Electrical Engineering

Embedded Systems
For Engineers & Students

Sadia Adrees
Sheikh Muhammad Ibraheem
Copyright © 2023 by Sheikh Muhammad Ibraheem

All Rights are Reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
or otherwise, without prior written permission of the author.
Independently published.

First Printing Edition, 2023

Published: May 04, 2023

Paperback ISBN: 978 969 23863 0 2

Hardcover ISBN: 9798393323820
 Books Written By
Sheikh Muhammad Ibraheem

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Golden Rules of Writing How to Become a Self-Published
Author
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DC Machines Brush Shifting Commutation Solutions
 Table of Contents

Authors Biography ........................................................ xiv

Sheikh Muhammad Ibraheem ................................... xiv
Sadia Adrees ............................................................. xiv

Preface .......................................................................... xvi

Note for Students .......................................................... xix
Part 01. Introduction to Embedded Systems .... 1

Chapter 1.............................................................................. 2

Circuits & Electronics ...................................................... 2

1.1 Introduction...................................................... 2
1.2 Electrical Circuits ............................................ 3
1.3 Concept of Voltage and Current ...................... 4
1.4 Electric Power .................................................. 6
1.5 Power Sources.................................................. 8

Chapter 2............................................................................ 10

Embedded Systems Engineering.................................... 10

2.1 Introduction to Embedded Systems ............... 10
2.2 Use of Embedded Systems............................. 11
2.3 History of Embedded Systems ....................... 12
2.4 Embedded Systems Characteristics ............... 14
2.5 Embedded Systems Characteristics ............... 15

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2.6 Soil Moisturizer Practical Example ................ 15

2.7 Embedded System Software ........................... 17
2.8 Advantages of Embedded Systems ................ 18
2.9 Embedded Systems Engineering .................... 19

Chapter 3 ............................................................................ 22

Embedded Systems Hardware and Software .................. 22

3.1 Introduction .................................................... 22
3.2 Hardware of Embedded Systems.................... 22
3.3 Digital and Analog Ports ................................ 24
3.4 Sensors and Actuators .................................... 24
3.5 The role of software in Embedded Systems ... 27
3.6 Embedded Systems Software Development ... 29
3.7 Embedded Operating Systems ........................ 30
3.8 Programming languages for Embedded Systems
31

Chapter 4 ............................................................................ 33

Interfacing Techniques in Embedded Systems ............... 33

4.1 Introduction .................................................... 33
4.2 Serial Communication .................................... 34
4.3 Parallel Communication ................................. 37
4.4 Wireless Communication ............................... 39
4.5 Hardware and Software Interfacing ................ 42

Part 02. Sensors, Actuators, and Controllers ... 44

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Chapter 5............................................................................ 45

Microcontrollers and Microprocessors .......................... 45

5.1 Introduction.................................................... 45
5.2 Microcontroller Architecture ......................... 46
5.3 Microcontroller History & Invention ............. 47
5.4 Microcontroller Types ................................... 49
5.5 Microcontrollers Working ............................. 51
5.6 Microcontroller and Microprocessors ............ 52
5.7 Advantages of Microcontrollers .................... 53
5.8 Microcontroller Companies ........................... 55
5.9 At mega 328 Processor .................................. 56
5.10 ARM Cortex M7 Processor ........................... 57
5.11 ARM Cortex M4 Processor ........................... 58
5.12 ATmega32u4 Processor ................................. 59

Chapter 6............................................................................ 61

Microcontroller Manufacturers .................................... 61

6.1 At mega 328 Processor .................................. 61
6.2 Microchip Technology Inc............................. 61
6.3 Microchip Microcontrollers ........................... 62
6.4 Texas Instruments .......................................... 63
6.5 MSP430 Microcontroller Series .................... 65
6.6 ST Microcontrollers ....................................... 66
6.7 Arduino Microcontrollers .............................. 67
6.8 History of Arduino ......................................... 68
6.9 Arduino Hardware and Software ................... 69

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Chapter 7 ............................................................................ 71

Arduino UNO R3 ........................................................... 71

7.1 Introduction to Arduino UNO R3................... 71
7.2 Components of Arduino UNO R3 .................. 72
7.3 Pinout Configuration of UNOR3.................... 75
7.4 Features of Arduino UNO R3......................... 77

Chapter 8 ............................................................................ 79

Arduino Nano ................................................................. 79

8.1 Introduction to Arduino Nano ........................ 79
8.2 Components of Arduino Nano........................ 80
8.3 Pinout Configuration of Nano ........................ 81
8.4 Features of Arduino Nano .............................. 86

Chapter 9 ............................................................................ 88

Arduino Leonardo .......................................................... 88

9.1 Introduction .................................................... 88
9.2 Components of Arduino Leonardo ................. 89
9.3 Connecting with Keyboard and Mouse .......... 92
9.4 Leonardo Pinout Configuration ...................... 93
9.5 Leonardo Advantages over other boards ........ 95

Chapter 10 .......................................................................... 98

Arduino Portenta Series .................................................. 98

10.1 An Industrial Microcontroller......................... 98

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10.2 Portenta Dual Core Processors....................... 99

10.3 Portenta Microcontroller Series ................... 101
10.4 Arduino Portenta H7 .................................... 103
10.5 Components of Portenta H7 ......................... 106
10.6 Pin Configuration of Portenta H7 ................ 107
10.7 Industrial Applications of Portenta H7 ........ 112
10.8 Expanding Capabilities of Portenta H7........ 114

Chapter 11........................................................................ 116

Raspberry Pie Series .................................................... 116

11.1 Introduction.................................................. 116
11.2 Industrial Microcontroller ............................ 117
11.3 Raspberry Pi Pico......................................... 117
11.4 Components of Raspberry Pi Pico ............... 120
11.5 Pin Configuration of Raspberry Pi Pico....... 122
11.6 Industrial Application Raspberry Pi Pico .... 125

Chapter 12........................................................................ 128

STM Microcontroller Series ........................................ 128

12.1 Introduction.................................................. 128
12.2 STM Microcontroller Series ........................ 129
12.3 STM32F407VG ........................................... 130
12.4 Components of STM32F407VG .................. 133
12.5 Pin Configuration of STM32F407VG ........ 135
12.6 Industrial Applications of STM32F407VG . 138

Chapter 13........................................................................ 140

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ESP Microcontroller Series .......................................... 140

13.1 Introduction .................................................. 140
13.2 ESP Series .................................................... 141
13.3 ESP8266 Microcontroller ............................. 142
13.4 Components of ESP8266.............................. 144
13.5 Pin Configuration of ESP8266 ..................... 145
13.6 Industrial Application of ESP8266 ............... 148

Chapter 14 ........................................................................ 150

Advance Sensors .......................................................... 150

14.1 Introduction .................................................. 150
14.2 Sensors.......................................................... 150
14.3 Working of Sensors ...................................... 151
14.4 Temperature Sensors .................................... 153
14.5 light Sensors ................................................. 157
14.6 Ultrasonic Sensors ........................................ 160
14.7 Infrared Sensors ............................................ 165
14.8 Accelerometer Sensors ................................. 168
14.9 Magnetometer ............................................... 172
14.10 Pressure Sensors ....................................... 175
14.11 Touch and Sound Sensors ........................ 179
14.12 Moisture and Water Level Sensors........... 183
14.13 Heart Rate Sensor ..................................... 188

Chapter 15 ........................................................................ 192

Advance Modules ......................................................... 192

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15.1 Introduction.................................................. 192

15.2 Modules ....................................................... 193
15.3 WIFI Module ............................................... 193
15.4 Bluetooth Module ........................................ 196
15.5 GPS Module................................................. 198
15.6 GSM Module ............................................... 200
15.6 Display Modules .............................................. 202
15.7 Motor Driver Modules ................................. 205

Part 03 Embedded C and C++ Programming . 207

Chapter 16........................................................................ 208

Introduction to Programming....................................... 208

16.1 Introduction.................................................. 208
16.2 History of Programming .............................. 209
16.3 Various Programming Languages................ 210
16.4 Frontend Programming ................................ 213
16.5 Backend Programming ................................ 214
16.6 Human and Machine Interaction .................. 216

Chapter 17........................................................................ 218

Embedded Programming ............................................. 218

17.1 Introduction.................................................. 218
17.2 Embedded C and C++ Programming ........... 219
17.3 History of Embedded Programming ............ 220
17.4 Advantages of Embedded Programming ..... 221
17.5 Writing First Embedded Program ................ 222

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Chapter 18 ........................................................................ 224

Syntax and Semantics of Embedded Programming ..... 224

18.1 Introduction .................................................. 224
18.2 Control structures & Decision making ......... 225
18.3 Data types in embedded C and C++ ............. 228
18.4 Variables in embedded C/C++ ..................... 238
18.5 Functions in Embedded C and C++.............. 239

Chapter 19 ........................................................................ 241

Basics of Embedded Programming .............................. 241

19.1 Input and Output Operations ........................ 241
19.2 Standard Input and Output (I/O) library
functions ................................................................... 244
19.3 Interfacing with Hardware Components for I/O
Operations ................................................................ 246
19.4 Interrupts and I/O Operations ....................... 250

Chapter 20 ........................................................................ 254

Advance Embedded Programming ............................... 254

20.1 Embedded programming for Microcontroller
254
20.2 Peripheral Interfacing with Embedded C ..... 256
20.3 Debugging Embedded C and C++ program . 259
20.4 Bit Manipulation and Bitwise Operators ...... 261
20.5 Using Macros and Preprocessor Directives .. 263
20.6 Memory Mapping and Optimization ............ 265
20.7 Timing and Delay Techniques...................... 267

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20.8 Programming for Real-Time Operating Systems

269
20.9 Interrupt Latency and Response Time ......... 272

Part 04 Embedded Systems Design Engineering

..................................................................................... 275

Chapter 21........................................................................ 276

Modern Design and Embedded Systems Engineering . 276

21.1 Introduction to Design Engineering ............. 276
21.2 Role of Technology in Modern Engineering 276
21.3 Creativity and Innovation ............................ 277
21.4 Sustainable Design Engineering .................. 278
21.5 Evolution of Embedded Systems Engineering
278
21.6 Challenges in Embedded Systems Designs . 279
21.7 Opportunities in Embedded Systems Designs
280

Chapter 22........................................................................ 281

Embedded Systems Design Techniques ...................... 281

22.1 Introduction.................................................. 281
22.2 Top Down and Bottom Up Techniques ....... 281
22.3 Modular Design Techniques ........................ 282
22.4 Design for Low Power Consumption .......... 284
22.5 Design for High Reliability and Safety ........ 287
22.6 Unit and Integration Testing ........................ 289
22.7 Static and Dynamic Analysis ....................... 290

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22.8 Real Time Embedded System ...................... 291

22.9 Real-time scheduling and operating systems 292

Chapter 23 ........................................................................ 294

Tools and Project Management .................................... 294

23.1 Introduction .................................................. 294
23.2 Modern Engineering Tools ........................... 294
23.3 Computer Circuit Simulations ...................... 295
23.4 Integrated Development Environment.......... 298
23.5 Computer Aided Drawings ........................... 300
23.6 Introduction to Project Management ............ 302
23.7 Project Time Management ........................... 305
23.8 Project Cost Management............................. 307

Chapter 24 ........................................................................ 311

Industrial and Future of Embedded Systems ................ 311

24.1 Industrial Automotive Industry .................... 311
24.2 Healthcare Industry ...................................... 313
24.3 Aerospace Industry ....................................... 315
24.4 Consumer Electronics Industry .................... 316
24.5 Emerging Trends in Embedded Systems ...... 318
24.6 New Applications in Embedded Systems ..... 320
24.7 Careers and Opportunities in Embedded
Systems .................................................................... 323

Appendix I ........................................................................ 326

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 Table of Contents

Glossary ....................................................................... 326

Appendix II ...................................................................... 330

References.................................................................... 330

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 Authors Biography

Sheikh Muhammad Ibraheem

(Born November 20, 2000) is a Pakistani Author and
Electrical Engineer. He received his BS in Electrical
Engineering from The University of Lahore (2023).

He has also received many certificates in Astrophysics,

Particle Physics, Electric Power System etc from some of the
most reputed universities across the world including the
Australian National University, Open University UK, The
State University of New York, The University of Edinburgh,
etc. Since 2022, he is writing technical articles for “The
Engineering Post” which is a national engineering magazine.

Since 2021 Ibraheem has self-published many books on

engineering and technology.

Ibraheem is enthusiastic about modern world technology and

currently researching in clean and renewable energy sources,
microgrids etc.

Sadia Adrees
(Born December 22, 2000) is a Pakistani writer instructor,
and software Engineer. She lives in Lahore Pakistan. She
started her education at “Moon star high school” and studied
there for 5 years then she went to “Laps school” because her
family migrated from one town to another in the same city.
For her matriculation degree, she went to “Al-Noorains High
School” and completed her degree in 2017 with a major in
biology, chemistry, physics, and Math. For higher secondary

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education she went to “Government Islamia College for

Women”, from 2017 to 2019 and completed her 2 years
education in ICS (Intermediate of Computer Science) with a
major in Computer, Physics, and Mathematics.

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Embedded systems for engineers and Students

Preface

The world is advancing rapidly. In just over two centuries’

humans have engineered many things and since last century
humans are gaining record breaking success in digital
electronics. Those days are gone where the priorities of
humans were only trade, agriculture, and working using old
customs and tools.

Nowadays people are trying to go to Mars, finding new ways

to counter climate change, and working on making a new
face of the world through artificial intelligence, internet of
things, advance computers, and robotics. In this era where
technology is rapidly evolving with the needs of mankind. It
is important to realize where we stand in those technological
contributions to our society.

Electrical engineering is one of the major technological fields

of science. This field is so big that in it many fields reside
like computer engineering, robotics engineering, software
engineering, power engineering. One of these fields is
embedded systems engineering.

Embedded systems are computer systems consisting of

combinations of hardware and software designed to find
solution of a specific problem. In this book you will learn the
advance embedded systems engineering, what these systems
are and how one can build such systems.

Embedded Systems For Engineers and Students is a

comprehensive textbook written to provide an in-depth
understanding of the principles and practical applications of

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embedded systems. The book begins with an introduction to

the basics of embedded systems, including the hardware and
software components, design methodologies, and
programming languages. It then delves into the different
types of microcontrollers and processors commonly used in
embedded systems, their architectures, and how to program
them using high-level programming languages such as C and
C++. The book also covers topics such as real-time operating
systems, interrupts, and event-driven programming. It
discusses the importance of software testing and debugging
techniques and introduces students to different debugging
tools and methods. It is a valuable resource for anyone
interested in learning about embedded systems. It provides a
comprehensive introduction to the principles and practical
applications of embedded systems, making it an ideal
textbook for students and a useful reference guide for
practicing engineers.

Book Portions:

1. Embedded Systems Introduction

2. Microcontrollers and Sensors
3. Embedded Programming
4. Embedded Systems Design

The highly complex processing capabilities found in modern

digital gadgets utilized in homes, cars, and wearables are
made up of embedded systems. This book will demonstrate
how to create circuits using various circuit components and
how to create programmable circuits with various
microcontrollers. The book takes you through the
fundamental concepts of embedded systems, including real-
time operation and the Internet of Things (IoT). In order to
create a high-performance embedded device, the book will
also assist you in becoming familiar with embedded system
design, circuit design, hardware fabrication, firmware

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Embedded systems for engineers and Students

development, and debugging. You’ll explore techniques such

as designing electronics circuits, use of modern embedded
system software, electronics circuits. By the end of the book,
you’ll be able to design and build your own complex digital
devices because you’ll have a firm grasp of the ideas
underpinning embedded systems, electronic circuits,
programmable circuits, microcontrollers, and processors.

After reading this book a reader will have a depth

understanding in embedded systems, microcontroller,
sensors, actuators, embedded programming. Will be able to
understand the modern embedded systems functionality and
will be able to design such complex engineering systems. A
reader will be able to do the following.

1. Understand the basics of embedded systems.

2. Learn the basic, intermediate, and advance
embedded programming.
3. Will be able to work with various microcontrollers
and sensors.
4. Will be able to design own embedded systems.

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 Ibraheem & Sadia

Note for Students

Unlike other books on embedded systems engineering. This

book is written in such a way that it will help you understand
in depth about embedded systems. Throughout this book you
will explore the latest and most employed microcontrollers,
sensors, actuators, and other software systems.

The knowledge is boundaryless and limitless so this book can

only serve a minor part in your quest for becoming a great
design engineer. In order to be a successful design engineer,
and engineer must always be passionate about learning and
practicing new technology.

This book will guide the reader about how he / she can design
various real time embedded systems using programming
techniques, understanding the working of various
microcontrollers, sensors and actuators.

Dear readers this book will not explain the basic knowledge
on embedded systems, this book will use the basic knowledge
on embedded systems, programming, devices and design
techniques to create a fully functional device.

In order to get most out of this book you are advised to read
this book thoroughly, must install various software on your
computer and must be motivate to do self - learning.

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Embedded systems for engineers and Students

xx
 Part 01.
Introduction to
Embedded Systems

1
Chapter 1
Circuits & Electronics

1.1 Introduction
One of the main areas of technology is electrical engineering.
Digital electronics and computer technology are increasingly
regarded as separate disciplines. This is partially accurate,
but ultimately, all of these fields belong to electrical
engineering. Power engineering, telecommunications,
networking, control engineering, embedded systems
engineering, programable circuits, etc. are all parts of the
extremely broad area of electrical engineering. The circuits
are a common feature throughout all the primary fields inside
a huge field. Each of the aforementioned fields contains an
electrical circuit, circuit components, and a relationship
between voltages and currents. One must grasp the ideas of
circuits in order to master computer engineering,
telecommunication, electronics, electricity, etc.

