Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing - 2010 - Kitchen - Integrated Marketing Communication
Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing - 2010 - Kitchen - Integrated Marketing Communication
Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing - 2010 - Kitchen - Integrated Marketing Communication
Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing, edited by Jagdish N. Sheth and Naresh K. Malhotra.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 integrated marketing communication
et al., 2004a; Schultz, 1996b). Thus, corporate and, therefore, new concepts were added to the
and brand managers need to coordinate the earlier definitions of IMC.
actions of their global and even national Contrary to the implication of many of these
brand(s) with the aim of integrating elements of ‘‘buzz words,’’ IMC does not mean that an orga-
promotional mix. nization should only work with one message or
A global marketplace which becomes more with a single unifying brand. Rather, an inte-
transitory through the Internet may lead to grated approach encourages managers to work
a customer-driven and focused marketing with multiple targets and enables them to achieve
environment. In such an environment, tech- integration of different brands, communication
nology can enhance marketing communication messages, and functions within one company.
strategies, that is, both traditional advertising Thus, IMC has the potential to fundamentally
techniques and also new, unconventional change the meaning of marketing communica-
marketing practices may be applied, such as tions and may even be the next step in the
database marketing, one-to-one communication, evolution of marketing (Dewhirst and Davis,
or marketing PR (McGrath, 2005a; Edelman, 2005; Kliatchko, 2005; Grove, Carlson, and
2004; Gonring, 1994; Nowak and Phelps, 1994). Dorsch, 2002; Lee, 2002; Phelps and Johnson,
The social networking website MySpace, for 1996).
example, has more than 17 million visitors each As in an early definition by Caywood, Schultz,
month in the United States. Marketing commu- and Wang (1991b) (see below), for many prac-
nication innovators propose the exploitation of titioners and researchers, IMC is a concept
such networks as a means of establishing an which strengthens the effects of promotional mix
ongoing dialogue with customers and prospects elements at the tactical level, if these elements
(Economist, 2006a). In conclusion, not only are united (Schultz, 2006a; Cook, 2004; Naik
can technology help consumers to connect and and Raman, 2003; Fill, 2001; Cornelissen and
communicate with each other but it can also act Lock, 2000).
as a facilitator in establishing a relationship with
individual consumers and companies. [IMC is a] concept of marketing communications
Owing to disagreements about the emergence planning that recognizes the added value of a
of IMC and the limited amount of research comprehensive plan that evaluates the strategic
conducted with actual organizations, researchers roles of a variety of communication disciplines –
have thus far been unable to agree upon a single general advertising, direct response, sales promo-
tion, and public relations – and combines these
definition of IMC. Kliatchko (2005), though,
disciplines to provide clarity, consistency, and
has examined the various definitions of IMC maximum communication impact (Caywood,
that have emerged over time and tried to explore Schultz, and Wang, 1991b: 2-3).
their dimensions in the hope of unifying them.
Table 1 is based on Kliatchko’s (2005: 21) table However, more recent definitions, such as the
of IMC definitions. So, his own definition and one presented by Schultz (2004a), add substan-
another recent definition by Schultz (2004b) tial value to old definitions and to the term IMC
have also been added. more generally. The concept is now viewed as a
As demonstrated in Table 1, during the strategic instrument (Schultz, 2004b: 9).
early 1990s IMC was referred to as the one
sight, one sound or one voice or the seamless IMC is the concept and process of strategically
marketing communication approach (Beard, 1997; managing audience-focused, channel-centerd,
Nowak and Phelps, 1994; Duncan and Everett, and result-driven brand communication pro-
1993). However, the increasing interest in the grams over time (Kliatchko, 2005: 21).
subject of IMC led researchers to reevaluate
the concept and the ‘‘buzz words’’ were soon The new definition seems more appropriate
set aside (Grove, Carlson, and Dorsch, 2002; to the twenty-first century, as Schultz acknowl-
Lee, 2002; Fill, 2001; Hartley and Pickton, edges IMC’s importance as a business process
1999; Phelps and Johnson, 1996). These words and its value to both external and internal
only hinted at the many applications of IMC audiences. The definition provided by Schultz
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
integrated marketing communication 3
Table 1 IMC definitions.
