Section E – The impact of health

practices on the environment

15 Pollution and its effects
Pollution is the unfavourable alteration of the environment by the release of harmful substances or
forms of energy into the environment.
A pollutant is a harmful substance or form of energy that causes unfavourable changes to the
environment.
Based on their origin, pollutants can be classified into domestic, agricultural and industrial pollutants.
• Domestic pollutants – These are pollutants that are released from homes. They include sewage from
the kitchen, the bathroom and the laundry room, as well as food waste.
• Agricultural pollutants – These are mainly associated with modern agricultural practices, and
include pesticides and fertilisers.
• Industrial pollutants – These are pollutants that are released from industry. They include oxides of
carbon, oxides of nitrogen, smoke, dust and other particulate matter.
Air pollution
Air pollution results from the release of harmful substances or forms of energy into the atmosphere.
Many cities experience air pollution associated with industrial activities, such as energy production
in power plants and processing of materials, as well as the operation of numerous motor vehicles in
cities. Air pollution in rural areas is often associated with agricultural practices such as land clearance
by slash and burn.
Table 15.1 Examples of air pollutants and their effects
Pollutant Origin Harmful effects
Carbon dioxide • Burning fossil fuels in • Builds up in the atmosphere and enhances the
(CO2) industry, motor vehicles greenhouse effect which contributes to global
and power plants warming (see page 145).
• Some is absorbed by oceans and causes ocean
acidification. This is a lowering of the pH of
ocean water, which harms aquatic organisms.
Carbon monoxide • Burning fossil fuels in • Combines with haemoglobin in the blood more
(CO) industry and motor readily than oxygen. This reduces the amount of
vehicles oxygen being carried to body cells and results
• Cigarette smoke in headaches, dizziness, loss of consciousness
and death.
Sulfur dioxide • Burning fossil fuels in • Combines with water vapour, smoke and other
(SO2) industry and power air pollutants to form smog, which causes
plants respiratory problems, e.g. asthma, bronchitis
and lung disease, and irritates the skin and eyes.
• Dissolves in rain water to form acid rain. Acid rain
lowers the pH of the soil and bodies of water
such as lakes, streams and rivers, and makes them
unsuitable for organisms. It also damages plants,
harms animals and corrodes buildings.
144 15 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology
Pollutant Origin Harmful effects
Oxides of nitrogen • Combustion at high • Combine with water vapour, smoke and other
temperatures in air pollutants to form smog (see above).
industry, motor vehicles • Reduce plant growth.
and power plants
• Dissolve in water to form acid rain (see above).
Volatile organic • Vehicle exhaust fumes • Combine with water vapour, smoke and other
compounds (VOCs) • Industrial waste air pollutants to form smog (see above).
Dust and other • Combustion in industry • Cause respiratory problems, e.g. asthma,
particulate matter • Mining and quarrying bronchitis and lung disease.
• Domestic fires • Coat leaves, which reduces photosynthesis.

The greenhouse effect and global warming

Greenhouse gases, e.g. carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane (CH4), in the atmosphere allow heat
energy from the Sun to pass through them and to warm the Earth. However, they trap much of this
heat in the atmosphere by reflecting it back towards the surface of the Earth. The trapped heat also
warms the Earth. This is similar to how a greenhouse traps heat, so it is called the greenhouse effect.
2 The Earth reflects some
radiation back into
Sun space.

1 Radiation from the Sun 3 Greenhouse gases absorb some

passes through the Earth’s radiation and radiate it back to
atmosphere and warms Earth. This also warms the Earth.
the Earth.

Earth’s atmosphere
Earth containing greenhouse
gases

Figure 15.1 The greenhouse effect

Human activities that release carbon dioxide, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, enhance
the greenhouse effect and contribute to an increase in the Earth’s temperature over time. This is
called global warming. Global warming is also leading to global climate change, which is having several
effects on the environment, including:
• Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers.
• Rising sea levels.
• Flooding of low-lying coastal areas.
• Changes in global weather patterns.
• Extreme weather and severe natural hazards.
• Rising sea temperatures.
• Wider spread of some infectious diseases.
Water pollution
Water pollution results from the release of harmful substances or forms of energy into a body of
water. These pollutants make the water unsuitable for organisms to live in and for human use.