In this chapter. We will be explaining the electrical circuits

in depth. More importantly what is the behavior of electrical
circuits and how does changing circuit elements change the
output response.

2
1.2 Electrical Circuits
An electrical circuit is a channel that permits the flow of
electrical current. Circuit elements or circuit devices are the
components that make up an electrical circuit. The electrical
load and the power source are the two most fundamental
circuit components. The type of load can be capacitive,
inductive, or resistive.

“A circuit is a route over which an electrical current can

travel between two or more points.”

The circuit can be either an AC (Alternating Current) circuit

or it can be a DC (Direct Current) circuit in nature. Although
the terms DC and AC may be unclear to you, they are actually
rather simple. I provide two methods for remembering and
comprehending whether a circuit is AC or DC.

Figure 1.1: 5V Lamp Circuit

In figure 1.1 a simple 5v circuit is explained in which there

is a 5v DC power source or a 5v battery connected through
wires with a 5V bulb. The DC power source will supply
current to the bulb in a clockwise manner.

1. An AC circuit is a circuit that has some frequency

i.e. 50 Hz or 60 Hz. The general waveform of AC is

3
 sinusoidal in nature. Whereas DC circuit has no
frequency. It is just a straight line on the graph.

2. The energy produced at electric power plants is

always AC in nature. Electricity running in electric
poles next to your house is also an AC electricity.
Your wall outlet has an AC electricity. In homes, it
can be either 120Vs with 60Hz frequency or 220V
with 50Hz frequency. However, DC electricity is the
one you get from the battery. It can be a cell in your
toy car or the battery in a Tesla car.

Now I believe that you have understood the difference

between AC electricity and DC electricity.

1.3 Concept of Voltage and Current

Some of the hardest concepts in all of electrical engineering
to understand are voltage and current. People are aware of
what voltage and current are, but they frequently confuse the
two.

Voltage is the electric potential difference per unit charge

between two places in an electric field (also known as electric
potential difference, electromotive force emf, electric
pressure, or electric tension).

In a static, electric field is defined as the work needed per unit

of charge to move a test charge between the two points. Volt
is the name of the derived unit for voltage (potential
difference) in the International System of Units. Joules per
coulomb, or 1 volt equals 1 joule (of work) for 1 coulomb, is
how work per unit charge is stated in SI units (of charge).

4
 Potential Energy
Voltage = (1.1)
Charge
Joules
Volts = (1.2)
Coloums

In short voltage is the amount of energy used to move an

electric charge from one point to another point in an electric
filed. The Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827),
who created the voltaic pile, arguably the first chemical
battery, is honored by having his name attached to the volt.

“The electric potential difference per unit charge between

two points in an electric field is known as voltage”

A stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions,

travelling through an electrical conductor or a vacuum is
known as an electric current. The net rate of flow of electric
charge through a surface or into a control volume is used to
calculate it.

The passage of electric charge across a surface at a rate of

one coulomb per second is measured by the SI unit of electric
current, known as the ampere, or amp. A standard SI base
unit is the ampere (symbol: A). The ammeter is a tool used to
measure electric current.

“Rate of flow of electrons is known as electric current”

Similar to an equal flow of negative charges moving in the

opposite direction, a flow of positive charges produces the
same amount of electric current and has the same impact on
a circuit. A standard for the direction of current that is
independent of the type of charge carriers is required since
current might be the passage of either positive or negative
charges, or both. Conventional current is arbitrarily defined

5
as flowing in the same direction as positive charges.
Therefore, the direction of typical current flow in an
electrical circuit is reversed for negatively charged carriers
such as electrons (the charge carriers in metal wires and many
other components of electronic circuits).

1.4 Electric Power

Voltage and current alone are insufficient to characterize the
full electrical system. We require knowledge of the electrical
device's power consumption for more useful applications.
We are aware that devices with higher power ratings use
more energy while producing more output. Imagine we have
a 100W incandescent light bulb and a 60W incandescent
light bulb. The 100W bulb will be brighter than the 60W bulb
and hence will consume more energy.

“The rate at which electrical energy is carried over an

electric circuit is known as electric power.”

If electrical power is a very important part of a circuit the

question here is, how it interacts with the voltage and
current? We recall it from the concepts of physics. According
to the equation 1.3 the product of voltage and current
provides power.

Power = voltage X current (1.3)

A circuit's ability to transfer electrical energy is referred to as

its electric power. One joule per second, or one watt, is the
SI unit of power. Electric power or electricity can be
generated from a variety of sources, including electric
batteries, in addition to the traditional electric generators. The

6
electric power sector often provides it through an electrical
grid to homes and businesses (as domestic mains electricity).
Transmission lines provide for the efficient delivery of
electric power across great distances.

Power can be either absorbed or delivered by the system. If

power is absorbed by the system (load) then the power is
positive. If the power is supplied by the system (source) then
the power is negative.

When electric charges flow via an electric potential

difference (voltage), which takes place in electrical
components in electric circuits, electric power is changed
into different kinds of energy. Components in an electric
circuit can be separated into two groups from the perspective
of electric power.

Figure 1.2: (a) Negative Power (b) Positive Powre

Power Source: The charges will undergo work and energy

will be converted from another type of energy, such as
mechanical or chemical energy, to electric potential energy if
the charges are moved through the device by a "external
force" in the direction from the lower to the higher electric
potential (so positive charges move from the negative to the

7
positive terminal). Active devices or power sources, such as
electric generators and batteries, are those in which this
occurs.

Consumer Load Power: Electric charges transition from a

higher to a lower voltage when there is a potential difference.
The gadget converts the potential energy of the charges—
which is caused by the voltage between the terminals—into
kinetic energy. These items are referred to as passive
components or loads; they "consume" electrical power from
the circuit by transforming it into different types of energy
like mechanical work, heat, light, etc. Electric heaters,
motors, and lightbulbs are a few examples of electrical
appliances.

1.5 Power Sources

One of the most key parts components of every electrical or
integrated circuit is the power supply. Without a power
source a circuit can not be turned on and it will not be
operational. Generally, there two basic types of power
sources DC and AC.

In this book we are only going to discuss the DC power

source. This is because 90% of electronic circuits and
embedded systems are operated through DC voltages. The
DC power sources are divided in to current and voltage
sources which are further divided in to independent and
dependent power sources. A DC source is characterized by
(+ -) markings, with the (+) symbol designating the positive
polarity and red in color, also known as the hot or live
polarity, and the (-) sign designating the negative polarity,
also known as black or ground polarity. DC sources are often
batteries. A DC source has straight line graph in comparison
to the AC source which is sinusoidal in nature.

8
 Power
Source

DC AC

Voltage Current Voltage Current

Source Source Source Source

Figure 1.3: Types of Power Sources

Independent
DC Power

Voltage Source
Dependent

Independent
Current source
Dependent

Figure 1.4: Types of DC Power Source

9
Chapter 2
Embedded Systems
Engineering

2.1 Introduction to Embedded Systems

An embedded system is a computer system with a specific
purpose within a larger mechanical or electronic system. It
consists of a computer processor, computer memory, and
input/output peripherals.

“A specialized computer system called an embedded system

is created to carry out a particular task or collection of
duties.”

Microcontrollers, which are microprocessors with built-in

memory and peripheral interfaces, are the foundation of
many contemporary embedded systems, but regular
microprocessors, which use external chips for memory and
peripheral interface circuits, are also widely used, especially
in more complex systems

Given that the embedded system is dedicated to particular

functions, design engineers can optimise it to decrease the
product's size and cost while boosting its performance and
dependability. Embedded systems are sometimes mass-
produced in order to take advantage of economies of scale.

10
2.2 Use of Embedded Systems
Every idea, every vision or every discussion that a man has
ever done in his – her life or are doing right now has some
sort of hidden meaning to it. And that meaning could be
anything. Every idea has way to use it. Some of us on this
planet are successful in finding it, some fail and some are
hard working. But if you are successful in understanding the
use of an idea, device, invention or discussion only than you
can concur.

Embedded Systems also has various uses. In fact it is one of

those digital technologies that we are using in our daily lives
and we have never paid attention to. Embedded Systems can
be used in these two following ways.

1. Independent Systems.
2. Dependent Systems.

Independent systems are those embedded systems which are

working completely in their own without any foreign
interference.

Dependent systems are those embedded systems which are

working in co-ordination with other embedded or computer
systems.

Digital watches and MP3 players are examples of small

embedded systems. Larger embedded systems include home
appliances, industrial assembly lines, robotics, transport
vehicles, traffic light controllers, and medical imaging
systems. They frequently function as components of other
devices, such as the avionics in airplanes and the astrionics
in spacecraft. Numerous embedded systems that are
networked together are essential to large installations like
factories, pipelines, and electrical grids. Embedded systems,
like programmable logic controllers, commonly combine
their functional parts through software customization.

11
2.3 History of Embedded Systems
A digital computer called the Apollo Guidance Computer
(AGC) was employed by the Apollo program in the late
1960s and early 1970s to aid with spacecraft control during
lunar missions. It was created by Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) and developed by Charles Stark Draper
C. It was one of the earliest clearly modern embedded
systems.

The 16-bit computer architecture that the AGC was based on

utilized magnetic core memory to store data. Its clock
frequency was 1 MHz, and its memory held 2K words. The
AGC was a vital part of the Apollo program and was
important in the Apollo mission’s success by giving the
spacecraft the necessary direction and control during its trip
to the Moon.

The computer used then-recently invented monolithic

integrated circuits to minimize the computer's size and
weight, was once regarded as the riskiest component of the
Apollo project.

12
 Figure 2.1: Apollo Guidance Computer

The 1961-released Automatics D-17 missile guidance

computer was an early example of a mass-produced
embedded system. The D-17 was replaced with a new
computer when the Minuteman II began into production in
1966, marking the first large-scale application of integrated
circuits.

Embedded systems have become far more affordable and

have dramatically increased in processing power and
capability since these early applications in the 1960s. The
Intel 4004, a pioneering microprocessor, came into being in
1971 and was created for calculators and other compact
systems, although it still required external memory and
support chips. A microcontroller was created in the early
1980s when memory, input, and output system components

13
were combined on the same chip as the CPU. Applications
for microcontrollers exist when general-purpose computers
would be prohibitively expensive. The use of embedded
systems has become more common as the price of
microprocessors and microcontrollers has decreased.

2.4 Embedded Systems Characteristics

Unlike generic computer systems, embedded systems are
time-limited and only work for a certain task.

Real Time Operations: It indicates that the hardware is

programmed by software to perform in a time-constrained
manner. The two modes hard and soft are another possibility.
The first mode (for example, a clock) signals that the task
must be finished within the allocated time, whereas in the
later mode, the system may require more time than what is
allotted (ex: microwave).

Low Manufacturing Cost: Embedded systems design should

be less expensive to produce than a flexible universal
computer system since it is tailored to a specific use. Because
of this, embedded systems use less energy when operating.

Processor & Memory: Processor and memory requirements

may change depending on the type. Small embedded
systems, for instance, would need less memory, whereas
sophisticated systems, which use multi-core processors, need
more memory.

14
2.5 Embedded Systems Characteristics
As embedded systems are low-cost, low-performance
programming systems. They are usually classified into two
different ways.

1. Functional Requirement: This means for what kind

of function we need an embedded system. Do we
need it for a big system in a company or we simply
want to control an LED at home.
2. Microcontroller Based: In this type, we classify the
embedded systems based on what kind of
microcontroller e.g. Arduino, Raspberry pie, Orange
pie, ST series is used. A microcontroller in the
embedded system determines its performance.

2.6 Soil Moisturizer Practical Example

A soil moisturizer system is an excellent example of an
embedded system. As represent in the figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Soil Moisturizer Embedded System

15
In this system a total of five different components are
attached in which the microcontroller is the brain of the entire
system. It is also the most important component. Because
without a microcontroller there is no embedded system.

The battery provides power to the microcontroller, soil

sensor, LCD, and sprinkles. This means that the ground is
common. In case the ground is not common the system won’t
work at all.

The microcontroller has a programming feed in its memory

for making logical decisions. In this case the simple logic is
that when the soil is dry the sprinklers will turn on and when
the soil is wet to a certain level the sprinklers will turn of.
This simple is logic is processed by the microcontroller in the
following manner.

1 Soil sensors will sense the humidity level in the soil and
send the data to the microcontroller.
2 Microcontroller will accept this data in its IO pins and
then make the decisions based on the program installed
in its memory.
3 The input received from the soil sensor will be displayed
on the LCD.
4 If the soil is dry or undamped, the microcontroller will
send a command to the sprinklers, which will turn on the
sprinklers.
5 The turn on command will also be display on the LCD.
6 When the soil becomes enough damped or has reached
the maximum level. Soil sensor will send the data to the
microcontroller.
7 The microcontroller will read this data and turns off the
sprinkler.

This logic can also be easily understood through the

processing diagram in the figure 2.3

16
 Sensor output Micro Controller LCD display

Sprinklers Output
LCD Display
On/Off Microcontroller

Sensor input

Figure 2.3: Process Diagram

2.7 Embedded System Software

A standard for programmable microcontrollers, ICS 3-1978,
was published in 1978 by the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association. It includes nearly any type of
computer-based controller, including single board
computers, numerical controllers, and controllers that use
events. Following are the software architectures used in the
world today.

Basic control loop: The software in this architecture merely

contains a loop that keeps the track of the input devices. Each
subroutine that is called by the loop manages a specific piece
of hardware or software. It is referred to as a simple control
loop or a programmed input-output as a result.

Exokernel and microkernel: A real-time OS is logically

followed by a microkernel. Typically, the kernel of the
operating system allots memory and shifts the CPU between

17
various threads of processing. Large-scale operations like file
systems, network interfaces, etc. are implemented by user-
mode processes. Microkernels generally work better when
task switching and inter task communication happen quickly
and less effectively when they happen slowly. Exokernels
efficiently communicate through regular subroutine calls.
Application programmers have access to the system's
hardware and all of its software, and they are able to extend
both.

Coordination and multitasking: The simple control loop

technique is very similar to cooperative multitasking, with
the exception that the loop is concealed in an API. Each task
that the programmer defines is given its own environment to
run in. A task that is not in use invokes an idle routine that
transfers control to another process. The benefits and
drawbacks are comparable to those of a control loop, with the
exception that adding new software is simpler because it only
requires writing a new job or adding to the queue.

2.8 Advantages of Embedded Systems

Every invention or concept that a man has ever devised has
both benefits and drawbacks. Whatever a man has developed
is based on how much benefit it does to a person, society or
an economy.

Embedded Systems are just one of those technologies that a

man has developed for the benefit of its society and the
economy. If we talk about the advantages of the embedded
systems than it has provided a society with the following
benefits.

Cost-effectiveness: Embedded systems are typically small,

simple, and inexpensive, making them a cost-effective
solution for many applications.

18
Reliability: Embedded systems are designed for specific
tasks and are often built to withstand harsh environments and
conditions, making them more reliable than general-purpose
computers.

Real-time performance: Embedded systems are often used in

real-time applications, such as control systems and robotics,
where fast response times and precise timing are critical.

Energy efficiency: Embedded systems are often designed to

be energy efficient, making them suitable for use in portable
devices and other applications where power consumption is
a concern.

Reduced size: Embedded systems are designed to be compact

and small, making them ideal for use in space-constrained
environments.

Customization: Embedded systems can be customized to

meet specific requirements and can be integrated into a wide
range of products, such as cars, appliances, and medical
equipment.

2.9 Embedded Systems Engineering

So far we know, what are embedded systems, how they are
used in our daily lives, and what is the history behind it. But
now let’s discuss how embedded systems are designed. What
kind of people are responsible for designing embedded
systems and how much they earn through this career?

Embedded Systems are developed by engineers called

embedded system engineers and are studied in the
engineering field.

Embedded Systems Engineering is a field of engineering that

involves the design, development, and maintenance of
embedded systems. The hardware and software components

19
of embedded systems are designed and developed by
engineers called electrical engineers, computer engineers or
more specifically embedded system engineers. This could
involve developing and testing software for embedded
systems, as well as designing and programming
microcontrollers and microprocessors.

The limitations that are unique to embedded systems, such as

constrained resources, low power consumption, and real-
time performance, must also be taken into account by
embedded systems engineers. They must also make that the
system is durable, dependable, and able to function in a range
of settings.

Embedded systems engineers may collaborate closely with

other engineers and designers in other disciplines, such as
mechanical and electrical engineering, and they also need to
have a solid understanding of the embedded system's
application area.

An extensive foundation in computer science, electronics,

and mathematics is necessary for embedded systems
engineering. In embedded systems engineering or similar
subjects, numerous colleges offer undergraduate and
graduate degree programs. Additionally, it's frequently
necessary to have a solid understanding of programming
languages like C, C++, and Python.

All things considered, embedded systems engineering is a

demanding and fascinating discipline that offers
opportunities for creativity and invention and has a wide
range of applications in numerous industries.

20
 Embedded
Systems
Engineering

Computer Electronics Electrical

Engineering Engineering Engineering

Figure 2.4: Degrees For Embedded Systems Engineering

In the USA, an embedded systems engineer makes an

average compensation of $110,000 year, or $52.88 per hour.
Most experienced workers earn up to $158,000 per year,
while entry-level roles start at $100,000.