Author and Year Concepts Introduced
Caywood, Schultz, and Wang (1991) and • Coordination and consistency of messages and
Caywood, Schultz, and Wang (1991b) communication channels (one sight, one sound)
• Use of a variety of communication disciplines to work
in synergy based on a comprehensive plan
• IMC as a concept
Schultz (1991) • Inclusion of consumers, prospects
• Behavioral responses
• Nurture relationship and customer loyalty
• IMC as a process
Duncan and Everett (1993) • Profitable relationships expanded audience scope from
customers to other stakeholders
Nowak and Phelps (1994) • Reinforced notions of consistency, coordination, and
behavioral response
Schultz and Schultz (1998) • Strategic business process
• Expanded notion of brand communication
• Measurability
• Specified the multiple markets more explicitly, inclu-
sive of external and internal audiences
Schultz (2004b) and American • Strategic business process
Marketing Association (2007) • Extensive brand communication
• Evaluation and measurement
• External and internal stakeholder groups
• Long-term brand value focus
Kliatchko (2005) • Process and concept
• Audience-focused
• Communication program
• Result-driven
(2004b) has also been used by the American ‘‘business process,’’ ‘‘evaluation,’’ and ‘‘measur-
Marketing Association to define integrated brand ability’’.
communication (American Marketing Associa- Many researchers have noted that it may not
tion, 2007). However, Kliatchko (2005) does be possible to agree upon a universal IMC defi-
not focus explicitly on individual stakeholder nition, given the various interpretations of IMC
groups but rather refers to them as ‘‘audiences.’’ and its different values in the academic and
In addition, his definition is not as explanatory in
commercial spheres (Kliatchko, 2005; Phelps
nature as Schultz’s (2004b), as he underplays the
results-driven characteristic of IMC and does and Johnson, 1996; Stewart, 1996). A critical
not explicitly mention the importance of the review of previous definitions of IMC and an
long-term brand value and short-term financial assessment of current IMC literature reveals
returns. As noted by Kliatchko (2005); Schultz’s that researchers were able to reduce any IMC
(2004b) definition supplements other IMC defi- definition to five crucial attributes (Kitchen
nitions through its employment of the terms et al., 2004a; Low, 2000):
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 integrated marketing communication
1. The communication effort should be direc- Communication between customer and man-
ted at consumers in order to affect behavior. ufacturer used to be linear or one-way, that is,
2. An outside-in approach should be utilized, from the marketer to the consumer (Schultz,
that is, start with the customer first when 1993c). But the customer of today has knowl-
developing a communication strategy. edge about the marketplace and has no need
3. A well-established relationship between the to wait for messages and information from
company and the customer is necessary. the organization. The customer of today makes
4. To deliver a message correctly all commu- informed decisions and will make demands and
nication activities should be included with influence advertisements or any other informa-
contact points integrated into the strategy. tion received. Marketers must respond to these
5. To create a competitive brand, coordination changes. The marketer needs to develop commu-
between the communication disciplines is nication plans with the consumer as the starting
needed. point, later working back toward the product or
service in order to design effective communi-
cation strategies. During the planning process,
A contemporary perspective of IMC. Owing to
information about the customers, their wants
the rising demand in various product categories
and needs, and other background knowledge
after World War II, the focus of marketers
must be obtained. In IMC taxonomy, this is
shifted to the product itself, making potential
known as an outside-in approach (Kitchen, 2005;
relationships with customers something of a
Schultz and Schultz, 2003; Hartley and Pickton,
side issue (Johnson and Schultz, 2004; Kitchen,
1999; Schultz, 1996b; Stewart, 1996; Schultz,
1999; Evans and Berman, 1987). During the
1993e, 1993c). An important outcome of an IMC
1950s, most organizations arranged their plans
approach is that all communication mix tools, at
in line with their products and not according
to customer wants and needs (Johnson and least on the company’s side, are integrated and
Schultz, 2004). Fuelled by dramatic changes in support each other, resulting in synergy effects.
the marketplace and communications, retailers Another major driving force behind IMC
and other intermediaries have since gained in is the demassification of markets. Many mass
importance (Rosenbloom, 2004; Low and Mohr, markets of the twentieth century have separated
1999; Schultz, 1996b). into diverse and smaller markets splintering
With competition increasing and with supply into more specific customer segments. As a
outstripping demand in most developed coun- result, individual consumers’ lifestyles, income
tries, a shift in power towards retailers and inter- classes, education, gender, and consumer
mediaries has occurred. For this reason, building actions characterize these new markets. The rich
a long-term relationship with customers should information flow from the Internet, broadcast
be important to any kind of business in today’s media, and the press make information available
marketplace. Indeed, owing to the direct contact to the consumer as never before, but research
that retailers have with the end-consumers of has discovered that most customers make their
manufactured goods, they should also know purchase decisions based on information of
them better. Indeed, a powerful relationship perceived value and not based only on the
exists between retailers, intermediaries, and information a company chooses to present to
manufacturers. (Reid, 2003; Low and Mohr, them. Therefore, the ability of a company to
1999; Schultz, 1996b). In an ideal world, the utilize an outside-in approach and to portray
relationship between retailer, intermediary, and a consistent image to prospects and existing
manufacturer would be interdependent, if not customer groups becomes a critical success
to say integrated, so that all parties could create factor in competitive and information-rich
customer-orientated communication messages, market places (Jin, 2003/2004; Fill, 2001;
and essentially so that the manufacturer could Gould, Lerman, and Grein, 1999; Pickton and
develop customer-specific products (Pickton Hartley, 1998; Herrington and Lollar, 1996;
and Broderick, 2005; Schultz and Schultz, 2003; Stewart, 1996; Schultz, Tannenbaum, and
Schultz, 1993c). Lauterborn, 1993).
