmitted across the hinge
remaining constant at the value Mp. At such a section, it is said that a plastic
hinge/yield line is formed. It follows that if we can predict the presence of a plastic
hinge/yield line in a structure, then we are also predicting the value of the bending
moment at that section (i.e. M = Mp)
e) If the whole or any part of a structure forms sufficient plastic hinges or yield lines to
produce a mechanism, then the structure is at a state of collapse. Out of all the
possible mechanisms in a structure, the “collapse mechanism” is the one requiring
the lowest value of load, i.e. provides the lowest load factor against collapse.
1.7. Computation of yield and plastic moment

The yield moment

It has been established that the equations of bending in linear elastic analysis are given
by:
ெ ூ ఌ ఙ
= ߠ= = = ………………………………………………………………..……………….. 1.7
ாூ ఘ ௬ ா௬

From which, it is clear that:

ெ ఙ
ாூ
= ா௬
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1.8

Or
ூ
‫…………………………………………………………… ߪ = ܯ‬..……………………..……………….. 1.9
௬

When the stress reaches σy, then:

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ூ
‫ܯ = ܯ‬௬ = ߪ௬ ௬ = ߪ௬ ܵ …………………………………………………………………………….. 1.10

Where
θ = Curvature ρ = Radius of curvature E = Modulus of elasticity
ε = Strain σy = Yield stress
y = Distance of the fibre under consideration from the neutral axis
I = Second moment of area or moment of inertia
I
S = Elastic section modulus =
y
The plastic moment
Consider state 3 of the plastification processes discussed earlier for the rectangular
beam shown in Table 1.1. This can be reproduced as shown in Figure 1.3.
-σy

y0 y
d Neutral Axis
y0

b
σy

Figure 1.3: Beam section and stress diagram undergoing

plastification process due to applied loading
The moment acting on the section can be obtained by the stress area as made in
Equation 1.5 of assumption (f).

‫׬ = ܯ‬୅୰ୣୟ ߪ݀‫ܣ‬. ‫ …………………………………………………………………………… ݕ‬1.11

However, it is more convenient if we integrate equation 1.11 by parts. This is done by

diving the stress diagram into regular shapes as triangles and rectangles. If this is done,
we can have:

= + -

M = σy S + σy Z - σyZe
Figure 1.4: Elements of the stress diagram of Figure 1.3

Where S= The section modulus of the elastic interior portion

Z= The plastic modulus that would apply if the entire section were
plastic
Ze = The plastic modulus that would apply to the interior portion that is
not plastic but elastic

Thus:

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‫ߪ = ܯ‬௬ ܵ + ߪ௬ ܼ − ߪ௬ ܼ௘
= ߪ௬ ൫ܵ + ሺܼ − ܼ௘ ሻ൯
= ߪ௬ ሺܵ + ܼ௉ ሻ …………………………………………………………………..…………………… 1.12

The sectional properties can be defined as:

௬೚
ܼ௘ = 2ሺܾ‫ݕ‬௢ ሻ ଶ
= ܾ‫ݕ‬଴ଶ …………………………………………………..………………… 1.13
ሺଶ௬೚ሻమ ଶ ଶ
ܵ=ܾ
଺
= ଷ ܾ‫ݕ‬଴ଶ = ଷ
ܼ௘ ………………………………………..…………………… 1.14
௕ௗ ௗ ௕ௗ మ
ܼ = 2 ቀ ଶ ቁ ቀସቁ = ସ
…………………………….…………………..…………………… 1.15

Thus, the bending moment in terms of Z is given by:

ଶ ௓೐
‫ߪ = ܯ‬௬ ሺܵ + ܼ௉ ሻ = ߪ௬ ቀ ܼ௘ + ܼ − ܼ௘ ቁ = ߪ௬ ቀܼ − ቁ ……………………. 1.16
ଷ ଷ

The maximum bending moment is obtained when the elastic part is reduced to zero,
giving:
Mp = Plastic Moment =  y Z …………………...…………………..…………………... 1.17

1.8. Shape Factor

This refers to the reserve strength of a given section when the strengths at yield and at
plastic states are computed.
ெ ఙ೤ ௓ ௓
The shape factor, ݂ = ெು = ఙ ௌ = ௌ ………………………....…………………..………………...….. 1.18
೤ ೤

For rectangular section, the shape factor, f is 1.5. This means that an element made from
a rectangular section has a reserve capacity of 50% if its plastic properties are utilized.
The shape factors for other sections are as follows in table 1.2.