21
Chapter 3
Embedded Systems
Hardware and Software

3.1 Introduction
For an embedded system to function properly, both the
hardware and software must be thoroughly researched during
design. The hardware and software must be created to satisfy
the system's precise criteria, including those for cost,
performance, and energy consumption. Hardware and
software engineers typically work together during the
development of embedded systems. In this chapter we are
going to study how hardware and software are crucial for any
embedded system. Let’s first start with the hardware of an
embedded system.

3.2 Hardware of Embedded Systems

The physical parts that make up an embedded system are
known as its hardware. The CPU, memory, input/output (I/O)
interfaces, sensors, power supply, and other parts are
included in it. In order to do specified tasks, such as operating
a machine, obtaining data from sensors, or displaying
information to a user, the hardware and software are created
to cooperate.

22
The embedded system's mind is controlled by the
microprocessor or microcontroller. It is in charge of carrying
out the software's commands and managing how the system
functions. A microcontroller is a dedicated CPU created to
carry out particular tasks, as opposed to a microprocessor,
which is a general-purpose CPU that may be programmed to
carry out a variety of activities. Microcontrollers are perfect
for embedded systems because they often have a smaller
footprint, use less power, and are less expensive than
microprocessors.

Several types of memory are needed by embedded systems

to store data and instructions. Volatile memory and non-
volatile memory are the two primary divisions of memory.

1. Volatile Memory: Volatile memory is temporary

memory that requires power to retain its data. The
two main types of volatile memory are Random
Access Memory (RAM) and Dynamic RAM
(DRAM). RAM is used to store temporary data and
program instructions that are currently being
executed by the microprocessor or microcontroller.
DRAM is a type of RAM that requires frequent
refreshing to retain its data.
2. Non – Volatile Memory: Non-volatile memory is
permanent memory that can store data without the
need for power. Read-Only Memory (ROM) and
Flash Memory are the two primary categories of non-
volatile memory. The system firmware, which
contains the fundamental instructions required for
the microprocessor or microcontroller to boot up and
run the system, is stored in ROM. Data that must be
kept even when the machine is turned off, like
configuration settings, data logs, or application code,
is kept in flash memory.

23
3.3 Digital and Analog Ports
Several I/O interface types are needed by embedded systems
in order to communicate with external hardware or sensors.
Analog interfaces, digital interfaces, and serial interfaces are
the three broad categories into which these interfaces can be
divided.

Analog interfaces are used to process analog signals, which

are continuous signals that vary in amplitude over time. The
two main types of analog interfaces are Analog-to-Digital
Converters (ADCs) and Digital-to-Analog Converters
(DACs). ADCs convert analog signals into digital signals
that can be processed by the microprocessor or
microcontroller, while DACs convert digital signals back
into analog signals that can be output to external devices.

Digital interfaces are used to process digital signals, which

are discrete signals that have only two possible states: high
and low. The most common type of digital interface is
General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) pins. GPIO pins can
be used to control external devices, read input signals, or
generate interrupt signals to the microprocessor or
microcontroller.

Serial interfaces are used to communicate with external

devices or sensors over a serial connection. The three main
types of serial interfaces are Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter (UART), Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI), and Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C). UART is a simple
interface that is used to transmit and receive data one bit at a
time, while SPI and I

3.4 Sensors and Actuators

Actuators and sensors are essential parts of embedded
systems. They enable the system to carry out particular tasks

24
and engage in physical world interaction. These sensors and
actuators are not the core part of any embedded systems but
they are essential because without them an embedded system
is incomplete. In this chapter we are going to take an
introduction to sensors and actuators.

3.4.1 Sensors

Sensors are tools for identifying and quantifying physical

properties like temperature, pressure, light, and motion. They
are employed to gather environmental data and give the
microprocessor or microcontroller feedback. Sensors can be
linked via I/O ports or integrated directly into the system. The
type of sensor utilized depends on the embedded system's
particular application.

1. Temperature Sensor: Environment temperature is

measured using temperature sensors. Contact and
non-contact temperature sensors are the two basic
types into which they can be divided. Non-contact
temperature sensors can measure temperature
without making physical contact with the thing being
measured, in contrast, to contact temperature
sensors.
2. Pressure Sensors: To gauge a gas or liquid's pressure,
pressure sensors are utilized. They fall into two
categories: absolute pressure sensors and differential
pressure sensors. Whereas differential pressure
sensors assess the difference between two pressures,
absolute pressure sensors measure pressure in
relation to a perfect vacuum.
3. Light Sensors: Light sensors are used to measure the
intensity or wavelength of light. They can be
classified into two main categories: photodiodes and
phototransistors. Photodiodes convert light into
electrical current, while phototransistors amplify the
current.

25
 4. Motion Sensor: Movements or positional changes
can be detected using motion sensors. Gyroscopes
and accelerometers are the two main categories that
they fall under. Gyroscopes monitor changes in
angular velocity, whereas accelerometers measure
changes in acceleration. Humidity sensors, gas
sensors, magnetic sensors, and proximity sensors are
other sensor types that are frequently employed in
embedded systems.

3.4.2 Actuators

Actuators are devices that transform electrical impulses into

physical phenomena like mechanical motion. They are
employed to carry out particular duties or control external
devices. Electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators fall into
the three primary groups mentioned above.

1. Electric Actuators: Electric actuators are devices that

generate mechanical motion using electricity. They
can be divided into two groups: stepper motors and
DC motors. Stepper motors are used to create exact
angular rotation, while DC motors are used to create
continuous rotation.
2. Hydraulic Actuators: Devices called hydraulic
actuators use hydraulic fluid to move mechanical
parts. They are frequently employed in demanding
situations requiring a lot of force.
3. Pneumatic Actuators: Devices known as pneumatic
actuators use compressed air to create mechanical
motion. They are frequently utilized in industrial
settings where high speed is necessary.

Actuators and sensors are essential parts of embedded

systems. They enable the system to carry out particular tasks
and engage in physical world interaction. The embedded
system's particular application determines the sensor or
actuator to use. To guarantee optimum performance and

26
dependability, designers must carefully examine the system's
needs and select the proper components.

3.5 The role of software in Embedded Systems

Software is a key component of embedded systems. It gives
the system the intelligence and control it needs to fulfil its
intended purpose. The function of software in embedded
systems and the many forms of software that are frequently
utilized. An embedded system's software is in charge of
controlling the hardware parts and carrying out certain
functions. It works with the sensors and actuators to collect
external data and give the system feedback. The system
resources, such as memory, computing power, and I/O ports,
must also be managed by the software.

One of the greatest issues in writing code for embedded

devices is a lack of resources. It can be hard to create software
that is stable and efficient since embedded devices usually
have constrained memory and processing power. The
software must be optimized to use fewer resources and stop
any unnecessary operations.

To carry out their intended function, embedded systems

make use of a variety of software components. The most
common types of software used in embedded systems are as
follows:

1. Operating Systems: An operating system is a

software layer that provides a set of services and
functions for managing the system's hardware
resources. It serves as a platform for other software
components to run on while also managing system
resources such as memory, processing power, and
I/O interfaces. There are numerous operating
systems available for embedded systems, each with
its own set of advantages and disadvantages.

27
 FreeRTOS, Embedded Linux, and VxWorks are
some popular embedded operating systems.
2. Device Drivers: Device drivers are pieces of
software that allow the system to interact with
hardware components like sensors and actuators.
They act as a barrier between the hardware and the
software, allowing the software to access the
hardware without having to understand how it works
in detail.
3. Applications Software: The software that provides
the specific functionality of the embedded system is
known as application software. It is in charge of
carrying out the specific tasks that the system is
intended to carry out, such as monitoring
temperature or controlling a motor. A variety of
programming languages, including C, C++, Python,
and Java, can be used to create application software.
The programming language used is determined by
the application's specific requirements as well as the
system's available resources.
4. Middleware Software: Middleware is a software
layer that provides services and functions shared by
many different applications. It provides a set of
reusable components for use in the development of
complex embedded systems. Communication
protocols, data storage and retrieval, and security
functions are all components of middleware. They
can be used to reduce system complexity while
improving system reliability and performance.

To ensure efficient use of system resources and consistent

performance, the software must be carefully designed and
optimized. Designers can create powerful, efficient, and
reliable embedded systems by selecting the right software
components and development tools.

28
3.6 Embedded Systems Software Development
The process of developing software for devices that are
embedded in other systems is known as embedded software
development. The requirements are specified first, followed
by the design, coding, testing, and deployment of the
software.

The first step in developing embedded software is to define

the requirements. This entails comprehending the user's
requirements as well as the environment in which the system
will operate. The requirements specification must be clear,
unambiguous, and comprehensive so that the software
development team knows exactly what is expected of them.

The software design process can begin once the requirements

are defined. The software architecture is created during this
phase, and the software components are defined. The
software must account for hardware constraints such as
memory and processing power, as well as the overall system
architecture.

The next step is coding, where the software is implemented

based on the design. The code must be efficient, reliable, and
maintainable. It must also be well documented so that future
developers can understand the code and modify it if
necessary.

After the software has been coded, it must be tested to ensure

that it functions properly. Unit testing, integration testing,
and system testing are all examples of testing levels. The
testing phase is critical because it aids in the identification of
defects and bugs, which can then be fixed before deployment.

The implementation phase is the final stage of embedded

software development. The software is deployed on the target
hardware during this phase, and the system is tested in its
intended environment. The software must function

29
consistently in the intended environment, and any issues that
arise must be addressed as soon as possible.

To summarize, developing embedded software is a complex

process that necessitates careful planning, design, coding,
testing, and deployment. It entails working with hardware
constraints and understanding the user's and the
environment's needs. It is an iterative process, with each
phase building on the previous one. A team of skilled
developers, testers, and project managers who can
collaborate to deliver high-quality software that meets the
needs of the user is required for successful embedded
software development.

3.7 Embedded Operating Systems

Embedded operating systems (OS) are specialized operating
systems that are designed to operate on embedded devices.
These devices range from smartphones and tablets to smart
TVs, automobiles, and even medical equipment. Embedded
operating systems must be small, efficient, and dependable,
with an emphasis on making the best use of hardware
resources.

One of the most important characteristics of embedded

operating systems is their ability to support a wide variety of
hardware. They must be capable of working with a variety of
processors, memory, and I/O devices. They must also support
a wide range of connectivity options, including Ethernet, Wi-
Fi, and Bluetooth. The embedded operating system must be
able to function in resource-constrained environments with
limited memory and processing power.

Real-time operating systems (RTOS) are embedded

operating system subset that is designed to perform a specific
task in a timely manner. They are used in systems that require
precise timing, such as medical equipment, aerospace, and

30
automobiles. RTOS is intended for tasks that require a quick
response time, typically measured in microseconds or
milliseconds.

RTOS has distinct characteristics that set it apart from

general-purpose operating systems. Deterministic behavior is
one of these characteristics. The RTOS must be able to
provide an exact response time to a task, ensuring that it is
completed within the time frame specified. Low latency is
another feature. The time it takes to complete a task must be
minimized, and the response time must be as short as
possible. This feature is critical in real-time systems, where a
delay can have serious consequences.

RTOS is also intended to be extremely reliable. It must be

capable of detecting and recovering from errors, ensuring
that the system continues to function properly. Interrupt
handling is also supported by RTOS, which is essential for
real-time systems. Interrupts enable the system to react
quickly to events and carry out the necessary actions in a
timely manner.

Finally, embedded and real-time operating systems are

specialized operating systems designed for specific tasks.
Embedded operating systems are small, efficient, and
dependable, with an emphasis on optimizing the use of
hardware resources. RTOS is a subset of embedded OS that
is designed to perform tasks with deterministic behavior and
a quick response time. Both types of operating systems are
critical in embedded systems, and their development and
deployment necessitate specialized skills and expertise.

3.8 Programming languages for Embedded

Systems
A number of programming languages used in the
development of embedded systems, each with its own set of

31
advantages and disadvantages. The programming language
chosen is determined by a number of factors, including the
application requirements, the hardware platform, and the
developer's skills and experience.

C and C++ are the most commonly employed programming

languages in the development of embedded systems. They
are very well for their efficiency, low-level hardware access,
and ability to generate compact and streamlined code. In
embedded systems, C++ is a popular choice for object-
oriented programming, whereas C is frequently used for low-
level programming.

Ada, Java, and Python are some other programming

languages used in embedded system development. Ada is a
high-level programming language that is ideal for safety-
critical systems such as aerospace and defense applications.
Java is a popular choice for embedded systems that need
network connectivity and mobile application support. Python
is a high-level programming language that is gaining
popularity in embedded system development due to its
simplicity and flexibility.

Embedded system developers frequently use specialized

tools and libraries in addition to programming languages to
streamline the development process. Integrated development
environments (IDEs), compilers, debuggers, and simulators
are examples of these tools. They assist developers in more
efficiently writing, testing, and deploying software, thereby
reducing development time and cost.

32
Chapter 4
Interfacing Techniques in
Embedded Systems

4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we studied the hardware and software
components of embedded systems. In this chapter we are
going to study about the interfacing techniques that are used
in embedded system engineering. An embedded system is
connected to other devices or systems using interfacing
techniques so that they can interact and exchange data. Here
are a few typical communication methods for embedded
systems:

1 Serial Communication: This technique involves the

transmission of data bit by bit over a single
communication line. Common serial communication
protocols include UART, SPI, and I2C.
2 Parallel Communication: In this technique, data is
transmitted simultaneously over multiple
communication lines. This technique is used when high-
speed data transfer is required, such as in video or image
processing applications.
3 USB: Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a common interface
used to connect devices to a host computer. USB

33
 provides high-speed data transfer and supports a variety
of peripherals, including keyboards, mice, and printers.
4 Ethernet: Ethernet is a networking standard that enables
communication between devices over a local area
network (LAN). Ethernet is commonly used in
embedded systems to enable internet connectivity and
remote access.
5 Wireless Communication: This technique involves the
transmission of data over wireless communication
channels, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Zigbee.
Wireless communication is useful in situations where a
physical connection is not possible or practical.
6 Analog and Digital Interfaces: Analog and digital
interfaces are used to connect sensors, actuators, and
other analog or digital devices to an embedded system.
Analog interfaces are used to measure analog signals,
such as voltage, current, or temperature, while digital
interfaces are used to transmit binary data.

4.2 Serial Communication

Serial communication is a key method for exchanging data
between components in embedded systems. It enables the bit-
by-bit transfer of data across a single communication
connection. This chapter examines many serial
communication protocols, such as UART, SPI, and I2C,
which are frequently used in embedded systems. We will go
into their operating concepts, setups, and uses.

4.2.1 UART Communication

UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver - Transmitter) is a

widely used serial communication protocol that enables
asynchronous data transfer between devices. It employs two
lines: one for transmitting data (TX) and another for
receiving data (RX).

34
UART transmits data in a sequential fashion, with start and
stop bits framing each data byte.

The start bit indicates the beginning of a data byte, followed

by the data bits themselves. After the data bits, one or more
stop bits ensure proper synchronization between the sender
and receiver.

Baud rate selection determines the data transmission speed.

Data bits, parity bits, and stop bits can be configured to suit
the application's requirements. Flow control mechanisms,
such as hardware or software flow control, can be utilized for
managing data flow between devices.

UART is frequently used to link embedded systems to

accessories like GPS, Bluetooth, and GSM devices.
Applications for monitoring and debugging frequently
communicate data to a host computer using UART. UART is
also used to boot load and program embedded systems.

4.2.2 SPI Communication

SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) is a synchronous serial

communication protocol that allows for high-speed data
transfer between a master device and one or more slave
devices. It employs a full-duplex communication scheme,
utilizing separate lines for data transmission (MOSI - Master
Out Slave In) and reception (MISO - Master In Slave Out).

The master device controls the data transport in SPI, which

is based on a master-slave relationship. The data transfer
between devices is synchronized using a clock signal (SCK).
Each slave device has a specific select line (SS) that it can
use to enable or disable communication with the master.

The timing and synchronization of data transmission are

determined by the clock polarity (CPOL) and clock phase
(CPHA). Data can be transferred in a variety of forms,

35
including varying word lengths and bit ordering (MSB first
or LSB first). When using the SS line for communication, the
master device chooses the slave device and sets the clock
frequency.

SPI is commonly used for interfacing with a wide range of

peripheral devices, including sensors, displays, memory
chips, and ADCs. It is often employed in communication
between microcontrollers and external devices for data
exchange and control.

4.2.3 I2C Communication

I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) is a multi-master serial

communication protocol that facilitates communication
between integrated circuits on a shared bus. It enables
devices to exchange data and control signals, making it
suitable for applications with multiple devices connected to
the same bus.

I2C communicates using a bidirectional data line (SDA) and

a clock line (SCL). The bus supports many device
connections, and each connected device has its own unique
address. I2C enables master and slave devices, allowing for
the beginning of data transfers by devices.

The master can communicate with specific devices on the bus

since each one is given a unique address. The clock
frequency, which can be altered depending on the capability
of the devices, controls the bus speed. Multiple devices can
function as masters on the same bus in multi-master
configurations that are supported by I2C.

I2C is frequently used to link peripherals including sensors,

EEPROMs, real-time clocks (RTCs), and other devices. It is
frequently used in systems like distributed control systems
and complicated sensor networks where several devices must
interact over the same bus.

36
For data interchange and control in embedded systems, serial
communication protocols like UART, SPI, and I2C are
essential. The ability to properly interact with a variety of
peripheral devices is given to embedded system designers by
understanding their operating principles, settings, and
applications. Embedded systems can integrate complicated
functionality and connectivity in a variety of applications by
utilising various serial communication approaches to create
effective and dependable communication.