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
integrated marketing communication 5
Benefits of IMC. IMC enables marketers to and Kitchen, 2004; Bill, 1993). Thus, different
combine all of their communications in order brand-customer contact points need to be
to plan and create a coherent and synergistic carefully maintained (McGrath, 2005b).
approach. An important benefit of IMC is that it IMC’s cost-effectiveness and its apparent
appreciates the significance to marketing strategy ability to deliver higher return on investment
and corporate branding of new communica- (ROI) has been underlined repeatedly in the
tion tools, such as direct marketing, Internet literature (Holm, 2006; Reid, 2005; Duncan
marketing, or different types of sales promotions and Mulhern, 2004; McGoon, 1998/1999).
(McGrath, 2005b; Pickton and Hartley, 1998; However, researchers have failed to explain
Drobis, 1997/1998). how and why these financial benefits might be
Central to the discussion of contact points achieved.
and message integration is the idea of incorpo- Furthermore, other traditional marketing
rating different communication disciplines into tools, such as the product life cycle, can be
one marketing communication campaign with considered in the different planning stages
the aim of achieving outcomes desirable to the of a product, but should not always be taken
company, for example, persuading customers to as a blueprint, because brands are harder
buy. As most organizations need to commu- to damage once customer loyalty has been
nicate with more than one target audience or achieved, for example, in the case of Apple
stakeholder group, any campaign should take or the smoothie brand Innocent (Kotler et al.,
the characteristics of both the product brand and 2005). However, this is not universal, as recent
the corporate brand into consideration (Gylling product withdrawals and/or brand reputation
and Lindberg-Repo, 2006; Phelps and Johnson, damages have indicated. For example, the link
1996; Nowak and Phelps, 1994). It is also neces- between child labor in developing countries
sary to blend every promotional mix element and global manufacturers, such as GAP,
together as they have greater influence within an Nike, or even Coca-Cola have at least shaken
IMC approach as combined forces. Therefore, consumer confidence, if not to say damaged
IMC can promote synergism internally among their reputations (Thomas, 2007; Johnson and
departments and, in turn, outside-in planning Colin, 2003). A long-term brand can only
can be achieved (Reid, Luxton, and Mavondo, be realized if it delivers an excellent pricing,
2005; Stammerjohan et al., 2005; Eagle and distribution, and value strategy – IMC helps
Kitchen, 2000; Phelps and Johnson, 1996). in better realizing these goals (Pickton and
Most managers perceive IMC as a process Broderick, 2005; Cornelissen, 2001; Schultz,
which encourages message integration and 1997b; Miller and Rose, 1994). IMC is valuable
consistency, thus facilitating the interpretation in that it can better inform, influence, motivate,
of information for customers. Faced with an and enlighten consumers about new and existing
IMC approach, the customer will understand products because of its integrative nature and
the different information and will not be its strategic long-term focus on the actual brand
confused by the vast amount of it from all (Keller, 2001).
contact points (McGrath, 2005b; Stewart, 1996; Notably, management levels within various
Duncan and Everett, 1993). However, if compa- companies have often misinterpreted IMC, that
nies disregard IMC and different messages is, as a reason to cut back on the number of
are not delivered in unison, it may lead to an company employees or to decrease the marketing
incoherent brand image, which can negatively budget (Low and Mohr, 1999; Schultz, 1995a).