Note: Plastic section modulus is the sum of the areas of the cross-section on each side of
the plastic neutral axis multiplied by the distance from the local centroid of the two
areas to the plastic neutral axis.

Table 1.2: Shape factors

Section Shape Shape factor, f
I – beam 1.15 to 1.6

Hollow tube 1.27

Solid tube 1.7

Solid diamond 2.00

Students should be able to calculate the shape factors of the various sections shown in
Table 1.2.

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1.9. Fundamental conditions for plastic analysis

There are three conditions which must be satisfied to ensure full collapse of a structure
and the identification of the true collapse load. These conditions ensure plastic analysis
of structures. The fundamental conditions for plastic analysis are:
a) Mechanism condition: The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a
mechanism is formed. The number of plastic hinges developed should be just
sufficient to form a mechanism. The number of plastic hinges, h ≥ (r + 1). Where r
is the degree of statical indeterminacy.
b) Equilibrium condition: At collapse, the distribution of bending moment in the
structure must be in equilibrium with the applied loads (factored loads). Thus,

ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣMxy = 0 ……………………………………………………….………………… 1.19

c) Yield Condition: At collapse, the value of the bending moment at any section
cannot exceed the plastic moment. This is also called plastic moment condition.

Provided that these three conditions can be satisfied then the true collapse load can be
identified. Based on these conditions, three theorems can be defined as given in the
subsequent section.

1.10. Theorems of plastic collapse

There are three theorems of plastic collapse:
a) Lower bound or Static theorem
It states that if the bending moments are in equilibrium with the external load and M ≤
Mp everywhere, the load is a lower bound (i.e. load is ≤ collapse load).
From the conditions for plastic analysis, only the yield and equilibrium conditions are
satisfied. The lower-bound (safe) solution is obtained in which the collapse load
determined is either less than or equal to the true value.
b) Upper bound or Kinematic theorem
It states that for an assumed mechanism in which the virtual work done in the plastic
hinges equals the virtual work done by the external loads, the load is an upper bound
(i.e. load is ≥ collapse load).
From the conditions for plastic analysis, only the mechanism and equilibrium conditions
are satisfied. The upper-bound (unsafe) solution is obtained in which the collapse load
determined is either greater than or equal to the true value.
c) Uniqueness theorem
If a bending moment distribution can be found that satisfies the three conditions of
equilibrium, mechanism and yield, then the corresponding load is the collapse load.
From conditions for plastic analysis, all conditions are satisfied.

The three theorems are summarized diagrammatically as shown in figures 1.5 and 1.6
below.
MECHANISM UPPER BOUND
Load ≤ true collapse load
UNIQUENESS EQUILIBRIUM
Load = true collapse load LOWER BOUND
YIELD Load ≤ true collapse load
Figure 1.5: Diagrammatical representation of three theorems of plastic collapse

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Upper bound

Pu True collapse load

Lower bound

X
Figure 1.6: Graphical representation of three theorems of plastic collapse

Corollaries of the Theorems

Some other results immediately apparent from the theorems are the following:
a) If the collapse loads are determined for all possible mechanisms, then the actual
collapse load will be the lowest of these (Upper bound Theorem);
b) The collapse load of a structure cannot be decreased by increasing the strength
of any part of it (Lower bound Theorem);
c) The collapse load of a structure cannot be increased by decreasing the strength
of any part of it (Upper bound Theorem);
d) The collapse load is independent of initial stresses and the order in which the
plastic hinges form (Uniqueness Theorem);
The first point above is the basis for using virtual work in plastic analysis. However, in
doing so, it is essential that the designer considers the actual collapse more. To not do
so would lead to an unsafe design by the Upper bound Theorem.
1.11. Methods used in plastic analysis
There are three methods used in plastic analysis as described the following section.