4.3 Parallel Communication

Parallel communication is a method of data transfer in
embedded systems that involves simultaneous transmission
of multiple bits over separate lines. Unlike serial
communication, where data is transmitted bit by bit, parallel
communication allows for faster data transfer rates. This
chapter explores various parallel communication techniques
commonly employed in embedded systems, including
parallel input/output (PIO) and parallel buses.

4.3.1 PIO Communication

Parallel Input/Output (PIO) is a straightforward method of

parallel communication that involves using multiple
input/output lines to exchange data between embedded
systems and peripheral devices.

PIO utilizes a set of dedicated lines for data transfer, where

each line corresponds to a binary bit. The number of lines
required depends on the size of the data being transferred
(e.g., 8 lines for an 8-bit data bus). Data is transferred
simultaneously over all the lines, allowing for high-speed
communication.

Depending on whether the device is functioning as a data

source or data sink, the direction of the lines (input or output)

37
must be specified. For handshaking and signaling functions,
such as acknowledging data reception or signaling readiness
for data transfer, additional control lines may be employed.

PIO is frequently utilized for memory device interfaces,

including parallel RAM and parallel flash memory. It is also
used in processes like digital signal processing and video
processing that need fast data transfer.

4.3.1 Parallel Buses

In embedded systems, parallel buses are frequently used to

connect several devices utilizing a set of parallel
communication lines. Address buses, data buses, and control
buses are a few instances of parallel buses.

The master device transmits addresses to chosen slave

devices using an address bus. Usually, it consists of a number
of lines, with each line denoting a bit of the address. The
maximum addressable memory or device capacity is
determined by the number of lines in the address bus.

Data is sent between devices using a data bus, allowing for

parallel information exchange. It often consists of several
lines, with a binary bit of data on each line. The maximum
number of bits that can be sent at once depends on the data
bus width.

A control bus is in charge of transporting the control signals

necessary to organize and manage data transfer among
devices. Lines for signaling activities like read, write, enable,
and interrupt are included. The control bus makes ensuring
that devices are coordinated and synchronized correctly.

Parallel buses are commonly used in microprocessor systems

for interfacing with memory modules and peripherals.

38
They are also utilized in systems requiring high-speed data
transfer, such as graphics processing units (GPUs) and digital
signal processors (DSPs).

PIO and parallel buses are two parallel communication

methods that enable high-speed data transfer in embedded
devices. Effectively interacting with memory devices,
peripheral devices, and high-speed applications requires an
understanding of the underlying concepts and configurations
of these techniques. Parallel communication enables
embedded systems to implement real-time processing, high-
performance computing, and data-intensive applications at
higher data transfer rates.

4.4 Wireless Communication

Modern embedded systems use wireless communication as a
major technology to enable data transfer and connectivity
without the use of physical wires or cables. The many
wireless communication methods used in embedded systems,
such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and LoRa, are examined in
this chapter.

4.4.1 Wi-Fi Communication

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a widely used wireless

communication technology that allows devices to connect
and communicate over local area networks (LANs) and the
internet.

Depending on the Wi-Fi protocol (for example,

802.11a/b/g/n/ac), Wi-Fi can operate in the unregulated 2.4
GHz or 5 GHz frequency bands. In order to wirelessly
transfer data between devices, radio frequency signals are
used. For effective channel access and collision avoidance,
Wi-Fi uses carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMA/CA).

39
The proper network settings, including the SSID (Service Set
Identifier) and security protocols (such as WEP, WPA, and
WPA2), must be set up on Wi-Fi devices. The proper mode
(station or access point), encryption keys, and connection
parameters must be set while configuring Wi-Fi modules.

Wi-Fi is frequently used to connect wirelessly to the internet,

allowing embedded devices to connect to the internet and
communicate with distant servers. It is used in IoT (Internet
of Things) installations, smart home automation, and
industrial automation applications.

4.4.2 Bluetooth Communication

Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology designed

for short-range communication between devices, typically
within a range of a few meters.

Bluetooth uses short-wavelength radio waves to enable

communication between devices in the 2.4 GHz frequency
band. It utilizes a low-power, low-complexity protocol stack
for efficient data transfer and device discovery. Bluetooth
employs frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) to
reduce interference from other wireless devices.

Bluetooth devices need to be paired and connected before

data transfer can occur. Pairing involves authentication and
encryption setup between devices. Bluetooth profiles define
the capabilities and supported services of Bluetooth devices,
such as hands-free, file transfer, and wireless audio.

Bluetooth is commonly used for wireless audio streaming,

connecting peripherals (e.g., keyboards, mice), and
establishing wireless connections between smartphones and
embedded systems. It is widely employed in wearable
devices, home entertainment systems, and automotive
applications.

40
4.4.3 Zigbee Communication

Zigbee is a wireless communication standard designed for

low-power, low-data-rate applications that require long
battery life and network scalability.

Zigbee operates in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz or 868/915 MHz

frequency bands, offering a range of up to hundreds of
meters. It utilizes a mesh network topology, enabling devices
to act as routers and extend the network coverage. Zigbee
employs the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for physical and media
access control layers.

Network specifications for Zigbee devices must be set,

including the PAN ID (Personal Area Network ID) and
channel. The Zigbee network is also set up with device
addressing, security keys, and routing tables to ensure
dependable communication.

Zigbee is frequently used in wireless sensor networks,

industrial monitoring, home automation, and building control
systems. It is appropriate for applications that need self-
organizing networks, wireless communication, and low
power operation.

4.4.4 LoRa Communication

LoRa (Long Range) is a wireless communication technology

designed for long-range communication with low power
consumption, making it suitable for IoT applications.

LoRa operates in the sub-GHz frequency bands (e.g., 868

MHz, 915 MHz), enabling long-range communication of
several kilometers. It utilizes spread spectrum modulation
and chirp spread spectrum (CSS) techniques to achieve
robust communication in noisy environments.

41
LoRa employs a star-of-stars network topology, with
gateways acting as intermediaries between end devices and
the internet.

LoRa devices need to be configured with the appropriate

spreading factor, bandwidth, and coding rate for efficient
data transfer. Network-specific parameters, such as network
ID, encryption keys, and data rates, are configured for secure
and reliable communication.

LoRa is commonly used in applications such as smart

agriculture, smart cities, asset tracking, and remote
monitoring. It provides long-range connectivity and supports
low-power, battery-operated devices, making it ideal for IoT
deployments.

Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and LoRa are just a few examples

of wireless communication technologies that provide a
variety of possibilities for wirelessly linking embedded
systems. Designers of embedded systems can create wireless
connections that are effective and dependable by having a
solid understanding of the operation, settings, and uses of
these wireless communication mechanisms. Embedded
systems can accomplish continuous connectivity, data
sharing, and integration with the larger networked
environment by utilising wireless communication.

4.5 Hardware and Software Interfacing

Hardware and software interfacing in embedded systems is
essential for enabling communication between the embedded
device and its peripherals as well as for controlling and
exchanging data. The methods and factors involved in
hardware and software interfacing in embedded systems are
already examined in this chapter.

42
Hardware interfacing involves connecting and
communicating with external devices and peripherals
through physical interfaces and protocols. This section
focuses on commonly used hardware interfaces and
considerations.

1. GPIO Interface
2. Serial Communication Interface
3. Analog Interface

Software interfacing involves the development of software

modules and drivers that enable control, data exchange, and
communication with external devices and peripherals. This
section explores key aspects of software interfacing in
embedded systems.

1. Device Drivers
2. Memory management
3. Communication Protocols

Hardware and software interfacing are fundamental aspects

of embedded systems design. By understanding and
effectively implementing hardware interfaces, including
GPIO, serial communication, analog interfaces, timing, and
synchronization, embedded system designers can interface
with external devices and peripherals. On the software side,
developing device drivers, implementing communication
protocols, managing memory, and leveraging operating
systems and middleware ensure efficient and reliable
interfacing. A well-designed hardware and software interface
enables seamless integration of embedded systems into a
wider ecosystem, facilitates control and data exchange, and
enables the implementation of complex functionalities and
application

43
Part 02. Sensors,
Actuators, and
Controllers

44
Chapter 5
Microcontrollers and
Microprocessors

5.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters we studied an introduction to the
embedded systems. In this chapter however we are going to
study about microcontrollers, which are the heart of any
embedded system working independently or dependently.

An integrated circuit with a central processing unit (CPU),

memory, and input/output ports is called a microcontroller. It
can be configured to carry out a number of activities and is
intended to control a particular function in an embedded
system. Microcontrollers are frequently utilized in a variety
of applications, such as consumer electronics, appliances,
automotive systems, and industrial control systems.

“A microcontroller is a single Integrated Circuit (IC) that is

often used for a specific application and created to carry out
specified functions. It is sometimes referred to as an MCU
or Microcontroller Unit.”

45
5.2 Microcontroller Architecture
A microcontroller, commonly known as an MCU
(microcontroller unit), is a tiny computer that is housed on a
single VLSI integrated circuit (IC) chip. One or more CPUs
(processor cores), memory, and programmable input/output
peripherals are all included in a microcontroller.

The foundational layout of a microcontroller is called the

microcontroller architecture. The Harvard architecture of a
microcontroller often means that it contains separate memory
for data storage and program instructions (ROM or flash
memory) (RAM). This layout makes it possible to digest data
and carry out instructions effectively. The instructions
recorded in the memory must be carried out by the Central
Processing Unit CPU, which is the brains of the
microcontroller. In order to synchronize the CPU's actions, it
also has a clock oscillator that produces a clock signal.

In addition to the CPU and memory, microcontrollers also

have a variety of input/output (I/O) ports for communicating
with other devices. These ports can include digital and analog
inputs, serial communication interfaces, and pulse-width
modulation (PWM) outputs. The microcontroller also often
includes a variety of built-in peripheral devices such as
timers, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), digital-to-
analog converters (DACs), and interrupt controllers.

Depending on the company and particular product, a

microcontroller's architecture can change. ADCs, DACs, and
communication interfaces like CAN, USB, etc. incorporated
into some microcontrollers are examples of optional
functionality. In general, microcontroller architectures are
categorized according to the size of the CPU, such as 8-bit,
16-bit, or 32-bit microcontrollers.

The most basic form, 8-bit microcontrollers are frequently

utilized in straightforward applications where cost and power

46
consumption are the key considerations. They just have a few
I/O ports and a modest quantity of memory. In comparison to
8-bit microcontrollers, 16-bit microcontrollers are more
capable and have more memory and I/O ports. They are
generally employed in more sophisticated applications like
industrial control systems and automobile systems. The most
powerful and equipped with the greatest number of memory
and I/O ports are 32-bit microcontrollers. High-performance
apps like those found in smartphones and tablets frequently
employ them.

5.3 Microcontroller History & Invention

In the 1970s, Intel Corporation created the first
microcontroller. A 4-bit microprocessor known as the Intel
4004 was created for use in calculators and other compact
systems. On a single chip, it combined a processing core,
memory, and input/output ports. The microcontroller
business was launched with this, and it has since developed
to encompass numerous varieties of microcontrollers from
various producers.

Figure 5.1: Intel 4004 Microcontroller

47
Federico Fagin and Ted Hoff led a team that designed the
chip, which was produced using a 10-micrometer technique.
The 4004 could do approximately 92,000 operations per
second at a clock rate of 740 kHz. It could address up to 640
bytes of memory and contained 2,300 transistors. The chip
was created with the intention of being used in calculators,
but it quickly spread to a variety of devices, including
watches, cash registers, and even traffic lights. The 4004
marked the beginning of the microprocessor revolution that
would eventually give rise to the potent processors found in
modern computers and mobile devices. The introduction of
the 4004 signalled the start of the microprocessor revolution,
which transformed how we live and work by enabling
smaller, more inexpensive, and more widely available
computers.

New microcontroller families, such the Motorola 68HC11

and Intel 8051, rose to prominence in the 1980s in a variety
of industries, including automotive, industrial control, and
consumer electronics.

Microcontrollers with more sophisticated capabilities and

more memory started to arrive in the 1990s. One example is
the PIC microcontroller from Microchip Technology, which
has built-in pulse width modulation (PWM) and other
peripherals.

The Internet of Things (IoT) gadgets, medical equipment,

industrial automation, and consumer electronics are just a
few of the modern uses for microcontrollers. They come in a
wide range of form factors, from small, surface-mount
devices to massive, through-hole components, and are
offered by a number of vendors. Digital signal processing
(DSP) capabilities, enhanced power management, and
advanced communication interfaces are just a few of the
characteristics that are now present in many microcontroller
types.

48
5.4 Microcontroller Types
In the above paragraphs we looked at the microcontrollers
and also understood the basic categories like 8 bit, 16 bit etc.
In this paragraph we’ll look in depth in the categories and
various types of microcontrollers.

There are hundreds of microcontrollers available in the

market, each with their unique functional capabilities and set
of features. However all the microcontrollers that are build
are built under the following categories.

5.4.1 8-bit microcontrollers

These microcontrollers have a small amount of memory and

are made to process 8-bit data. In straightforward control
applications like remote controls and alarm systems, they are
frequently employed. The PIC microcontroller from
Microchip Technology and the 8051 from Intel are two
examples of 8-bit microcontrollers.

5.4.2 16-bit microcontrollers

These microcontrollers have greater memory than 8-bit

microcontrollers and are made to process 16-bit data. They
are frequently utilized in applications that call for more
sophisticated processing, such as industrial automation and
automotive systems. Microchip Technology's dsPIC and
Motorola's 68HC11 are two examples of 16-bit
microcontrollers.

5.4.3 32-bit microcontrollers

These microcontrollers, which have greater memory and

sophisticated functions than 8-bit and 16-bit
microcontrollers, are made to process 32-bit data. They are
frequently utilized in applications that call for high-
performance processing, such as industrial automation and
medical equipment. The PIC32 from Microchip Technology

49
and the ARM Cortex-M from ARM are two examples of 32-
bit microcontrollers.

5.4.4 64-bit microcontrollers

These microcontrollers are a newer type of microcontroller

that are designed to process 64-bit data. Compared to 8-bit,
16-bit, and 32-bit microcontrollers, they have a significantly
greater memory capacity and more sophisticated functions.
High-performance applications including servers, industrial
automation, and medical equipment frequently use them.
Based on 64-bit processors like the ARM Cortex-A and x86
processors, which have more potent instruction sets and can
handle bigger data sets, 64-bit microcontrollers can manage
larger data sets. Compared to their 32-bit equivalents, this
enables them to execute more complicated algorithms and
accomplish sophisticated jobs. Additionally, they have
access to more memory, which enables them to store bigger
data sets and perform more sophisticated programs.

5.4.5 Microcontroller with built-in memory

These microcontrollers are perfect for applications that need

to save data since they have built-in memory. They are
frequently used in consumer electronics, IoT applications,
and other gadgets where data storage is crucial. The AVR and
PIC microcontroller families are two examples of
microcontrollers having integrated memory.

5.4.6 Microcontroller with built-in peripheral

These microcontrollers have built-in communication

interfaces like USB, Ethernet, and others. They are
frequently utilized in applications where communication is
crucial, such as in consumer electronics and Internet of
Things (IoT) devices. STM32 and ESP32 are two examples
of microcontrollers with integrated peripherals.

50
5.5 Microcontrollers Working
The working of any microcontroller either 8, 16, 32 or 64 bit
can be broadly classified into three main stages: input,
processing, and output.

5.5.1 Input

During this phase, the microcontroller's input/output ports

allow it to receive input data from a variety of sensors and
gadgets. The microcontroller has the capacity to transform
analog signal into a digital signal using an analog-to-digital
converter. The input data can be in the form of either digital
and analog signals (ADC).

Figure 5.2: Input Representation to Microcontroller

Here ultrasonic sensor will sense some object and send the
output as analog signal to the input pins of the
microcontroller. From the input pins this signal will be sent
to the ADC which will convert this analog signal to digital
signal. This signal will then be processed by the
microcontroller.

5.5.2 Processing

After receiving the input data, the microcontroller processes

it in accordance with the stored program. The program is

51
often kept in the read-only memory of the microcontroller
and is written in a particular programming language (ROM).
The processing stage involves applying complex
mathematical, logical, and other processes to the input data.

5.5.3 Output

The microcontroller transmits the output data to various

devices through its output ports after processing the input
data. The output data can also take the form of digital or
analogue signals, and the microcontroller can use a digital-
to-analog converter to transform the digital signals into
analogue form (DAC).

The ability of a microcontroller to run a programme stored in

its memory is one of its essential characteristics. This
programme is often kept in the read-only memory of the
microcontroller and is written in a particular programming
language, such as C or assembly (ROM). The microcontroller
receives instructions from the programme on how to handle
the input data and process it to produce the intended output.

5.6 Microcontroller and Microprocessors

People are often confused with the term “microcontroller”
and “microprocessor” and consider that they both are same
things. However, they are not same. We very well know so
far that a microcontroller is small computer on a single
integrated circuit that contains a microprocessor, memory,
and input/output (I/O) peripherals. On the other hand, a
microprocessor is a CPU (central processing unit) that is on
a microchip. In order to better understand the concept, see the
figure below.

52
 Figure 5.3: (Left) Microcontroller and (Right)
Microprocessor

In the above figure it is clear that a microcontroller has CPU,

IO ports and memory, whereas a microprocessor has only
CPU, memory and IO ports are externally connected with the
microprocessor.