influence consumer buying and recall behavior Moreover, decreasing marketing budgets,
(McGrath, 2005b; Stammerjohan et al., 2005; growing complexity in client-organizations,
Stewart, 1996; Schultz, 1993e). The combined and the decreasing number of employees in
consideration of product contact points and the organizations are conditions favorable to IMC
consumer increases the company’s awareness, (Pickton and Broderick, 2005; Low and Mohr,
and creates a positive relationship between 1999). But, if a company invests in establishing
the customer or prospect and the company an IMC approach and, for example, employs a
(Gylling and Lindberg-Repo, 2006; Schultz ‘‘communication czar’’ as suggested by Schultz
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
6 integrated marketing communication
(1991), the brands’ reputation can be further due to fears that the manufacturer may use the
strengthened and loyalty among stakeholder information to go directly to the customer –
groups further increased. The IMC budget cutting retailers and other intermediaries out
should be introduced as a variable cost to the of the value chain (Markillie, 2006; Reid, 2003;
finance team. Seeing it as an investment will Schultz, 1996a). To avoid such complications
help in understanding that if more funds are between different retailers, manufacturers, and
allocated to the IMC budget the outcome for the distributors, Schultz (1996a) suggested the
company will be greater (Reid, 2003; Low, 2000; implementation of one database where input
Schultz, 1995a; Duncan and Everett, 1993). and output access is granted to all parties. An
IMC benefits can be summarized as follows IMC approach implies that a database should
(McGrath, 2005a; Reid, 2003; Pickton and not be seen as only a storage capacity for names
Hartley, 1998): and addresses of customers. The advantages of a
customer database include (Nowak and Phelps,
• an IMC approach aligns short- and long- 1994):
term marketing in order to avoid conflicts
within an organization; • going beyond the demographics toward the
• it is a sound and clear approach; psychographics of customers;
• all target audiences are considered; • understanding who the most loyal and prof-
• individual and one-to-one communication is itable customers are;
encouraged; • understanding consumer attitudes, buying
• synergy and recall increase; habits, and behavior;
• results in financial benefits. • gaining more loyalty from customers.
Although research into IMC has discovered A database can help in detecting customer
various benefits, their basis in reality, that is, preferences in relation to media channels, usage,
how researchers have arrived at them, should be and times. A healthy brand relationship with
questioned. These benefits were either derived customers can be achieved through the use of
from quantitative studies (Eagle, Kitchen, and not one promotional tool but many – such as PR
Bulmer, 2006; Kim, Han, and Schultz, 2004; campaigns, TV commercials, and magazines –
Kallmeyer and Abratt, 2001) which left little in order to transmit the message (McGrath,
room for an actual investigation of why these 2005b). Multiple communication tools are not
benefits have occurred, or they were the direct important for brand relationships alone.
result of researchers credulousness when faced On the contrary, the greater utilization of
with marketers’ positive perceptions of IMC. marketing communication tools within an IMC
Most IMC research has concentrated on the approach can lead to a better overall outcome
opinions of advertising executives or clients. and may also deliver a more holistic picture
However, there has been little research directly (Smith, Gopalakrishna, and Chatterjee, 2006;
focused on IMC benefits (Reid, 2005; Phelps Reid, 2003; Naik and Raman, 2003; Low, 2000;
and Johnson, 1996). Phelps and Johnson, 1996; Schultz, 1996b).
Consequently, advertising alone should not
THE IMPACT OF PROMOTIONAL MIX be made responsible for building the brand
because the brand is an asset which belongs
ELEMENTS ON IMC
to the whole organization (Eagle, Kithen, and
To develop customer-orientated messages, the Bulmer, 2006; McGrath, 2005b; Edelman, 2004;
manufacturing company should realize the Schultz, 2004a; Drobis, 1997/1998; Hutton,
importance of the information held by retailers 1996; Gonring, 1994; Nowak and Phelps, 1994).
and other intermediaries about customer wants Nonetheless, it is important for the marketer
and needs. One obstacle here is retailers’ within the company and advertising agency to
long-standing apprehension about ceding recognize the need to involve more than one
control to manufacturers, an attitude which has promotional tool to reach different consumer
seen retailers guarding essential customer data groups (Economist, 2007b; Keller, 2001;
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
integrated marketing communication 7
Nowak and Phelps, 1994). Ultimately, the between product brands (Reid, Luxton, and
decision-making process is controlled by Mavondo, 2005; Davison, Bulmer, and Eagle,
the senior management and, as such, their 2005; Duncan, 2005; Gould, Lerman, and Grein,
power and involvement are essential for the 1999; Novelli, 1989/1990).
development of IMC throughout the company The next sections explore possible IMC
(Reid, 2005; Pickton and Hartley, 1998). It is implementation models (Pickton and Broderick,
vital that marketers and the senior management 2005; Fill, 2002; Schultz and Kitchen, 2000a).
of a company realize that an advertising agency Their advantages and disadvantages are
alone will not be able to implement an IMC reviewed. Also reasons for embracing the
program because of their limited perspective Kitchen and Schultz (2001) model in this article
and possible lack of experience with regard to are explained. The final section concentrates
coordinating and integrating all communication on consumer segmentation in relation to IMC,
disciplines. Thus, the involvement of the top strategic planning aspects of IMC, and the kind
management must be seen as a necessity. of research that should be carried out in order
Therefore, the marketers of the twenty-first for a company to act consumer-driven.