a) The Incremental method

This is probably the most obvious approach: the loads on the structure are incremented
until the first plastic hinge forms. This continues until sufficient hinges have formed to
collapse the structure. This is a labour-intensive, ‘brute-force’, approach, but one that is
most readily suited for computer implementation.

b) The Equilibrium (or Statical) method

In this method, free and reactant bending moment diagrams are drawn. These diagrams
are overlaid to identify the likely locations of plastic hinges. This method therefore
satisfies the equilibrium criterion first leaving the two remaining criteria to be derived
from there.

c) The Kinematic (or mechanism or Virtual-work or Energy) method

In this method, a collapse mechanism is first postulated. Virtual work equations are
then written for this collapse state, allowing the calculations of the collapse bending
moment diagram. This method satisfies the mechanism condition first, leaving the
remaining two criteria to be derived from there.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION

The plastic collapse loads corresponding to various failure mechanisms are obtained by
equating the internal work at the plastic hinges to the external work by loads during the
virtual displacement. This requires evaluation of displacements and plastic hinge
rotations.
When more than one condition of loading can be applied to a beam or structure, it may
not always be obvious which is critical. It is necessary then to perform separate
calculations, one for each loading condition, the section being determined by the
solution requiring the largest plastic moment.
Unlike the elastic method of design in which moments produced by different loading
systems can be added together, plastic moments obtained by different loading systems
cannot be combined, i.e. the plastic moment calculated for a given set of loads is only
valid for that loading condition. This is because the 'Principle of Superposition' becomes
invalid when parts of the structure have yielded.
For the sake of this course, the mechanism method will be used in the analyses of plastic
structures.
1.12. Types of Plastic Collapse
Complete Collapse
In this case, collapse occurs when a hinge forms for each of the number of redundants, r,
(making it a determinate structure) with an extra hinge for collapse. Thus, the number
of hinges formed, h = r +1 (the degree of indeterminacy plus one).
Partial Collapse
This occurs when h < r +1, but a collapse mechanism, of a localised section of the
structure can form. A common example is a single span of a continuous beam.
Over-Complete Collapse
For some frames, two (or more) possible collapse mechanisms are found (h = r +1) with
the actual collapse load factor. Therefore, they can be combined to form another
collapse mechanism with the same collapse load factor, but with an increased number
of hinges, h > r +1.
1.13. Summary of terms used in plastic analysis
Limit Design: A design based on any chosen limit of structural usefulness
Plastic Design: A design based upon the ultimate load-carrying capacity
(maximum strength) of the structure. The term “plastic” is derived
from the fact that the ultimate load is computed from knowledge of
the strength of steel in the plastic range.
Ultimate Load (Pu) or Maximum Strength: This is the highest load a structure can carry.
It is not to be confused with the term as applied to the ultimate-
load carried by an ordinary tensile coupon.
Plastification: The development of full plastic yield of the cross-section.
Plastic Moment (Mp): Maximum moment of resistance of a fully-yielded cross-section.
Plastic Modulus (Z): Combined statical moments of the cross-sectional areas above and
below the plastic neutral axis.
Plastic Hinge: A yielded section of a beam which acts as if it were hinged, except
with a constant restraining moment.

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Shape Factor (f): The ratio of the maximum resisting moment of a cross-section (Mp)
to the yield moment (My).
Mechanism: In a "hinge system" this is a system of members than can move
without an increase in load. It can also be defined as the
arrangement of plastic hinges and perhaps real hinges which
permit the collapse in a structure.
Redistribution of Moment: A process which results in the successive formation of plastic
hinges until the ultimate load is reached. By it, the less highly
stressed portions of a structure also may reach the Mp value.

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