Microprocessors and microcontrollers are both integrated

circuits (ICs) that contain a processor core, but
microcontrollers are made for embedded systems and have
on-chip peripheral functions like I/O interfaces and memory,
whereas microprocessors are made for general-purpose
computing and typically need external memory and I/O
components.

In conclusion, a microprocessor is a CPU on a chip that is

used for general-purpose computing in personal computers
and servers, whereas a microcontroller is a compact
computer on a single chip that is used for specific tasks in
embedded system.

5.7 Advantages of Microcontrollers

The low power consumption of microcontrollers is one of
their key benefits. They are perfect for portable and mobile
applications because they are built to operate on a little

53
amount of electricity and may be supplied by batteries. They
can be used in a variety of applications because they are also
reasonably priced.

The adaptability of microcontrollers is another benefit. They

can be programmed to carry out a variety of tasks, from
straightforward control operations to intricate algorithms.
They can also easily interact with other devices, such as
actuators and sensors, enabling data collection and physical
system control.

Microcontrollers are utilized in many different automobile

applications, including safety systems, transmission control,
and powertrain control. They monitor and operate the
vehicle's safety systems, including the airbags and the ABS
brakes, in addition to controlling the engine, transmission,
and other systems in the car.

Microcontrollers are utilized in industrial control systems to

monitor and control a variety of industrial processes. They
are used to regulate the flow of fluids and gases, to monitor
temperature and pressure, and to control the speed and
position of motors. Additionally, they are utilized to regulate
and keep track of the operation of devices and machinery like
conveyors and robots.

Microcontrollers are used to operate a broad variety of

appliances in the household, including microwaves,
refrigerators, and washing machines. They are used to
regulate the temperature and timing of these devices, as well
as to keep an eye on their operation and offer diagnostic data.

A variety of embedded systems can benefit from using

microcontrollers because they offer a flexible and affordable
solution. They may be programmed to carry out a variety of
tasks, from straightforward control operations to intricate
algorithms, as they are low-power devices. They are widely
utilized in a variety of industries, including automotive,

54
industrial controls, and consumer electronics, and are now a
necessary part of many objects we use every day.

5.8 Microcontroller Companies

There are many microcontroller manufacturing companies
that produce microcontrollers for various applications. Some
of the leading microcontroller manufacturers include:

• Microchip Technology Inc.

• Texas Instruments Inc.
• Arduino CC
• NXP Semiconductors
• STMicroelectronics
• Atmel (now owned by Microchip)
• Renesas Electronics Corporation
• Cypress Semiconductor (now part of Infineon
Technologies AG)
• Silicon Laboratories Inc.
• Broadcom Inc. (formerly Avago Technologies)
• Maxim Integrated Products Inc.

These companies offer a wide range of microcontrollers,

including 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microcontrollers, for
various applications such as automotive, industrial,
consumer, and communication systems. Microcontroller
manufacturers compete in the market on the basis of factors
such as performance, power consumption, cost, and feature
sets.

In this book we are going in depth understanding of

microcontrollers designed by Arduino company and will be
using for the rest of designing embedded systems.

55
5.9 At mega 328 Processor
The Atmega 328 and Atmega 328P are both microcontroller
chips developed by Atmel Corporation. They are widely used
in the Arduino platform and in many other embedded
systems due to their low power consumption, high
performance, and rich set of features.

The Atmega 328 is an 8-bit microcontroller chip, which

means that it can process data in 8-bit chunks. It has 32 KB
of flash memory for storing code, 2 KB of SRAM for storing
data, and 1 KB of EEPROM for storing non-volatile data. It
has 23 general-purpose I/O pins, which can be used as digital
inputs or outputs, or as analog inputs with the help of an
onboard analog-to-digital converter. It also has a range of
built-in peripherals, including timers, UART, SPI, and I2C
interfaces.

An updated version of the Atmega 328, the Atmega 328P,

has a number of advantages over the original. The same
number of peripherals, SRAM, EEPROM, and flash memory
are present. Nonetheless, it uses less power as a result of
many architectural changes made to the processor. Moreover,
the analog-to-digital converter has better accuracy and
stability, making it more suitable for applications that call for
precise measurements.

The Atmega 328 and Atmega 328P can both operate at clock
speeds of up to 20 MHz, making a wide variety of
applications possible. The Arduino platform, a well-liked
open-source electronics prototyping platform, makes
extensive use of them. For those new to developing
embedded systems, the Arduino platform offers a
straightforward and user-friendly interface for programming
and interacting with the Atmega processors.

56
Robotics, home automation, sensor networks, and a host of
other applications frequently use the Atmega 328 and
Atmega 328P microcontrollers. They are particularly well
suited for applications that need high performance, low
power consumption, and a wide range of functions. Its
widespread use in embedded systems and on the Arduino
platform is evidence of its adaptability and potency as
microcontroller chips.

5.10 ARM Cortex M7 Processor

The ARM Cortex-M7 is a 32-bit processor developed by
ARM Holdings. It is designed for high-performance and low-
power embedded applications. It is the most powerful
Cortex-M processor, with up to twice the speed of the
Cortex-predecessor. M4's.

The Cortex-six-stage M7's pipeline, one of its distinguishing

characteristics, allows it to run at high clock speeds while yet
being energy-efficient. Its 32-bit instruction set enables it to
process data in 32-bit chunks, making it appropriate for
applications like digital signal processing and machine
learning that call for high-performance data processing.

A variety of built-in peripherals, including as timers, UART,

SPI, and I2C interfaces, as well as a sophisticated DMA
controller for quick data transfer between peripherals and
memory, are also included in the Cortex-M7. It is useful for
applications that demand high-precision computations since
it also has a floating-point unit (FPU), which speeds up
mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.

The Cortex-improved M7's memory protection unit (MPU),

which offers hardware-based memory security and makes
sure that important data is neither altered or accessed by

57
unauthorized programs, is another important feature. This
qualifies the Cortex-M7 for use in high-security applications
including banking and medical equipment.

The Cortex-M7 is also designed to be highly scalable,

allowing developers to customize it to suit their specific
application requirements. It supports a range of memory
sizes, from 64 KB up to 4 GB, and can be configured to
operate in either single- or dual-core configurations, making
it suitable for a wide range of applications, from small
embedded systems to large-scale IoT networks.

Overall, the Cortex-M7 is a powerful and energy-efficient

processor that offers high-performance data processing,
advanced peripheral integration, and hardware-based
security features. Its scalability and configurability make it
suitable for a wide range of embedded applications, from
consumer electronics to industrial automation and beyond.
With its advanced features and performance, the Cortex-M7
is poised to drive innovation and advancement in the
embedded systems industry for years to come.

5.11 ARM Cortex M4 Processor

The ARM Cortex-M4 is a 32-bit processor developed by
ARM Holdings, which is designed for embedded
applications requiring high performance and low power
consumption. It is an upgrade over the Cortex-M3 processor
and offers a number of additional features that make it
suitable for a wide range of applications.

One of the key features of the Cortex-M4 is its digital signal

processing (DSP) capabilities, which make it well-suited for
applications requiring high-speed data processing, such as
audio and video processing, motor control, and sensor fusion.
The Cortex-M4 includes a single precision floating-point unit
(FPU) and a 32-bit barrel shifter, which allow it to perform

58
complex mathematical operations with high speed and
accuracy.

Another key feature of the Cortex-M4 is its memory

protection unit (MPU), which provides hardware-based
memory protection for the processor. This feature ensures
that critical data is not overwritten or accessed by
unauthorized programs, making the Cortex-M4 suitable for
applications that require high levels of security, such as
banking and medical devices.

The Cortex-M4 also includes a range of built-in peripherals,

such as timers, UART, SPI, and I2C interfaces, making it
easy to interface with other devices. It also supports a range
of power modes, including a low-power mode that allows it
to operate with minimal power consumption.

The Cortex-M4 is highly scalable, allowing developers to

customize it to suit their specific application requirements. It
supports a range of memory sizes, from 16 KB up to 2 MB,
and can be configured to operate in either single- or dual-core
configurations.

Overall, the Cortex-M4 is a powerful and versatile processor

that offers high-performance data processing, advanced
peripheral integration, and hardware-based security features.
Its DSP capabilities and memory protection unit make it
suitable for a wide range of applications, from consumer
electronics to industrial automation and beyond. With its
advanced features and performance, the Cortex-M4 is poised
to drive innovation and advancement in the embedded
systems industry for years to come.

5.12 ATmega32u4 Processor

The ATmega32u4 is a microcontroller unit (MCU)
developed by Atmel, which is now a subsidiary of Microchip

59
Technology. It is part of the AVR family of 8-bit MCUs and
is widely used in a variety of applications, from consumer
electronics to industrial automation.

One of the key features of the ATmega32u4 is its USB 2.0

full-speed controller, which allows it to interface with other
USB devices, such as computers and smartphones. This
feature makes it well-suited for applications that require USB
connectivity, such as computer peripherals and gaming
devices.

The ATmega32u4 also includes 32 KB of flash memory, 2.5

KB of SRAM, and 1 KB of EEPROM, which provide ample
storage space for program code, data, and configuration
settings. It also includes a range of built-in peripherals, such
as timers, PWM channels, ADCs, and USARTs, making it
easy to interface with other devices.

Another key feature of the ATmega32u4 is its low power

consumption, which makes it suitable for battery-powered
applications. It includes a range of power-saving modes, such
as sleep, idle, and power-down modes, which allow it to
operate with minimal power consumption.

The ATmega32u4 is highly programmable, allowing

developers to customize it to suit their specific application
requirements. It is supported by a range of development
tools, including the popular Arduino platform, which makes
it easy for hobbyists and students to get started with MCU
programming. Overall, the ATmega32u4 is a versatile and
reliable MCU that offers USB connectivity, ample storage
space, and low power consumption. Its built-in peripherals
and programmability make it suitable for a wide range of
applications, from consumer electronics to industrial
automation and beyond. With its advanced features and
performance, the ATmega32u4 is a popular choice among
developers and hobbyists alike.

60
Chapter 6
Microcontroller
Manufacturers

6.1 At mega 328 Processor

The Atmega 328 and Atmega In the previous chapter we
studied about microcontroller. How they play an important
role in embedded systems. We also looked a little about the
microcontroller manufacturing companies. In this chapter we
are going to look in depth in some of the largest
microcontroller manufacturers in terms of the market. The
reason to introduce you to various microcontroller
manufacturing companies is to make you familiarize with
what kind of microcontrollers are available in market. When
we (authors) were students, we realized that working on a
single microcontroller is not necessary. After working on
various microcontrollers we know that the all the
microcontrollers from the inside work as same.

6.2 Microchip Technology Inc.

Microchip is an American multinational public
semiconductor manufacturing company. It is located in
Chandler Arizona (a city in Arizona state of US.) The
company was founded in 1989. The company is known for
manufacturing microcontrollers, mix-signals, analog, and

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flash IP integrated circuits. Its products include linear,
interface, and wireless products, as well as microcontrollers
(PIC, dsPIC, AVR, and SAM), serial EEPROM devices,
serial SRAM devices, embedded security devices, radio
frequency (RF) devices, temperature, power, and battery
management analogue devices.

Figure 6.1: Microchip Logo

6.3 Microchip Microcontrollers

Microchip Technology sells 8-bit and 16-bit PIC
microcontrollers, dsPIC digital signal controllers, 3analog
and interface products, security authentication products,
timing/communication/real-time clock and calendar
products, real-time clock and calendar devices, memory
products, wireless products, high-throughput USB and
Ethernet interfaces, MOST technology, embedded
controllers and super I/O devices, touch, multi-touch, and 3D
gesture control products, as well as embedded controllers and
embedded processor (FPGAs).

6.3.1 8-bit Microcontroller

The 8-bit portfolio from Microchip Technology includes

more than 1,200 components built using either the PIC
microcontroller or the AVR microcontroller architecture.
The Core Independent Peripherals, low-power performance
using picoPower and eXtreme Low Power (XLP)

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technology, and EMI/EMC performance are the main
characteristics of the 8-bit microcontrollers.

6.3.2 16-bit Microcontroller

The PIC24 and other 16-bit provide an improvement over 8-

bit devices in terms of features and peripherals (e.g., more
memory, additional pins). The PIC microcontroller
architecture is used to build the 16-bit microcontrollers.

6.3.3 32-bit Microcontroller

The 32-bit product line from Microchip Technology operates

at speeds of up to 600 DMIPs and offers up to 2048 KB of
Flash memory and 512 KB of RAM with options for either
128 MB of externally addressable memory or 32 MB of
inbuilt DDR2 DRAM. Applications for the Internet of Things
(IoT) and enhanced graphics are covered by the 32-bit
portfolio.

6.3.4 Embedded Controllers

The computer-related products offered by Microchip

Technology include root of trust, secure boot and
authentication, input/output (I/O), keyboard controllers,
embedded controllers based on enhanced serial peripheral
interface (eSPI) bus technology, and system management
devices. Traditional computing applications (like laptop
computers) and embedded computing, including interactive
kiosks, networking hardware, and automated teller machines,
are common applications.

6.4 Texas Instruments

Texas Instruments is a global electronics company with
headquarters in Dallas. It creates and produces a wide variety
of products, including as calculators, integrated circuits,
microcontrollers, and semiconductors. Since its inception in

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1930, the business has been at the forefront of innovation in
the electronics sector. It is among the biggest global suppliers
of embedded and analogue processing chips.

Figure 6.2: Texas Instruments Logo

The MSP430 series, one of Texas Instruments' key

microcontroller families, is intended for ultra-low power
applications. These microcontrollers are perfect for battery-
operated gadgets and other power-sensitive applications
since they require very little power.

The Tiva C series from Texas Instruments, which is based on

the ARM Cortex-M architecture, is another well-liked
microcontroller family. With great performance and a variety
of peripheral interfaces, these microcontrollers are strong and
adaptable. In addition to consumer electronics, industrial
control systems, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices, they
are employed in a wide range of other applications as well.

To assist designers in swiftly and easily creating applications

for its microcontrollers, Texas Instruments also provides a
variety of development tools, such as software, programming
tools, and evaluation kits. For developing, programming, and
testing microcontroller-based systems, this comprises
software development kits (SDKs), integrated development
environments (IDEs), and emulators.

64
6.5 MSP430 Microcontroller Series
One of the most well-known microcontroller series in the
market, the MSP430 from Texas Instruments, is constructed
utilising a 16-bit RISC architecture. The MSP430 has a
reputation for using little power. It has a 25 MHz maximum
speed. Six more low-power settings for the MSP430 allow it
to disable unused clocks and CPU. Additionally, the
controller can remain in sleep mode for a longer amount of
time, resulting in lower average current consumption, thanks
to the MSP430's quick wake-up time of less than 1
microsecond. The device is offered with the customary
accessories in a variety of settings.

Figure 6.3: MSP430 Board

An extensive development ecosystem, including software

development kits (SDKs), integrated development
environments (IDEs), and emulators, is available to support
the MSP430 microcontroller series. Texas Instruments also
provides designers with a platform to test and assess the
performance of MSP430 microcontrollers in their
applications through a variety of evaluation kits.

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The MSP430 microcontroller series, in general, is a flexible,
low-power option for a variety of applications, including
wearable technology, portable medical equipment, and other
battery-operated systems. The MSP430 family is a great
option for designers wishing to add intelligence and control
to their projects due to its low power consumption and broad
range of peripheral ports.

6.6 ST Microcontrollers
STMicroelectronics N.V., also known as ST or STMicro, is
a multinational Dutch company with French and Italian roots
that specialises in technology. It is listed on the French stock
exchange, with its headquarters in Plan-les-Ouates, a town
close to Geneva, Switzerland. ST is the largest European
semiconductor contract manufacturing and design company.
The company resulted from the merger of two government-
owned semiconductor companies in 1987. Thomson
Semiconductors of France and SGS Microelettronica of Italy.

Figure 6.4: ST Logo

STMicroelectronics is a top manufacturer of

microcontrollers and provides a variety of devices for
different uses. Microcontrollers based on the ARM Cortex
architecture, as well as 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit models, are

66
all part of the company's microcontroller range. Applications
for the company's microcontrollers include consumer
electronics, industrial control systems, and automotive
systems.

6.7 Arduino Microcontrollers

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform that includes
both hardware and software. It was created in 2005 to provide
a low-cost means for enthusiasts, artists, and designers to
create interactive projects utilising microcontrollers. It has
since grown in popularity among creators, educators, and
professionals alike.

A microcontroller board is the hardware component of the

Arduino platform. The board is intended to be simple to use,
especially for those with little prior knowledge with
electronics. It is built around the Atmel AVR microprocessor
and comes in a variety of sizes and configurations. The
Arduino Uno is the most commonly used board, with 14
digital input/output pins, six analogue input pins, and a USB
connection for programming and power.

Figure 6.5: Arduino UNO R3

The microcontroller board is intended for use with other

electronic components like as sensors, motors, lights, and

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displays. These components can be soldered onto a
breadboard or attached to the board via jumper wires. There
are numerous shields that can be put into the Arduino board
to provide capabilities like Wi-Fi, Ethernet, GPS, or
Bluetooth.

The Arduino Integrated Development Environment is the

platform's software component (IDE). It's a free software
application that works on Windows, macOS, and Linux.
Users can use the IDE to develop, build, and upload code to
the microcontroller board.

Arduino's programming language is based on the Wiring

language. It is a simplified version of C++ with additional
functions that make controlling the hardware components of
the microcontroller board easier. The code is written in a text
editor and can be transferred to the board via USB.