century should utilize an IMC program which
goes beyond the usual marketing concepts, such The establishment of IMC – Fill. Fill (2002)
as the 4Ps, trying, in addition, to generate views IMC as a change of mind-set which has to
new ways of creating customer segments via be first embraced by marketers. He also points
a database (Johnson and Schultz, 2004; Schultz out that certain barriers exist and hence steps
and Schultz, 2003; Hutton, 1996). The informed have to be taken to overcome such barriers.
customer of the twenty-first century will have As such, the first step in an IMC approach
extensive knowledge about the product cate- is to focus on the promotional activities – the
gory, the product per se, or even the company in marketer needs to ensure that consistency and
general. A firm can turn the customer’s search a thematic harmonization takes place among the
for knowledge into a competitive advantage by promotional tools employed by the company (see
engaging in an interactive dialogue with the the first box in Figure 1).
customer, for example, through direct marketing Next, the functional coordination needs to be
or Internet chat forums. This may then flourish looked after. The different parts of the organiza-
into a long-term relationship in which different tion, such as human resources, finance, corporate
promotional tools can be employed to reach indi- communications, and so on, have to be intro-
vidual consumer groups (Cook, 2004; Johnson duced to the idea of ‘‘internal marketing relation-
and Schultz, 2004; Schultz, 1995b; Nowak and ships’’ in order to implement an IMC approach
Phelps, 1994). throughout the company (see the second box in
Figure 1). Hence, an IMC approach requires a
cultural shift of values and beliefs, which have to
IMC IMPLEMENTATION AND APPLICATION
come from within the organization in order for
As most IMC research has been conducted with all employees to act consumer-orientated and
regard to advertising agencies, little is known -driven (see the third box in Figure 1). Only
about actual IMC application within client firms. then can an IMC approach be fully embraced
However, it is believed that only a few orga- (see fourth box in Figure 1).
nizations have reached ‘‘complete’’ integration This model is easy to understand and also
(Kitchen and Li, 2005; Kitchen and Schultz, resembles certain stages of the model. However,
2003; McGoon, 1998/1999). In order to draw owing to its simplicity, it lacks significant detail
benefits from an IMC approach, it is imperative and explanation. It seems difficult to overcome
that the whole organization, that is, across func- the problem of positioning companies at their
tions and subsidiaries, understands how IMC individual stages in this particular model.
works and how IMC plans can be put into Furthermore, this model did not originate
action. If this is not the case, the integration will from actual empirical research, but rather from
undergo difficulties, which will in effect weaken the critical review of current IMC literature
both the corporate brand and the relationship conducted by Fill (2002).
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 integrated marketing communication
Promotional
coordination
Functional
coordination
Cultural
shift
IMC
IMC rabostic model – Pickton and Broderick. In in order to understand if certain changes with
comparison to Fill’s model (2001); Pickton and regard to the marketing communication plan
Broderick’s (2005) model (see Figure 2) resulted need to be made (Pickton and Broderick, 2005).
from both a critical review of current IMC Although, this model is much more detailed
literature and empirical research (Hartley and than that of Fill (2002), it lacks significant
Pickton, 1999; Pickton and Hartley, 1998). contribution in relation to the stages of IMC
The first step to be taken, according to implementation. As such, the overarching
Pickton and Broderick’s (2005) model, is to aim of this model is to demonstrate how a
assess the company’s current position in the marketing communication campaign should be
market place. Thus, feedback from previous implemented, and not how an IMC approach
marketing communication campaigns and can be applied throughout an organization.
outcomes of marketing communication activ- In addition, not much is mentioned about
ities need to be evaluated in order to determine the sequence of the individual stages and
the companies’ target audience(s). The next step whether they are interchangeable. Owing to the
involves the budget allocation and the review of fact that this model only concentrates on the
available resources, followed by the setting of the implementation of marketing communication
company’s objectives and strategic plan. After campaigns, it does not show how IMC could be
determining the company’s aims, decisions used as an approach within an organization in
at the operational level have to be made. the long term.
Promotional tools need to be chosen as tactical
The four stages of IMC – Schultz and Kitc-
instruments, which will assist in implementing
hen. Research conducted by Kitchen and
the campaign. Lastly, the success of the new
Schultz (1999) focused on advertising agencies,
campaign needs to be monitored and evaluated
while best practice IMC cases were explored by
the American Productivity and Quality Center
(APQC) (APQC 2007) led by Schultz (Webb
Research & analysis et al., 2000; Hack et al., 1999; Schultz et al.,
Audiences 1999; Schultz and Schultz, 1998; Schultz,
Budget 1998). The findings of these studies enabled
Objectives
Strategy
a four-stage model (see Figure 3) in order to
Tactics understand the development process of an IMC
Implementation approach within client organizations.