15 Pollution and its effects 145

 Table 15.2 Examples of water pollutants and their effects
Pollutant Origin Harmful effects
Suspended solids • Soil erosion, which causes silt • Reduce light penetration, which reduces
and soil to wash into bodies of photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
water when it rains • Block rivers and lakes.
• Domestic and industrial waste
Plant nutrients • Chemical fertilisers • Cause eutrophication (see below).
(e.g. nitrates and • Sewage • Make water unsuitable for consumption.
phosphates) • Manure and other farm waste High nitrate levels in water make it
poisonous for babies to drink.
• Detergents
Organic matter • Sewage • Reduces the amount of oxygen dissolved
• Manure and other farm waste in water, leading to the death of fish and
other aquatic organisms.
• Industrial waste
Pesticides • Used in agriculture to control • Can harm beneficial organisms as well as
pests, pathogens and weeds harmful ones.
• Become higher in concentration up food
chains and can harm top consumers.
Heavy metal ions • Industrial waste • May be toxic to organisms and kill them
(e.g. mercury and directly.
lead) • May become higher in concentration up
food chains and can harm top consumers.
• Damage many body tissues and organs,
especially parts of the nervous system.
Pathogens • Sewage • May cause various infectious diseases, e.g.
• Animal manure typhoid, cholera and dysentery.
Heat • Factories and power plants, • May kill organisms directly.
which release waste heat into • Makes organisms more susceptible to
bodies of water pathogens.
• Reduces the amount of oxygen dissolved
in water, leading to the death of fish and
other aquatic organisms.
Radioactive waste • Nuclear power plants • Causes genetic defects (mutations).
• Hospital waste • Can lead to death.
Eutrophication
Excess nutrients in water, especially nitrates
and phosphates, cause an overgrowth of
aquatic plants and algae, which gives the
water a green appearance. When the plants
and algae die, decomposers in the water
break them down. These decomposers are
aerobic bacteria, which multiply quickly and
use up the dissolved oxygen in the water. This
causes other aquatic organisms, e.g. fish, to
suffocate and die.

Figure 15.2 Eutrophication

146 15 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology
Methods of controlling pollution
Controlling air pollution
The following are measures that can be used to reduce the amount of air pollution:
• Reduce the use of fossil fuels by using alternative energy sources, e.g. solar and wind energy, which
do not cause air pollution.
• Pass laws with strict penalties that limit the release of air pollutants by industry, e.g. a Clean Air Act.
• Clean gaseous emissions from factories before releasing them into the atmosphere.
• Equip motor vehicles with pollution control devices and modify engines to make them more fuel
efficient. Burning less fuel means less air pollutants will be released.
• Ban smoking or restrict the activity to specific locations.
• Put public education programmes in place.
Controlling water pollution
The following are measures that can be used to reduce the amount of water pollution:
• Carry out proper treatment of sewage before releasing it into bodies of water.
• Compost plant waste, such as vegetable peelings and crop residues.
• Use farm waste and waste from the food industry to produce biogas.
• Use organic fertilisers instead of inorganic chemical fertilisers.
• Use biodegradable detergents.
• Use biological control or natural, biodegradable pesticides instead of synthetic pesticides.
• Pass laws with strict penalties that limit the release of water pollutants by industry, e.g. a Clean
Water Act.
• Put public education programmes in place.
Revision questions
1 Define the terms:
a pollution b pollutant
2 Several air pollutants are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned
in industry. Name THREE such pollutants and outline the harmful effects of EACH.
3 Explain what is meant by the term ‘global warming’.
4 Dawn wants to know why her teacher said that agriculture contributes to water
pollution. Explain to her how the overuse of chemical fertilisers and pesticides
affects aquatic environments.
5 Identify the sources and outline the harmful effects of the following water pollutants:
a suspended solids b organic matter c heavy metal ions
6 List FOUR methods of controlling air pollution.
7 Discuss FOUR methods of controlling water pollution.

15 Pollution and its effects 147

 16 The cycling and treatment
of water
All living organisms need water for survival and there is a great demand on water resources by the
human population for various purposes. Most of the freshwater withdrawn from water bodies is used
in agriculture for irrigation and to provide water for farm animals. A large amount of water is also
used in industry, as well as for domestic purposes.
The water cycle
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, shows how water moves on, above and below
the surface of the Earth. It also shows the changes of the state of water as it moves.
The cycling of water ensures that all living organisms have a continuous supply of water to keep their
cells hydrated and to act as a solvent for chemical reactions. Plants also need a steady supply of water
for photosynthesis. The water cycle also ensures that aquatic organisms have a constant environment in
which to live.

precipitation
condensation
transpiration exhalation

evaporation
surface
runoff
infiltration

percolation

Figure 16.1 The water cycle

The following processes are involved in the water cycle:
• Evaporation – Heat from the Sun causes liquid water in bodies of water, e.g. oceans, lakes, ponds,
rivers and streams, and in the soil to change into water vapour, which enters the atmosphere.
• Transpiration – Heat from the Sun also causes water from plants to be lost to the atmosphere as
water vapour.
• Respiration – When organisms respire aerobically, water is produced as a by-product and some of
this is released into the atmosphere as water vapour when the organisms exhale.
• Condensation – As water vapour rises, it cools and becomes water droplets that form clouds.
• Precipitation – Water returns to the surface of the Earth in the form of rain, hail or snow.
• Surface runoff – Some water flows across the surface of the ground into bodies of water.
• Infiltration – Some water moves downwards through the soil.
• Percolation – The water then moves through rocks into groundwater and may eventually return to
bodies of water.