6.8 History of Arduino

Arduino's history and development can be traced back to the
early 2000s, when a group of Italian researchers and students
at Italy's Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) created a
platform to simplify the process of producing interactive
projects.

Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca

Martino, and David Mellis intended to establish an easy-to-
use platform for producing interactive projects, especially for
those with little technical knowledge.

In 2003, the group began working on a prototype that made

use of an ATmega8 microcontroller and was programmed in
a simplified version of the C programming language. The
platform was dubbed "Wiring," and it was utilized for a
number of projects at the IDII.

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In 2005, the group decided to produce a more user-friendly
version of Wiring for non-technical users. This platform
was named "Arduino" after a tavern in Ivrea where they
frequently gathered.

Arduino is now employed in a broad variety of applications,

ranging from school projects to commercial products. Its
simplicity and ease of use continue to make it a popular
platform for developing interactive projects and learning
about electronics.

6.9 Arduino Hardware and Software

The physical hardware components required to control and
interact with various electronics components are defined as
Arduino boards. The board is designed around a
microcontroller, which serves as the system's brain. The
Arduino Uno, Arduino Mega, and Arduino Nano are among
the most popular Arduino boards. The boards are designed to
be user-friendly and simple to use, even for individuals with
little prior experience with electronics. They have a variety
of inputs and outputs, including digital and analogue pins,
and can be programmed to operate other electronics
components like Lights, motors, and sensors.

The Arduino software, also known as the IDE, is a cross-

platform tool that allows embedded engineers to write,
compile, and upload code to the Arduino board. The IDE is
intended to be simple and straightforward to use, with a
simple interface and a variety of capabilities that make
writing and testing code simple. The software comes with a
library of pre-written source code known as sketches that
may be used to build a wide range of projects.

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 Figure 6.6: Arduino IDE

The Arduino software language is based on C++, but has

been streamlined and simplified to make it easier to
comprehend for beginners. The software includes a serial
monitor that allows users to see the result of their code as
well as interface with the Arduino board.

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Chapter 7
Arduino UNO R3

7.1 Introduction to Arduino UNO R3

The Arduino Uno R3 is a microcontroller which is based on
the ATmega328P. It is among the most renowned and
frequently employed Arduino development boards. The Uno
R3 board has a variety of features and abilities that make it
suited for a broad range of projects, from simple DIY to
complex, advanced systems.

Figure 7.1: Arduino UNO R3 Schematic

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7.2 Components of Arduino UNO R3
The UNO is one of the most widely used microcontroller
boards. It is essential to have the idea of board’s component
components that make it function effectively.

7.2.1 Microcontroller

The Arduino Uno R3 board's microcontroller is the

ATmega328P. It is an 8-bit AVR microcontroller that is in
charge of carrying out programme instructions, handling
input and output signals, and controlling the different parts of
the circuit board. The microcontroller features a 32KB flash
memory for storing programmes, a 2KB SRAM for storing
data, and a 1KB EEPROM for storing non-volatile data.

7.2.2 Power Supply

Both an external source of power or a USB cable may be

utilized to power the Uno R3 version of the Arduino board.
The board has a voltage regulator that limits the input voltage
to the operating voltage of the microcontroller and other
components, which is 5V. A voltage range of 7V to 20V can
be managed by the voltage regulator.

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 Figure 7.2: Arduino UNO Power Diagram

7.2.3 USB Interface

The Arduino Uno R3 board's USB interface enables it to be

connected to a computer for serial communication and
programming. The ATmega16U2 microcontroller, which

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functions as a USB-to-serial converter, implements the USB
interface.

7.2.4 Analog Inputs

The Arduino Uno R3 board may be connected to a computer

for serial communication and programming thanks to its
USB interface. The USB interface is implemented using the
ATmega16U2 microcontroller, which also serves as a USB-
to-serial converter.

7.2.5 Digital Inputs

The Arduino Uno R3 board has 14 digital input/output pins

labeled 0 through 13. These pins can be used to read digital
signals or to control digital devices such as LEDs, motors,
and relays. The digital pins can be configured as either input
or output pins.

7.2.6 PWM Inputs and Outputs

The Arduino Uno R3 board has six PWM (pulse width

modulation) pins labeled 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. PWM is a
technique for controlling the brightness of LEDs or the speed
of motors. The PWM pins on the ATmega328P
microcontroller can produce a pulse waveform with a
variable duty cycle, which can be used to control the output
voltage.

7.2.7 Reset Button

The reset button on the Arduino Uno R3 board is used to

restart the microcontroller or to force it into a bootloader
mode for programming.

7.2.8 Crystal Oscillator

For precise timing, the Arduino Uno R3 board's

ATmega328P microcontroller needs an additional crystal

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oscillator. The clock signal for the microcontroller is
provided by a 16MHz crystal oscillator on the PCB.

7.2.9 ICPs

The ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header on the

Arduino Uno R3 board is used for programming the
microcontroller using a programmer such as the AVRISP
mkII. The ICSP header provides access to the SPI (Serial
Peripheral Interface) pins and the reset pin of the
microcontroller.

The Arduino Uno R3 board is a versatile and potent

microcontroller board thanks to a number of components that
operate well together. For creating and putting projects
employing the Arduino Uno R3 board into action,
understanding these components is crucial.

7.3 Pinout Configuration of UNOR3

The 28 pins on the Arduino Uno R3 board are split into three
groups: power pins, analogue pins, and digital pins.

The Arduino Uno R3 board's power pins are utilized to power

both the board and the connected components. They include
the following and are situated at the top and bottom of the
board:

1. Vin: This pin is used to connect an external power

source to the board and supply power. 7 to 20 volts
are the voltage range.
2. 5V: This pin supplies the board and any attached
components with regulated 5V DC power.
3. 3.3V: This pin supplies the board and any attached
components with regulated 3.3V DC power.
4. GND: The board has a number of ground pins that
are used to connect the board and the attached

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 components to ground. These pins are all labelled
GND.

To read analog signals from sensors or other analogue

devices, the Arduino Uno R3 board's analogue pins are used.
On the top of the board are six analogue pins with the labels
A0 to A5.

Table 7.1: Analog Pins of Arduino

Pins Type Functions

1 NC NC
2 IOREF Reference for digital logic
3 Reset To reset board
4 +3V3 Power
5 +5V Power
6 GND Ground
7 GND Ground
8 VIN Input Power
9 A0 GPIO Input Pin 0
10 A1 GPIO Input Pin 1
11 A2 GPIO Input Pin 2
12 A3 GPIO Input Pin 3
13 A4/SDA GPIO Input Pin 4 / I2C Data
14 A5/SCL GPIO Input Pin 5 / I2C Clock

The digital pins on the Arduino Uno R3 board can be

configured as either input or output pins. There are 14 digital
pins, labeled 0 to 13, located on the top and bottom of the
board.

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 Table 7.2: Digital Pins of Arduino

Pins Type Functions

1 D0 Digital GPIO
2 D1 Digital GPIO
3 D2 Digital GPIO
4 D3 Digital GPIO
5 D4 Digital GPIO
6 D5 Digital GPIO
7 D6 Digital GPIO
8 D7 Digital GPIO
9 D8 Digital GPIO
10 D9 Digital GPIO
11 SS Digital SPI Chip Select
12 MOSI Digital SPI in
13 MISO Digital SPI out
14 SCK Digital SPI serial clock
15 GND Ground
16 AREF Analog reference voltage
17 A4/SD4 Digital I2C Data line
18 A5/SD5 Digital I2C Clock line

7.4 Features of Arduino UNO R3

7.5.1 Peripherals

1. 2x 8-bit Timer/Counter with a dedicated period

register and compare channels

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 2. 1x 16-bit Timer/Counter with a dedicated period
register, input capture and compare channels
3. 1x USART with fractional baud rate generator and
start-of-frame detection
4. 1x controller/peripheral Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI)
5. 1x Dual mode controller/peripheral I2C
6. 1x Analog Comparator (AC) with a scalable
reference input
7. Watchdog Timer with separate on-chip oscillator
8. Six PWM channels
9. Interrupt and wake-up on pin change

7.5.2 Memory for ATMEGA 328 P

1. AVR CPU at up to 16 MHz

2. 32KB Flash
3. 2KB SRAM
4. 1KB EEPROM

7.5.3 Memory for ATMEGA 16U2

1. 16 KB ISP Flash
2. 512B EEPROM
3. 512B SRAM
4. debugWIRE interface for on-chip debugging and
programming

7.5.4 Security

1. Power On Reset (POR)

2. Brown Out Detection (BOD)

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Chapter 8
Arduino Nano

8.1 Introduction to Arduino Nano

Arduino Nano is a small, adaptable, and simple-to-use
microcontroller board. Makers, hobbyists, and students who
are interested in electronics and programming frequently
choose it. The board's compact size and light weight make it
perfect for projects with constrained space. The Arduino
Nano is a strong tool for a variety of applications despite its
small size thanks to a wealth of capabilities.

The simplicity of usage of the Arduino Nano is one of its

main advantages. The Arduino software, which is free and
open-source and supports a broad variety of programming
languages including C and C++, can be used to program it.
Input and output pins on the board include digital, analog,
and PWM pins as well as serial communication pins, making
it simple to interact with a variety of sensors, actuators, and
other devices.

Beginners who are just getting started with electronics and

programming should choose the Arduino Mini. There are a
tons of online materials accessible to assist users in getting
started, and its tiny size and low cost make it a wonderful
platform for experimenting and learning. It is also a potent
tool for more experienced users who want to create
complicated projects or prototypes.

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The Arduino Nano is an all-around capable and flexible
microcontroller board that is perfect for a variety of
applications, from straightforward projects to more
complicated ones. It is a fantastic option for anyone
interested in electronics and programming due to its
simplicity of use, low price, and variety of features.

8.2 Components of Arduino Nano

The Arduino Nano is a microcontroller board that may be
used to control various electronic devices. Anybody who
wishes to work with the board and develop their own projects
must comprehend these elements.

8.2.1 Microcontroller

The heart of the Arduino Nano is the ATmega328P

microcontroller. It is a low-power, high-performance
microcontroller that can run at speeds up to 20 MHz. The
microcontroller contains 32 KB of flash memory for storing
program code, 2 KB of SRAM for storing variables, and 1
KB of EEPROM for storing data that needs to be retained
even when the power is turned off.

8.2.2 Voltage Regulator

Depending on the model, the Arduino Nano features a

voltage regulator that changes the input voltage to a steady
5V or 3.3V. This enables a variety of power sources, such as
batteries, USB ports, and external power supply, to be used
to power the board.

8.2.3 USB Serial Converter

To interact with a computer, the Arduino Nano uses a USB-

to-serial converter chip. The data from the USB port must be
converted by this chip into a format that the microcontroller

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can understand. Using the USB connector, the board can also
be powered and programmed..

8.2.4 Inputs/Output Pins

Input/output pins on the Arduino Nano can be used to

connect to sensors, actuators, and other devices. Depending
on the requirements of the project, these pins can be set up as
digital inputs or outputs, analog inputs, PWM outputs, or
serial communication ports.

8.2.5 LED Indicators

Many internal LEDs on the Arduino Nano can be utilized to

display the board's state. Power, TX, RX, and a user-
programmable LED that can be used to signal specific events
are among them.

8.2.6 Crystal Oscillators

The microcontroller's exact clock signal is produced by the

Arduino Nano using a crystal oscillator. By doing this, the
microcontroller is guaranteed to operate at a constant speed
and timing, which is crucial for many applications.

8.2.7 Reset Button

The reset button on the Arduino Nano board is used to restart

the microcontroller or to force it into a bootloader mode for
programming.

8.3 Pinout Configuration of Nano

An essential component of the Arduino Nano's usefulness is
its pinout layout. It defines how the pins are connected to the
microcontroller and which ones can be used for various
things. While creating and constructing projects for the
Arduino Nano, pinout setup is crucial to understand.

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 Figure 8.1: Arduino Nano Board

Eight analog input pins, numbered A0 to A7, are present on

the Arduino Nano. The analogue signals from sensors or
other devices can be measured using these pins. They offer a
resolution of 10 bits, which translates to a resolution of 4.88
millivolts for voltages between 0 and 5 volts.

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A0 to A5: These pins can be used to measure analogue
signals because they are connected to the on-board analog-
to-digital converter (ADC). They can also function as digital
input and output pins.

The pins A6 and A7 only support analogue input; they do not

permit digital input or output.

8.3.2 Digital Pins

The Arduino Nano has 14 digital pins, labeled from D0 to

D13. These pins can be used for digital input or output and
are capable of driving LEDs, motors, and other electronic
components. They can be set to either HIGH (5V) or LOW
(0V) using digitalWrite() function in the Arduino IDE or by
programming in other languages such as C or C++.

These pins, D0 and D1, are used for UART-based serial

communication with other devices. Moreover, they bear the
labels RX and TX, respectively.

These pins, designated D2 through D13, can be utilized for

any type of digital input or output.

These pins, D3, D5, D6, D9, D10, and D11, allow pulse
width modulation (PWM), a method for regulating the output
signal's intensity. PWM is frequently used to regulate motor
speed, servo motor control, and LED brightness.

D4: This pin, marked "INT0," is used for interrupt-based

inputs.

D7 and D8: These pins, "TXLED" and "RXLED," are

connected to LEDs that flash when data is sent or received
over the serial port, respectively.

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8.3.3 Power Pins

Many power pins on the Arduino Nano deliver various

voltage and current levels to external components. These pins
can be found on the board's left side and consist of

These pins offer 5V and 3.3V controlled voltage outputs,

respectively. They are used to supply these voltages to
external components.

Vin: This pin is connected to the board's input voltage, which

may be between 7V and 12V DC. For use by the board and
its components, this voltage is reduced to 5V and 3.3V
through regulation.

GND: These pins are used to complete electrical circuits and

are connected to the board's ground (0V).

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 Figure 8.2: Arduino Nano Power Supply

8.3.4 Other Important Pins

Some pins on the Arduino Nano have unique purposes and

include:

RESET: By connecting this pin to ground, the board's reset

function is activated.

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AREF: The ADC's reference voltage is supplied by this pin.
It is possible to utilise it to increase the precision of analogue
measurements.

These pins, TX and RX, are utilized for serial communication

with external gadgets like computers and other
microcontrollers.

8.4 Features of Arduino Nano

Atmega 328 is the same microcontroller used in Arduino
UNO R3. Importantly there is a minor difference between
Arduino UNO and Arduino Nano in the hardware
architecture. The following details are collected from the
Arduino data sheet.

8.4.1 Features

1. Achieve up to 16 MIPS for 16 MHz clock frequency

2. 32 kB of which 2 KB used by bootloader
3. kB internal SRAM
4. 1 kB EEPROM
5. 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
6. Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
7. Six PWM Channels
8. Programmable Serial USART
9. Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

8.4.2 Input and Outputs

1. 22 Digital Pins
2. 8 Analog Pins
3. 6 Pulse Width Modulation Output

8.4.3 Power Pins

1. Mini-B USB connection

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 2. 6-20V unregulated external power supply (pin 30)
3. 5V regulated external power supply (pin 27)

8.4.4 Sleep Modes

1. Idle
2. ADC Noise Reduction
3. Power-save
4. Power-down
5. Standby
6. Extended Standby

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Chapter 9
Arduino Leonardo

9.1 Introduction
Arduino Nano is a small, adaptable, and simple-to-use
microcontroller board. is a microcontroller board based on
the ATmega32u4. It is part of the Arduino family of boards,
which are widely used in the maker and DIY communities.
The Leonardo is one of the most popular boards in the family
due to its low cost and flexibility. It has a built-in USB
connector that enables direct computer connection without
the use of an additional programmer. six analog inputs, 20
digital input/output pins, and a single 16MHz crystal
oscillator are all present on the Leonardo.

One of the Leonardo's unique qualities is its ability to emulate

a USB keyboard or mouse. It may therefore be used as a HID
(Human Interface Device), making it ideal for jobs that need
keyboard or mouse input. For example, the Leonardo may be
used to develop a special game controller or virtual
instrument.

Leonardo's capacity for USB communication is a further

noteworthy feature. As a result, it can function as a USB
serial port and transfer data back and forth between the
Leonardo and a computer. The Leonardo may also be
configured to function as a USB MIDI device, making it
suitable for developing music-related projects.

88
As the Leonardo can be programmed using the Arduino
Integrated Development Environment, programming is
actually quite simple (IDE). Users can develop and upload
code to Arduino boards and used the IDE, a free and open-
source software development environment.

The processor in the Leonardo, an ATmega32u4, also has

built-in USB functionality, permitting it to serve as a USB
device without any additional hardware. This is ideal for
projects like data acquisition system, remote control systems,
and more that do need USB connectivity.

The Leonardo has a significant user and developer

community in addition to its physical qualities. This
community has generated a wide variety of frameworks and
examples that may be used to construct complicated
applications quickly and simply. This makes it a superb
option for both new and veteran users. For anyone wishing to
construct projects that require USB connectivity or
keyboard/mouse input, the Arduino Leonardo is a fantastic
option. It's a great option for both makers and DIY
enthusiasts as well as students because of its low cost,
flexibility, and usability.

9.2 Components of Arduino Leonardo

Arduino Leonardo as said earlier is one of the most utilized
and powerful microcontroller board in Arduino
microcontroller series. It’s make it perfect for designing
various microcontroller.

9.2.1 Microcontroller

The heart of the Arduino Leonardo is its microcontroller, the

ATmega32u4. This microcontroller is responsible for
executing the code uploaded to the board, controlling the
inputs and outputs, and communicating with other devices.