Control As demonstrated in Figure 3, and also by
Fill (2002), the first step toward becoming
Figure 2 IMC RABOSTIC model. (Source: Pickton integrated is to coordinate IMC at the tactical
and Broderick 2005: 14). level. The aim is to generate harmony among the
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
integrated marketing communication 9
various communication tools and the product. a customer-centric approach is being stressed
This is also known as the one sight, one sound (Kitchen and Schultz, 2001).
approach. The primary focus is on the external The third step is to utilize the increasing
communication of the brand. Most important, information flow about customer behavior, atti-
however, is that even in the first stage the IMC tudes, and transactional data via a database, that
approach should be led by the company and is, customer data is turned into customer knowl-
not the agency. This is the ‘‘lowest amount’’ edge. Accordingly, the database should provide
of integration a company should acquire, as it information about the customers, for example,
focuses on the tactical implementation of IMC. how often they buy from the company or when
The difference between strategy and tactics is they started buying. New technologies should
that the strategy shows which objectives the also be used in order to increase the informa-
company wants to accomplish while tactics relate tion flow between employees, distributors, and
suppliers. These technologies may then help in
to how these objectives can be realized (Pickton
executing messages at the right time and place
and Broderick, 2005). If the communication
(Kitchen and Schultz, 2001).
between marketing communication functions,
Finally, the fourth stage is to deploy IMC
for example, sales, direct marketing, PR, and
at the strategic level. This involves marketing
other departments (e.g., operation) fails, the and finance working together for the business
customer might not understand the intended to become fully customer-centric as a means of
message from the company and may even generating measurable and behavioral ROI. A
perceive the company as a disappointment. successful IMC approach needs to take into
However, at this level there is no mention of a consideration the corporate goals instead of
customer-orientated approach. simply serving tactical product brand objectives
The second level expands to a redefinition (Fitzpatrick, 2005; Schultz and Schultz, 2003;
of communications, that is, all communication Schultz, 1997a; Gonring, 1994).
contact points that a customer or prospect can Result from previous research studies with
have with the company should be considered. advertising agencies (Kallmeyer and Abratt,
Behavioral data should also be attained in order to 2001; Kitchen and Schultz, 1999; Schultz,
understand customers, which is the first time that 1997d; Miller and Rose, 1994; Caywood,
Figure 3 IMC – a four stage model. (Source: Kitchen and Schultz 2001: 108).
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 integrated marketing communication
Schultz, and Wang, 1991b) shows that client function, a company will most likely not
companies may not always have the resources progress through the four stages. If its strategic
to implement an IMC approach at all four significance is realized, IMC can augment
stages. This leads them to avoid delegating all the corporate and product brand’s image and
control to a single agency, thus dividing power improve relationship management between
and responsibility among different promotional various stakeholder groups and the company
agencies. As such, during the late twentieth (Gylling and Lindberg-Repo, 2006; Pickton
century, an emerging trend was reflected and Broderick, 2005). It also helps to create a
in the advertising agency environment with consistent marketing communication approach
agencies forced to broaden their employees’ focusing on the long-term brand value of both
skill sets to include a much greater variety of corporate and product brand, which should
marketing communications skills. The aim here lead to significant synergy effects. IMC, as
was to attract clients desirous of a ‘‘one-stop a strategic business process, should therefore
shopping’’ experience whereby agencies show be implemented and applied throughout the
a commitment to an IMC approach (Novelli, organization. This view has been expressed
1989/1990). repeatedly by these authors (Kitchen, 2005;
Most organizations in the early twenty-first Kitchen and Li, 2005; Kitchen et al., 2004a;
century appear to be in stage one or two because Schultz and Schultz, 2003; Kitchen and Schultz,
they have yet to realize a change toward the 2001; 1999; Hack et al., 1999; Schultz and
kind of consumer-focused communication Schultz, 1998).