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Water purification
Water may become polluted in different ways as it moves through the environment, as outlined in
Chapter 15. As a result, various forms of purification are required to make water safe for human use.
Water that is safe to drink or to use in food preparation is called potable water.
The aim of water purification is to ensure that drinking water:
• Is safe for human consumption.
• Is clear and not discoloured.
• Has an acceptable taste.
• Has an acceptable smell.
In order to achieve this aim, drinking water from rivers, streams and lakes, as well as rainwater
collected using gutters, needs thorough treatment. Treatment methods include the small-scale
measures often used in the home and large-scale measures that provide water for cities and towns.
Small-scale domestic water purification
Filtration
Muslin cloth can be used as a filter to remove suspended material from water. This does not make
the water safe for drinking, but it can be used for other domestic purposes, such as bathing and
washing clothes. Domestic filters can be attached to taps. Their pore sizes are tiny enough to remove
suspended material, including bacteria and protozoa.
Boiling
This is the oldest method and is still satisfactory for purifying water on a small scale. For it to be
effective, water must be brought to a ‘rolling boil’ for 10–20 minutes. This kills bacteria, spores, cysts
and ova of intestinal parasites. It also removes hardness of water, producing soft water.
Chlorination
Chlorine tablets are very effective for disinfecting small quantities of water. One 500 mg tablet
can be used to kill microorganisms in 20 litres of water. Chlorine bleach is also effective for killing
microorganisms in water. One teaspoon of bleach should be added to one litre of water.
Large-scale water purification
There are four steps involved in the large-scale purification of water:
1 Screening – Water from rivers, lakes and reservoirs passes through grid screens to remove large
floating materials and suspended solids.
2 Sedimentation – The water is then pumped to a settlement tank where fine suspended solid
particles coagulate (clump together) and settle.
3 Filtration – The clear water from the settlement tank passes through sand filters containing
microorganisms. These microorganisms remove organic matter from the water by feeding on it.
4 Chlorination – The filtered water is treated with chlorine to kill all harmful microorganisms that are
still in the water. Fluoride is sometimes added at this stage to reduce tooth decay. The water is then
pumped to storage tanks for distribution to consumers.

16 The cycling and treatment of water 149

 river, lake or reservoir

screen pump

sedimentation

clean water
distributed
to homes
and factories
storage tank

pump chlorination filtration

Figure 16.2 Large-scale water purification

Testing water for bacteria
The presence of pathogenic coliform bacteria in water can
be determined by using agar plates. The agar is a liquid
when hot and forms a gel when cooled. It has nutrients in it
that will allow bacteria to grow rapidly. Water that is safe for
drinking will have no colonies of coliform bacteria.
The steps involved in testing water for bacteria are
outlined below:
1 Collect a sample of the water to be tested in a
sterile container.
2 Pour a small amount of the water onto an agar plate. Cover
the plate and tape the lid to ensure it does not come off.
3 Incubate the plate at 35 °C for 24 hours. Figure 16.3 Bacterial colonies on
4 Count the number of colonies of bacteria. an agar plate
The impact of human activities on water supplies
Humans are having a negative impact on water supplies in several ways:
• They harvest freshwater for agricultural, industrial and domestic use, and as the human population
grows, the demands for freshwater increase.
• They carry out deforestation, which reduces the amount of transpiration and precipitation that take
place to replenish water sources.
• They release different types of waste and harmful substances into bodies of water.
By carrying out the above activities, humans:
• Reduce the amount of freshwater available for agricultural, industrial and domestic purposes.
• Contaminate water sources, leading to a loss of potable water.
• Increase the cost of water treatment, as multiple steps have to be used in the purification of heavily
contaminated water.
150 16 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology
Figure 17.4 An incinerator
Landfills
Landfills consist of large, deep pits in which compacted solid waste is buried to isolate it from the
surrounding environment. Domestic refuse is often disposed of in a landfill.
To make a landfill, topsoil is removed and a large, deep pit is dug into the ground. The pit is lined with
an impermeable material which forms the bottom liner to prevent liquids from the waste, known a
leachate, seeping into the ground and contaminating soil and water. Two sets of pipes are installed,
one to help drain off any leachate and carry it to a treatment plant, and the other to remove any waste
gases, e.g. methane, which can be used as a fuel to produce electricity.
On arrival at the landfill, the refuse is sorted to remove materials that can be recycled. The remaining refuse
is then compacted to make it difficult for vectors to penetrate and to reduce its volume so the landfill can be
used for a long time. The compacted refuse is then placed into the landfill and is covered with a layer of soil
at the end of each day so it is not exposed to the wind and vectors, and to reduce smells.