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9.2.2 USB

A built-in USB port on the Arduino Leonardo enables it to

interface with a computer. The USB connector is utilized to
power the board, transfer code to the board, and connect to
other USB devices.

9.2.3 Power Connector

There are two ways to supply power to the Arduino

Leonardo. Initially, the USB connector can be used to power
it. Second, the power connector, which takes a DC voltage
between 7 and 12 volts, can be used to power it.

9.2.4 Power LED

This Light shows whether or not the board is getting power.

The LED will turn on when the board is turned on.

9.2.5 LED on pin 13

The Arduino Leonardo features an integrated LED that is

attached to pin 13. This LED can be utilized to show the
board's status or it can be managed by the user.

9.2.6 Digital I/O Pins

The Leonardo has 20 digital input/output pins, labeled D0 to

D19. These pins can be used to read digital signals or output
digital signals.

9.2.7 Analog Input Pins

The Leonardo has six analog input pins, labeled A0 to A5.

These pins can be used to read analog signals, such as those
from sensors or potentiometers.

9.2.8 Reset Button

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The board can be reset using this button. It resets the
microcontroller and restarts the board's running code when
pressed.

9.2.9 ICSP Header

In-circuit serial programming employs the ICSP header.

Instead of using the USB connector, it can be used to program
the board using a programmer.

9.2.10 Crystal Oscillator

The Leonardo has a 16MHz crystal oscillator, which

provides the clock signal for the microcontroller. This
oscillator allows the board to accurately execute instructions
and communicate with other devices.

9.2.11 Voltage Regulator

This device controls the voltage that is delivered to the board.

Regardless of the input voltage, it makes sure that the board
receives a consistent voltage.

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 Figure 9.1: Arduino Leonardo Board

9.3 Connecting with Keyboard and Mouse

By setting up the Arduino Leonardo to transmit keystrokes
and mouse movements to the computer via the USB
interface, it may be used as a mouse and keyboard. Here is
how to go about it:

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 1. Connect the Arduino Leonardo to your computer
using a USB cable.
2. Open the Arduino IDE on your computer and create
a new sketch.
3. In the Arduino IDE, go to File -> Examples -> USB
-> Keyboard or Mouse, depending on whether you
want to use the Arduino as a keyboard or a mouse.
4. Upload the code to the Arduino Leonardo.
5. Once the code is uploaded, your Arduino Leonardo
will start emulating a keyboard or mouse, depending
on the code you uploaded.
6. You can now use your Arduino Leonardo to send
keystrokes and mouse movements to your computer.
For example, if you uploaded the Keyboard code,
you can use the Keyboard.write() function to send
keystrokes to your computer. If you uploaded the
Mouse code, you can use the Mouse.move() function
to move the mouse cursor on your computer.

Keep in mind that before your computer can detect the

Arduino Leonardo as a keyboard or mouse, you might need
to install drivers for it. The Arduino website should have
these drivers available.

9.4 Leonardo Pinout Configuration

In addition to having two pins (D0 and D1) for serial
connection, the Arduino Leonardo features 20 digital
input/output pins, 12 of which can be utilized as analog
inputs.

9.4.1 Barrel Jack

You can power your Arduino board using the Barrel jack, or
7-12V DC Power Jack, which is connected to an adapter.
While the board is compatible with adapters that provide a

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power range of 5-20 volts, the manufacturer recommends
using an adapter within the 7-12 volts range.

9.4.2 Vin

The Arduino board is powered by connecting its input

voltage pin (VIN) to an external power source. This pin can
function as a power pin if the voltage is provided from the
power jack.

9.4.3 PWM Pins

There are six PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) pins in the set
of digital pins, which are 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, and 13. Provide
8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.

9.4.4 UART Pins

These pins are used for serial communication, with pins 0

(RX) being used to receive data and pin 1 (TX) being used to
transfer data using the hardware serial capability of the
ATmega32U4.

9.4.5 ICP Pins

ICP or In-Circuit Serial Programming are the pins where the

firmware of the Arduino Leonardo board is programmed with
the aid of this ICSP header, the microcontroller receives the
new firmware updates with the new capabilities. The ICP
header consists of 6 pins.

9.5.6 TWI / I2C

It is the two-wire serial communication protocol. It stands for

Inter-Integrated Circuits. The I2C uses two lines to send and
transmit data: a serial clock (SCL) pin and a serial data
(SDA) pin.

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 1. Serial Clock is referred to as SCL-It. The pin that
sends the clock data is what is meant by this term. It
synchronizes the data transmission between the two
devices. The master device provides the Serial
Clock.
2. Serial Data is referred to as SDA-It. It is described as
the pin that is utilized by the slave and master to
transmit and receive data between them. Because to
this, it is also referred to as a data line, whereas SCL
is referred to as a clock line.

9.4.7 Interrupt Pins

The board has 5 external interrupt pins: 3, 2, 1, 0, 2, 3, and 7

(interrupt 0), 2, 1, and 0 (interrupt 2). (interrupt 4). If any of
the following changes take place, these pins can be set up to
respond: on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change
in value.

9.4.8 SPI Pins

SPI is also known as Serial Peripheral Interface. The

microcontrollers clearly communicate with one or more
peripheral devices using these pins. The SPI pins on the
Leonardo board, in opposition to the Arduino UNO, are
positioned on the ICSP header and support SPI
communication using the SPI library. This means that the
shield won't function even if it uses SPI communication but
does not include a 6-pin ICSP connection that can attach to
the Leonardo's 6-pin ICSP header.

9.5 Leonardo Advantages over other boards

The Leonardo board was created specifically for amateurs
and experts interested in developing interactive embedded
systems and electronics projects. Due to its USB interface

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and ATmega32u4 microcontroller foundation, this board is
simple to program and connect to a computer.

9.5.1 Easy to Use Functionality

The Arduino Leonardo's simplicity of usage is one of its

primary strengths. The board has a simple and user-friendly
user interface that allows beginners or a professional to
launch projects immediately. The Arduino community also
offers an array of materials, guides, and libraries that can
support you in developing your projects and understanding
how to utilise the board.

9.5.2 Adaptability

The adaptability of the Arduino Leonardo is another

advantage. From straightforward LED light shows to more
intricate robotics projects, the board can be used to develop a
variety of projects. The board is a perfect tool for
experimentation and prototyping since it can be readily
programmed to interact with sensors, motors, and other
electronic components.

9.5.3 Cost Effectiveness

The Arduino Leonardo is reasonably priced in comparison to

other microcontroller boards available on the market.
Beginners and hobbyists who do not have the funds to invest
in more expensive programming platforms can now use it.

Compatibility

The Arduino Leonardo may be expanded in functionality and

used to create more intricate projects thanks to its
compatibility with a variety of shields and accessories. The
board may also be used by developers with varied
programming backgrounds because it supports a wide range
of programming languages, including C and C++.

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9.5.4 Built in USB Interface

The Arduino Leonardo has a built-in USB port, making it

simple to program and connect to a computer. By doing away
with the requirement for extra hardware like a USB-to-serial
converter, this feature can save time and money.

9.5.5 Small Form Factor

The Arduino Leonardo's compact physical size makes it

perfect for projects with limited space. The board is also
portable and lightweight, making it simple to take with you
and use anywhere you go.

In summary, the Arduino Leonardo is a flexible, user-

friendly, and reasonably priced microcontroller board that
provides a range of advantages to professionals and hobbyists
alike. It is the perfect platform for prototyping and
experimenting due to its adaptability to a variety of
peripherals and programming languages, built-in USB
interface, and tiny form factor.

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Chapter 10
Arduino Portenta Series

10.1 An Industrial Microcontroller

The professional-grade Arduino Portenta microcontroller
board is created for use in demanding industrial applications.
In response to the growing need for a robust and adaptable
microcontroller platform that could manage the demands of
industrial automation, robotics, and Internet of Things
applications.

Figure 10.1: Arduino Portenta H7 Board

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The board is built on a powerful 32-bit dual-core Arm
Cortex-M7 and Cortex-M4 processor and features a range of
connectivity options, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Ethernet,
and CAN. It also has a rich set of peripherals, including
analog inputs and outputs, digital inputs and outputs, and
advanced motor control capabilities. The Arduino Portenta's
ability to run in low-power modes makes it appropriate for
battery-powered applications. This is one of its primary
advantages. Additionally, it offers sophisticated security
features like a secure bootloader and a cryptographic
coprocessor.

Developers may easily begin programming the board

because the Arduino Portenta is fully compatible with the
Arduino development environment. It is also simple to
interface with a number of sensors, actuators, and other
peripherals because to the many libraries and tools that are
readily available.

In terms of industrial-grade microcontrollers, the Arduino

Portenta marks a considerable advancement by providing a
strong and adaptable platform that can be utilized for a
variety of applications. It is the perfect alternative for
developers wishing to create sophisticated automation,
robotics, and Internet of Things (IoT) systems thanks to its
high processing capabilities, a rich collection of peripherals,
and advanced networking options.

10.2 Portenta Dual Core Processors

Arduino Portenta series is one of the most latest and advance
industrial microcontroller series by Arduino. The main
reason for such powerful outcome is its dual core ARM
Cortex M7 and ARM Cortex M4 processors.

Performance improvement is one of the key benefits of

implementing dual-core CPUs. Tasks can be divided and

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carried out in parallel by using two processors, making the
process quicker and more effective. The Cortex-M4 core is
optimized for low-power and real-time applications,
while the Cortex-M7 core is designed for high-performance
applications. The Portenta board can perform a variety of
activities, including high-speed data processing and analysis
as well as real-time control and communication.

The increased power efficiency of dual-core processors is

another benefit. The board can run in low-power modes,
prolonging battery life and lowering power consumption, by
switching to a low-power Cortex-M4 core for applications
that don't require the high performance of the Cortex-M7.

Moreover, the dual-core processors provide greater

adaptability and versatility. Depending on the particular
needs of their program, developers can opt to employ one or
both cores. For instance, they may use the Cortex-M4 core
for real-time control and communication tasks like motor
control or sensor interfacing while employing the Cortex-M7
core for high-performance computing applications like
computer vision or machine learning.

The Portenta board's dual-core processors also provide

increased reliability and security. Developers can add
redundancy and fail-safe measures by using two independent
processors, guaranteeing that crucial operations are always
completed correctly and that the system remains functional
even in the case of a breakdown or malfunction.

The dual-core CPUs on the Portenta board further boost

security and dependability. By using two independent
processors, programmers can incorporate redundancy and
fail-safe features, ensuring that important tasks are always
completed correctly and that the system remains operational
even in the case of a breakdown or malfunction.

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10.3 Portenta Microcontroller Series
The Arduino Portenta series is a powerful and versatile
family of development boards designed for professional
applications. The Portenta H7 and the Portenta Vision Shield
are the two major boards in the Portenta series. The
STM32H747 microcontroller, which uses a dual-core ARM
Cortex-M7 and Cortex-M4 architecture and operates at 480
MHz and 240 MHz, respectively, is the foundation of the
high-end development board known as the Portenta H7.
Additionally, it features WiFi, Bluetooth, Ethernet, and LTE-
M connection as well as 2 MB of Flash memory and 1 MB
of RAM. It also contains a number of cutting-edge hardware
features, including a hardware cryptography engine, a 12-bit
DAC, and a 16-bit ADC, which allow it to accomplish
challenging jobs like secure communications, computer
vision, and machine learning.

On the other hand, the Portenta Vision Shield is an add-on

board for the Portenta H7 that gives the system more
sophisticated computer vision capabilities. It has a potent AI
accelerator chip called the Himax HM01B0 that can run
neural networks and other intricate algorithms quickly. A
perfect platform for smart cameras, intelligent robotics, and
autonomous vehicles, it also features a high-quality camera
sensor, a microSD card slot, and a choice of communication
options, including WiFi and Bluetooth.

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 Figure 10.2: Arduino H7 Comparison

The Portenta series' interoperability with the Arduino

ecosystem, which includes a sizable developer community
and a sizable library of open-source code, is one of its
distinguishing characteristics. This makes it simple to start

102
utilizing the platform and to create original applications fast
using the well-known Arduino IDE. Moreover, a variety of
programming languages and frameworks, including as
Python, TensorFlow, and OpenCV, are supported by the
Portenta series, making it a perfect platform for developers
with different backgrounds and skill sets.

The Portenta series' tough design, which enables usage in

challenging industrial applications, offers an additional
benefit. The boards may be mounted quickly on DIN rails or
other industrial enclosures and are made to withstand high
temperatures, humidity, and vibrations. They are therefore
perfect for uses like asset tracking, remote monitoring, and
factory automation.

10.4 Arduino Portenta H7

The Arduino Portenta H7 is a high-end development board
designed for professional applications, such as industrial
automation, robotics, and IoT. It is based on the STM32H747
microcontroller, which features a dual-core ARM Cortex-M7
and Cortex-M4 architecture, clocked at 480 MHz and 240
MHz respectively. This powerful processor, combined with
2 MB of Flash memory and 1 MB of RAM, makes the
Portenta H7 capable of handling complex tasks such as
machine learning, computer vision, and secure
communications. In addition to its advanced hardware
capabilities, the Portenta H7 also includes a wide range of
connectivity options, such as WiFi, Bluetooth, Ethernet, and
LTE-M. This makes it easy to connect to the internet and
other devices, and to create applications that can
communicate with the cloud or other remote services. The
board also features a number of advanced hardware
peripherals, such as a 16-bit ADC, a 12-bit DAC, and a
hardware cryptography engine, which enable it to perform a
wide range of functions and to handle complex data
processing tasks.

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The Portenta H7 is made to work with the Arduino
ecosystem, which has a sizable developer community and a
sizable library of open-source code. This makes it simple to
start utilising the platform and to create original applications
fast using the well-known Arduino IDE. The board is a great
platform for developers with a variety of backgrounds and
skill levels because it supports a wide range of programming
languages and frameworks, including as Python,
TensorFlow, and OpenCV.

Figure 10.3: H7 Schematic

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Figure 10.4 H7 Board Description

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10.5 Components of Portenta H7
It includes a number of advanced components that provide
the power, flexibility, and connectivity required for projects
such as industrial automation, robotics, and IoT.

10.5.1 Connectivity Options

There are numerous communication choices available on the

Portenta, including WiFi, Bluetooth, Ethernet, and LTE-M.
With the aid of these capabilities, the board may connect to
the internet, communicate with other devices, and create
applications that can connect to remote cloud or other
services. A USB Type-C connection is also present on the
board for programming and debugging.

10.5.2 Advance Hardware Components

A 16-bit ADC, a 12-bit DAC, and a hardware cryptography

engine are just a few of the sophisticated hardware
peripherals available on the Portenta. The board can carry out
a variety of operations and manage complicated data
processing tasks thanks to these peripherals. A microSD card
slot is also present on the PCB for further storage.

10.5.3 Vision Shield

The platform now has access to cutting-edge computer vision

capabilities thanks to the Portenta Vision Shield add-on
board. The Himax HM01B0 AI accelerator chip is a part of
it, and it can execute neural networks and other intricate
algorithms quickly. It is the perfect platform for applications
like smart cameras, intelligent robotics, and autonomous
vehicles because it also has a high-quality camera sensor and
a range of communication choices, including Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.

10.5.4 Arduino Ecosystem

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The Portenta's interoperability with the Arduino environment
is one of its primary advantages. A sizable developer
community and a sizable collection of open-source code are
both part of this ecosystem. This makes it simple to start
utilising the platform and to create original applications fast
using the well-known Arduino IDE. The board is a great
platform for developers with a variety of backgrounds and
skill levels because it supports a wide range of programming
languages and frameworks, including as Python,
TensorFlow, and OpenCV.

10.6 Pin Configuration of Portenta H7

This board's comprehensive set of input/output (I/O) pins,
which may be designed to communicate with a variety of
sensors, actuators, and other devices, is one of its primary
characteristics.

10.6.1 Digital Pins

84 digital I/O pins on the board can be set up as inputs or

outputs. These pins are arranged on the board in three rows
and have the labels D0 to D95. Both inputs and outputs can
be set up on these pins. They can also be utilized to produce
interruptions if a signal's condition changes.

10.6.2 Analog Pins

8 analog signal pins on the board are accessible for receiving

analogue signals from sensors. These pins are positioned on
the board in a long row and have the labels A0 through A7.
You can read analog signals from sensors to use these pins.
They can measure voltages between 0 and 3.3V with a
resolution of 12 bits.

10.6.3 PWM Pins

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There are 20 PWM pins on the board, which can be used to
provide PWM signals for operating actuators like motors.
These pins are arranged on the board in a single row and have
the labels PWM0 through PWM19. To operate motors and
other actuators, PWM signals can be produced using these
pins. They can produce signals with frequencies between
31Hz and 62.5kHz and have an 8-bit resolution.

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 Figure 10.5 H7 Ports

10.6.4 Serial Ports

The board features six serial ports that can be used for UART,
SPI, or I2C protocol communication with external hardware.
Serial1 to Serial6 is the designation for these ports, which are

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arranged in two rows on the board. UART, SPI, or I2C
protocols can be used to connect to other devices utilising
these ports. Moreover, they can be set up to provide
interruptions as data is received.

10.6.5 USB Ports

A computer or other USB devices can be connected to the

board's two USB ports. The USB0 and USB1 ports are
situated on the board's side and have those designations.
These ports can be used to connect to a computer or other
USB devices. They support USB 2.0 and can be used for both
data transfer and power supply.