which requires close collaboration between, After critically evaluating this model, certain
as a minimum, the marketing, research, and points ought to be questioned. The first stage,
finance departments (stage four) (Kitchen the same as Fill’s (2002) model, primarily focuses
et al., 2004a; Schultz, 2004c). However, it on the coordination of promotional tools in order
should be questioned if integration among these to create a consistent marketing communication
departments is deemed to be desirable. As such, approach. However, at this stage why should
why have firms not realized this change? It may the company not include customer research
be that owing to the success of some companies, data in order to create tailored messages for
the senior management does not see it as a specific target groups? Furthermore, the next
necessity to change current company practices. three stages principally focus on the actions of the
Furthermore, it may also be possible that internal departments. In Kitchen and Schultz’s
companies want to implement change but owing (2001) model technologies, customer research
to certain reasons, for example, financial, struc- evaluation and the coordination between agen-
tural or legal, the proposed change is impossible cies and the finance department are focused
to implement. Hence, additional research is on, whereas in Fill’s (2002) model the func-
required to understand how and to what extent tional coordination and internal cultural shift are
IMC approaches have been implemented by emphasized. At this point, there is no mention
businesses and what kind of role agencies play as of the relationship the customer has with the
seen through the ‘‘eyes’’ of their clients. company, be it short-term or long-term.
In addition, financial investments for What is questionable about all three models is,
consumer research and new technologies are why have the models never been adopted by any
needed to advance through all four stages other researchers other than those who created
(Kitchen and Li, 2005; McGoon, 1998/1999). them? Although the Kitchen and Schultz (2001)
However, an underlying cause may also be model originated from actual empirical research,
that even though marketers and researchers it has never been tested or verified with different
have recognized the importance of IMC organizations through a wide range of industries.
(Schultz, 2006b; Schultz, 2004c) and the need Thus, it is not known if this particular model is
to focus on long-term relationship building with applicable to B2B and B2C industries. However,
customers, this view has yet to be supported the possibility exists that because B2B companies
by the senior management. As long as IMC very often have less customer numbers than B2C
is perceived as a mere sales-boosting, tactical companies, these firms may use a much more
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
integrated marketing communication 11
consumer-driven approach where databases are an IMC approach. Their findings correspond
utilized on a day-to-day basis (Wilson, 2006; with the stages outlined by Kitchen and Schultz
Laiderman, 2005). Hence, the model should be (2001):
‘‘tested’’ within actual companies in order to see,
first of all, if it is applicable, and, if so, at which • conduct market research with the aim to
stage different companies find themselves to better understand the customers;
be in. • understand the perspectives, motivations,
Despite such criticisms, the Kitchen and and behavior of each individual customer;
Schultz (2001) model, in comparison to the • focus on the customer and not product lines;
other two models, is the only model which • require responsibility from the chief
resulted from empirical research and focuses customer officer/chief executive officer to
solely on the implementation of IMCs, and not maximize customer value.
on mere marketing communications campaigns.
Although Fill’s (2002) model explains the The four stage model (see Figure 3) reveals
different developmental stages, they appear that an IMC plan should derive from the contact
similar to the one developed by Kitchen points each company has with its customers.
and Schultz (2001), only with less detail and Typically, tracking studies are used to measure
explanation. Furthermore, Fill’s model (2002) all the contacts a customer has on a daily basis, for
does not depict the importance of measurement example, different media channels with a partic-
in an IMC approach, which is seen as a vital ular firm. This should give the company a general
component of such an approach (Alvarez, overview of who sees what kind of advertise-
Raeside, and Jones, 2006; Reid, 2005; Kitchen ments in the course of a given day. The marketer
et al., 2004a; Eagle and Kitchen, 2000). should then be able to divide the ‘‘mass’’ into
In summary, the previous sections have paid segments. These segments of consumers can
close attention to three different models (Pickton then be presented with targeted messages. This
and Broderick, 2005; Fill, 2001; Kitchen and can be achieved with the help of sales repre-
Schultz, 2001). A significant problem is that none sentatives’ knowledge as well as through the
of these models have been tested or validated in utilization of a fully functional database.
any form. In addition, none of these models Recently, however, the climate of changing
have fostered an understanding of how IMC demographics and sociographics and rapidly
could be applied within companies. Albeit only expanding media choices have meant that tradi-
partially, at least, the proposed model by Kitchen tional forms of segmentation, which have usually
and Schultz (2001) tries to give some detail on been based on consumer demographics, have
how to implement IMC within companies. The been called into question. As a result, IMC
other two models are lacking in explanations researchers have identified the need for more
and detail, and appear at this point of time, sophisticated, behavior-orientated segmentation
too simplistic to be adopted as models for the guidelines (Reid, 2005; Rogerson, 2005; Duncan
empirical investigation of this thesis. Part of this and Mulhern, 2004; Yarbrough, 1996).