Figure 17.5 A landfill site

17 The treatment and disposal of human waste 157

 Any biodegradable organic material in the refuse is broken down by soil bacteria and fungi. It is
during this decomposition that gases such as methane are given off. Any non-biodegradable refuse
remains, and when a landfill is full, it is capped to seal it, the topsoil is replaced and vegetation is
grown so that the land can be used in a variety of ways, e.g. recreational purposes or building.
Landfills are the most cost-effective means of solid waste disposal in the Caribbean. However, finding
suitable sites for landfills is becoming difficult.
The impact of solid waste on the environment
If solid waste is not disposed of properly it becomes a threat to the environment:
• Toxic chemicals in the waste can leach out and contaminate the soil, aquatic environments and
water sources.
• Greenhouse gases, e.g. methane and carbon dioxide, can be released into the atmosphere where
they contribute to the greenhouse effect (see page 145).
• Hydrogen sulfide gas can be released into the air. This gas is extremely toxic, and even low
concentrations irritate the eyes and respiratory system.
• Plastics can enter waterways and oceans where they are harmful to aquatic organisms.
• Refuse attracts rodents, which can spread disease.
• Refuse creates an eyesore, which impacts negatively on tourism, especially eco-tourism.
Controlling the volume of solid waste
The volume of solid waste to be disposed of can be controlled by using ‘The Three Rs’ of waste
management – reduce, reuse and recycle.
Reduce means to cut down on the purchase and use of materials.
Manufacturers can reduce the amount of waste to be discarded by using less packaging material.
Individuals can also reduce waste by using electronic mail (e-mail) rather than paper mail and
carrying shopping bags to the supermarket so that plastic bags are not taken.
Reuse means to use again for the same or for a different purpose.
Items that can be reused include glass bottles, clothing, old tyres and old newspapers.
Recycling involves the separation and reprocessing of a resource into new products.
Materials that can be recycled include paper, glass, metals and some plastics. Paper can be repulped
and reused to make new paper, glass and metal can be melted and recast, and some plastics can
be melted and reformed to make plastic wood, fibres for clothing and other useful materials.
Composting recycles organic material into fertilisers.
The Three Rs have several advantages:
• They allow materials and energy resources to last longer, as they reduce the need for new products
to be made.
• They reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of in landfills and by incineration.
• They reduce the amount of pollution that would result from manufacturing and waste disposal
measures.
One disadvantage of The Three Rs to consumers is that they must spend additional time separating
waste into the different categories for disposal or recycling.

158 17 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

Biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste
Waste can be classified as biodegradable and non-biodegardable:
• Biodegradable waste is waste that can be broken down by microorganisms into harmless materials
that can be recycled into the environment, e.g. food waste, paper, garden and farmyard waste, and
a few plastics.
• Non-biodegradable waste is waste that cannot be broken down by microorganisms, so it remains in
the environment, e.g. most plastics, rubber, metal and glass.
Revision questions
1 Name THREE components of sewage.
2 Distinguish between proper and improper sewage disposal practices.
3 Discuss THREE impacts of improper sewage disposal practices.
4 Identify ONE similarity and ONE difference between the biological filter and
activated sludge methods of sewage treatment.
5 Outline the function of EACH of the following parts of a pit latrine:
a ventilation pipe b lid c cement lining
6 Your neighbour is planning to construct a pit latrine in her yard. Explain to her some
factors to consider when siting and constructing the pit latrine.
7 Discuss TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of the use of pit latrines in
the Caribbean.
8 Identify THREE methods of disposal of domestic refuse.
9 Describe a landfill and the operations that take place there.
100 Discuss THREE impacts of solid waste on the environment.
11 Define EACH of the following terms, as it relates to waste management:
a reduce b reuse c recycle
122 Distinguish between the terms biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials,
giving TWO examples of EACH.

17 The treatment and disposal of human waste 159