thesis’ empirical phase will be allocated to both After grouping the customers into segments,
reviewing the model proposed by Kitchen and promotional activities should be integrated
Schultz (2001) and by analyzing feedback from such that they work according to the overall
respondents and also locating specific companies strategic IMC plan in order to accomplish the
within the model. set marketing communication objectives. It
must not be overlooked that communication
between customers and organization should
Strategic IMC Planning
be a two-way process, that is, a dialogue or
Johnson and Schulz (2004) have given some an exchange of information (Schultz, 2007;
advice on how to overcome the aforementioned Smith, Gopalakrishna, and Chatterjee, 2006;
problems faced by organizations and agencies, Schultz, Tannenbaum, and Lauterborn, 1993).
and how to become a successful twenty-first Each communication constituent may have
century company through the application of specific aims but the end result should be
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
12 integrated marketing communication
an integrated approach to the company’s measure IMC in advertisements at the tactical
marketing communication activities (Pickton level over a 20-year time period.
and Broderick, 2005). Figure 4 thus demonstrates how companies
After the objectives have (or have not) been can become more consumer-driven and provides
realized, tests should be carried out in order to examples of what activities can be used to
understand what has occurred in terms of the create an integrated communication mix at the
awareness, attitude, and behavior of customers. tactical advertising and strategic communication
From such tests, areas for improvement can be campaign level. Figure 4 aims to facilitate
identified. However, if the customers’ behavior the implementation of an IMC approach in
or attitude did not positively change toward the which individual steps show the reach of IMC
brand despite the implementation of an IMC implementation within a company. However,
approach, the organization should review its as shown in the previous sections, very little
communication activities, such as its promo- is known about IMC implementation or the
tional tools, and examine its existing consumer strategic and tactical utilization of multiple
groups. Thus, market research can again help communication tools.
in discovering and correcting errors (Duncan In addition, although the literature on global,
and Mulhern, 2004; Johnson and Schultz, 2004; local, or ‘‘glocal’’ advertising strategies is vast,
Caywood, Schultz, and Wang, 1991b). consensus with regard to the ideal option of an
Nowak and Phelps (1994) developed a model advertising campaign has never been reached
(see Figure 4) which provides guidance for the (Wells, Burnett, and Moriarty, 2003; Kitchen
correct employment of IMC at the strategic and and Eagle, 2002; Gould, Lerman, and Grein,
tactical level. The authors have divided the aims 1999; Sriram and Gopalakrishna, 1991; Levitt,
of IMC into image and behavior orientation, 1983). Thus, it is not known if an IMC approach
whereas the center of the communication setting should be adopted at a global level or if respective
is represented by an accurate and up-to-date countries can still implement and apply their own
database which involves the market, message, IMC approach. As such, this research addresses
and media strategy at the strategic and tactical the above discussed issues in the empirical phase.
level. The next section aims to provide an overview
The model depicts changes in image perce- of IMC research by reviewing some of the most
ption and consumer behavior following a profound studies in the field.
company’s adoption of the IMC concept.
Although advertising researchers have long BARRIERS TO IMC
recognized the merits and shortcomings of indi-
vidual promotional tools, researchers (Nowak Following up on past IMC studies, researchers
and Phelps, 1994) propose that when different were able to identify perceived barriers to IMC
promotional activities are used in an integrated implementation and application. The following
manner, IMC can take place at the communica- points represent a summary of the most
tion campaign (strategic level) and advertising important barriers to integration. These barriers
(tactical) level. IMC, as shown in Figure 4, are discussed in the subsequent paragraphs
also encourages the employment of multiple (highlighted in italic) (Ratnatunga and Ewing,
messages within one campaign or advertisement 2005; Kitchen et al., 2004a; Swain, 2004; Eagle
in order to reach various target audiences and Kitchen, 2000; Hartley and Pickton, 1999;
(Schultz, 2007; Calder and Malthouse, 2005; Pickton and Hartley, 1998; Bruhn, 1997/1998;
Schultz, Tannenbaum, and Lauterborn, 1993) – Gonring, 1994; Duncan and Everett, 1993;
this is also known in the early IMC literature as Schultz, Tannenbaum, and Lauterborn, 1993):
the one voice approach (Nowak and Phelps, 1994).
The significance of this model (Figure 4) in • power, coordination, and control issues;
the IMC literature is apparent in its durability, • client skills, centralization, and cultural
having been adopted by researchers more than a issues;
decade after its emergence. For example, Grove, • agency skills and general time/resource
Carlson, and Dorsch (2007) have used it to issues;
10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem04001, Wiley Online Library on [11/04/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
integrated marketing communication 13
Integrated
advertisements
Marketing databases
Consumer Direct
Public Brand Market Message Media sales responce
relations advertising strategy & strategy & strategy & promotion advertising
tactics tactics tactics
(Image oriented) (Behavior
oriented)
Coordinated marketing
communications
campaigns
Figure 4 The integrated communications setting. (Source: Nowak and Phelps 1994: 57).