10.6.6 Other Pins

The board also has several other pins, such as power and
ground pins, reset pins, and JTAG pins, which are used for
debugging and programming the board. The other pins on the
board are used for power and ground, reset, JTAG, and other
purposes related.

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Figure 10.6: H7 Ports Configuration

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10.7 Industrial Applications of Portenta H7
The Arduino Portenta is designed to meet industry-grade
certification standards, including CE, FCC, and RoHS. The
board is also compliant with EN 55032 Class B and EN
62368-1 safety standards, making it highly reliable and safe
to use in industrial applications.

10.7.1 Robotics Industry

Creating robotic applications on the Arduino Portenta H7 is

great. Advanced networking features on the board, including
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular connectivity, let it interact
with other devices and manage different robotic systems. The
board's broad I/O capabilities also make it simple to link with
robotics-related sensors and actuators.

10.7.2 Automation Industry

Applications involving industrial automation can use the

Arduino Portenta H7. The board can tackle complicated
automation tasks because to its dual-core architecture and
cutting-edge processing capabilities. It may control a variety
of automation systems, including assembly lines, conveyor
belts, and manufacturing procedures.

10.7.3 Monitoring Systems

A variety of monitoring systems, including those for the

environment, energy, and security, can be developed with the
Arduino Portenta H7. With the help of the board's cutting-
edge networking options, including Wi-Fi and cellular
connectivity, additional devices may be connected to it and
real-time data can be sent to a central server.

10.7.4 IOT Industry

For creating industrial Internet of Things (IoT) applications,

the Arduino Portenta H7 is ideal. The board can interface

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with other devices and sensors in the industrial environment
because to its cutting-edge connectivity choices, including
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular connectivity. This makes it
possible to gather, analyze, and make decisions using data in
real-time.

10.7.5 Energy Management

Applications for the Arduino Portenta H7 include energy

management. The board can tackle challenging energy
management tasks like load balancing, peak shaving, and
demand response thanks to its superior processing
capabilities. The board's broad I/O capabilities also make it
simple to connect to sensors and other energy management
equipment.

10.7.6 Smart Agriculture Industry

Applications for smart agriculture can make use of the

Arduino Portenta H7. The board can gather information from
a variety of sensors and devices used in agriculture, including
soil moisture sensors, temperature sensors, and humidity
sensors, thanks to its advanced processing capabilities and
networking options. This enables the monitoring and study
of agricultural systems in real time.

10.7.7 Asset Tracking

Applications for asset tracking can use the Arduino Portenta

H7. The board's cutting-edge connectivity options, including
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular connectivity, allow it to
interact with different tracking devices and transmit real-time
position information to a centralized server. As a result,
assets may be tracked and managed in real time in an
industrial setting.

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10.8 Expanding Capabilities of Portenta H7
Arduino Portenta H7 comes with a wide variety of industrial
application its advance architecture allows it to be a great
choice for modern industrial applications. However its
functionality can be enhanced using various sensors and
actuators for more practical applications.

10.8.1 Additional Sensors

A variety of I/O connections on the Arduino Portenta H7 can

be utilized to connect to external sensors and actuators.
Nevertheless, expansion modules like shields and modules
can be used to add extra sensors or actuators if necessary. To
increase the board's functionality, you might add a
temperature sensor module or a motor control shield.

10.8.2 External Storage Devices

For the majority of applications, the Arduino Portenta H7's

2MB internal flash memory and 1MB of RAM are more than
enough. But, external storage devices like SD cards or USB
flash drives can be used if you require extra space. The board
contains a USB host interface that enables external storage
device connectivity.

10.8.3 External Displays

The Arduino Portenta H7 has a built-in 480x272 pixel color

LCD, which is suitable for displaying basic graphics and text.
However, if you need to display more advanced graphics or
larger images, you can use external displays such as TFT or
OLED displays. These displays can be interfaced with the
board using expansion modules such as display shields or
breakout boards.

10.8.3 External Communication Modules

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The Arduino Portenta H7 can connect wirelessly to other
devices because to its integrated Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and
cellular connectivity. You can use external communication
modules like Zigbee, LoRa, or Ethernet modules if you need
to communicate with gadgets that do not support these
protocols. Using extension modules like communication
shields or breakout boards, these modules can connect to the
board.

10.8.4 External Processors

For the majority of applications, the Arduino Portenta H7's

potent dual-core ARM Cortex-M7 and Cortex-M4
processors are more than adequate. But, you can employ
external processors like FPGA or DSP modules if you need
to carry out more complicated processing operations. Using
extension modules like breakout boards or shields, these
modules can connect to the board.

In conclusion, the Arduino Portenta H7 is a potent

microcontroller board that can be enhanced beyond its
factory settings by connecting additional modules and
accessories. Whatever additional sensors, actuators, storage,
displays, communication modules, or CPUs you require can
be added using one of the many expansion modules and
peripherals that are available.

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Chapter 11
Raspberry Pie Series

11.1 Introduction
The Raspberry Pi series has become incredibly popular
among hobbyists and makers due to its low cost and
versatility. The devices can be used for a wide range of
projects, from basic programming exercises to complex
automation systems. One of the most significant advantages
of the Raspberry Pi is its small form factor, which makes it
an excellent choice for projects where space is limited. The
devices are also energy-efficient, consuming very little
power, which makes them an ideal choice for battery-
powered projects or those that need to run continuously.

Since the release of the first Raspberry Pi model in 2012, the

series has evolved significantly, with each iteration bringing
more processing power, more memory, and more features.
The Raspberry Pi 4, released in 2019, is the most powerful
model to date, boasting up to 8 GB of RAM and support for
dual 4K displays. The Raspberry Pi 4 has also brought
significant improvements in connectivity, with USB 3.0 ports
and true Gigabit Ethernet, making it an ideal choice for
networking projects.

The Raspberry Pi has a thriving community of developers,

makers, and enthusiasts who have created a vast ecosystem
of software and projects. There are numerous operating
systems available for the Raspberry Pi, including Raspbian,
Ubuntu, and Windows 10 IoT Core. The devices also support

116
a wide range of programming languages, including Python,
C++, and Java, making them accessible to developers of all
skill levels.

The Raspberry Pi series has become a game-changer in the

world of single-board computers, providing an affordable,
user-friendly platform for learning and experimenting with
electronics and programming. Whether you're a student, a
hobbyist, or a professional, the Raspberry Pi has something
to offer, and its potential is only limited by your imagination.
With new models and features continually being added to the
series, it's safe to say that the Raspberry Pi is here to stay, and
it will continue to be a significant force in the world of DIY
electronics for years to come.

11.2 Industrial Microcontroller

• Raspberry Pi 1 Model A, released in 2012
• Raspberry Pi 1 Model B, released in 2012
• Raspberry Pi 1 Model A+, released in 2014
• Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+, released in 2014
• Raspberry Pi 2 Model B, released in 2015
• Raspberry Pi Zero, released in 2015
• Raspberry Pi 3 Model B, released in 2016
• Raspberry Pi Zero W, released in 2017
• Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+, released in 2018
• Raspberry Pi 3 Model A+, released in 2018
• Raspberry Pi 4 Model B, released in 2019
• Raspberry Pi 400, released in 2020
• Raspberry Pi Pico, released in 2021

11.3 Raspberry Pi Pico

The Raspberry Pi Pico is a microcontroller board that was
released in early 2021 by the Raspberry Pi Foundation. It is

117
based on the RP2040 microcontroller chip, which was
designed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation specifically for use
in microcontroller boards. The Raspberry Pi Pico is a low-
cost and versatile microcontroller board that can be
programmed in C/C++ and MicroPython.

One of the main advantages of the Raspberry Pi Pico is its

low cost. At only $4, it is an affordable option for hobbyists
and makers who want to experiment with microcontroller
projects without spending a lot of money. Despite its low
cost, the Raspberry Pi Pico is a powerful microcontroller
board with a variety of built-in peripherals, including a
programmable I/O matrix, programmable PWM channels,
and a temperature sensor.

Figure 11.1 Raspberry Pi Pico

Another advantage of the Raspberry Pi Pico is its small form

factor. Measuring only 51mm x 21mm, it is easy to use in
projects where space is limited. It also has a USB port for
programming and power, and it can be powered by either
USB or an external power supply.

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However, one disadvantage of the Raspberry Pi Pico is that
it is not as well-known as other microcontroller boards,
which means that there may be fewer resources and
community support available. Additionally, the Raspberry Pi
Pico is not as powerful as some other microcontroller boards,
which may limit its use in more complex projects.

In terms of features, the Raspberry Pi Pico has 264KB of

RAM, 2MB of flash memory, and a variety of input/output
interfaces, including SPI, I2C, and UART. The RP2040
microcontroller chip also includes a dual-core ARM Cortex-
M0+ processor and a number of other features, such as a
programmable DMA controller and a configurable
input/output peripheral.

There are several reasons why the Raspberry Pi Pico is better

than other boards in the Raspberry Pi series:

1. Low cost: The Raspberry Pi Pico is one of the most

affordable boards in the series, at only $4.

2. High-performance microcontroller: The RP2040

chip used in the Raspberry Pi Pico is a powerful
microcontroller, with dual-core ARM Cortex-M0+
processors and a variety of built-in peripherals.

3. Small form factor: The Raspberry Pi Pico is one of

the smallest boards in the series, making it an
excellent choice for projects where space is limited.

4. Easy to use: The Raspberry Pi Pico is easy to use and

program, with a variety of development
environments and programming languages available.

5. Compatible with accessories: The Raspberry Pi Pico

can be used with a wide range of accessories and

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 sensors, making it a versatile choice for a variety of
projects.
Overall, the Raspberry Pi Pico is a powerful and versatile
microcontroller board that offers a low-cost and low-power
solution for embedded applications. While it may not be as
well-known as other microcontroller boards, it has a growing
community of developers and makers who are using it for a
wide range of projects.

11.4 Components of Raspberry Pi Pico

The Raspberry Pi Pico board has the following components:

11.4. 1 RP2040 microcontroller

The RP2040 is a powerful microcontroller designed
specifically for the Raspberry Pi Pico board. It is a dual-core
ARM Cortex-M0+ processor that runs at 133MHz and has
264KB of RAM.
11.4.2 Flash memory
The Raspberry Pi Pico has 2MB of onboard flash memory
that can be used for storing programs and data.
11.4.3 Programmable IO (PIO) Blocks
The Pico has three PIO blocks that allow for the
implementation of custom peripherals and interfaces. These
blocks can be programmed to operate independently of the
main processor, which makes them ideal for implementing
real-time functionality.

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11.4.4 GPIO Pins
The Pico has 26 GPIO pins that can be used for digital
input/output, analog input, and various communication
protocols such as I2C, SPI, and UART.
11.4.5 USB Port
The Pico has a micro-USB port that can be used for power,
programming, and data transfer.
11.4.6 Power Management
The Pico has a built-in power management system that
allows it to operate from a range of power sources, including
USB, external batteries, and solar panels.
11.4.7 Onboard Voltage Regulators
The Pico has two voltage regulators that provide stable 3.3V
and 1.8V outputs for powering external components.
11.4.8 Crystal Oscillator
The Pico has an onboard crystal oscillator that provides
accurate timing for the microcontroller.
11.4.9 LED Indicators
The Pico has two onboard LED indicators that can be used
for debugging and status indication.
The Raspberry Pi Pico packs a lot of features into a small and
affordable package, making it an excellent choice for a wide
range of projects, from simple hobby projects to more
complex industrial applications.

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11.5 Pin Configuration of Raspberry Pi Pico
Raspberry Pi Pico is a microcontroller board that offers a
variety of pins for connecting to other devices and
peripherals. These pins can be used for a wide range of
applications, from driving LEDs and motors to
communicating with sensors and other devices. The pins are
arranged in a particular order and labeled with different
names and functions, depending on their capabilities. In this
section, we will discuss the pin configuration of Raspberry Pi
Pico in detail and explain the function of each pin.

Raspberry Pi Pico has a total of 26 pins, arranged in two rows

on either side of the board. The pins are divided into four
groups: power, ground, digital I/O, and analog I/O. The
power and ground pins provide a voltage supply and a
common ground for the board and the connected devices. The
digital and analog pins can be used for input or output and
have different capabilities and features.

Figure 11.2 Raspberry Pi Pico Pin Configurations

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Here is a detailed description of each pin on the Raspberry Pi
Pico board:

11.5.1 Ground Pins

There are a total of three ground pins (GND) on the board,
labeled as GND, GND, and GND. These pins are connected
to the common ground of the board and provide a reference
voltage for the connected devices.
11.5.2 Power Pins
There are two power pins on the board, labeled as VBUS and
3V3. The VBUS pin is connected to the USB power supply,
while the 3V3 pin provides a regulated voltage of 3.3 volts
for the board and the connected devices.
11.5.3 Digital Pins
There are a total of 21 digital pins on the board, labeled as
GP0 to GP21. These pins can be used for digital input or
output and have a variety of capabilities, such as PWM, SPI,
I2C, and UART. The pins are capable of handling voltages
up to 3.3 volts.
11.5.4 Analog Pins
There are three analog pins on the board, labeled as GP26,
GP27, and GP28. These pins can be used for analog input and
have a resolution of 12 bits. The pins are capable of handling
voltages up to 3.3 volts.
11.5.5 LED Pins
There are two LED pins on the board, labeled as LED and
LED_N. The LED pin is connected to an on-board LED,
while the LED_N pin is connected to an external LED.
11.5.6 BOOTSEL Pins

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The BOOTSEL pin is used for boot selection and can be
connected to ground or 3.3 volts to select the boot mode of
the board.
11.5.7 SWCLK and SWDIO Pins
These pins are used for SWD programming and debugging
and can be connected to an external debugger for
programming the board.
11.5.8 RUN Pin
The RUN pin is used for resetting the board and can be
connected to ground or 3.3 volts to reset the board.
11.5.9 5V and VIN Pins
These pins are not used on the Raspberry Pi Pico board, but
they can be used for powering the board from an external
power supply or for providing power to external devices. The
5V pin provides an unregulated voltage of 5 volts, while the
VIN pin can handle a voltage range of 1.8 to 5.5 volts.
Each pin on the Raspberry Pi Pico has a specific function and
purpose, and understanding these functions is crucial for
successful hardware programming and development. The
following is a detailed overview of each and every pin on the
Raspberry Pi Pico:

1. GP0: General-purpose input-only pin

2. GP1: General-purpose input-only pin
3. GP2: General-purpose input/output pin
4. GP3: General-purpose input/output pin
5. GP4: General-purpose input/output pin
6. GP5: General-purpose input/output pin
7. GP6: General-purpose input/output pin
8. GP7: General-purpose input/output pin
9. GP8: General-purpose input/output pin

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 10. GP9: General-purpose input/output pin
11. GP10: General-purpose input/output pin
12. GP11: General-purpose input/output pin
13. GP12: General-purpose input/output pin
14. GP13: General-purpose input/output pin
15. GP14: General-purpose input/output pin
16. GP15: General-purpose input/output pin
17. GP16: General-purpose input/output pin
18. GP17: General-purpose input/output pin
19. GP18: General-purpose input/output pin
20. GP19: General-purpose input/output pin
21. GP20: General-purpose input/output pin
22. GP21: General-purpose input/output pin
23. GP22: General-purpose input/output pin
24. GP26: General-purpose input/output pin
25. 3V3: 3.3V power supply pin
26. GND: Ground pin
The pin configuration of Raspberry Pi Pico provides a
flexible and versatile platform for connecting to a wide range
of devices and peripherals. With its numerous pins and
capabilities, the board is suitable for a wide range of
applications, from basic prototyping and experimentation to
advanced electronics projects.

11.6 Industrial Application Raspberry Pi Pico

Raspberry Pi Pico, despite being a small and affordable
microcontroller board, has numerous industrial applications.
Its versatility, low cost, and compact form factor make it an
attractive choice for various projects. Here are some
industrial applications of Raspberry Pi Pico:

11.6.1 Automation Systems

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Raspberry Pi Pico can be used to build automation systems
for various industries. Its programmability and GPIO pins
allow it to control various sensors, actuators, and devices. It
can be programmed to automate processes, monitor
equipment, and collect data.
11.6.2 Internet of Things (IoT)
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in IoT projects due to its
connectivity options such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Ethernet.
It can be used to build smart devices such as temperature
sensors, door locks, and home automation systems.
11.6.3 Robotics
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used to build robots due to its
capability to control various motors and sensors. It can be
programmed to perform tasks such as object detection,
obstacle avoidance, and path planning.
11.6.4 Automotive
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in automotive projects to
control various systems such as lighting, audio, and
infotainment. It can also be used to monitor vehicle
performance and collect data for analysis.
11.6.5 Aerospace
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in aerospace projects due to
its small size, low power consumption, and robustness. It can
be used to control various systems such as navigation,
communication, and propulsion.
11.6.6 Agriculture
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in agriculture projects to
monitor environmental conditions such as temperature,

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humidity, and soil moisture. It can also be used to control
irrigation systems and automate farming processes.
11.6.7 Healthcare
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in healthcare projects to
collect and analyze patient data. It can be used to monitor
vital signs, track medication schedules, and control medical
equipment.
11.6.8 Manufacturing
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in manufacturing projects to
automate processes such as assembly line operations, quality
control, and inventory management. It can also be used to
monitor equipment performance and collect data for analysis.
11.6.9 Energy Management
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in energy management
projects to monitor and control energy usage. It can be used
to collect data from sensors and control systems such as
lighting, HVAC, and power management
11.6.10 Security
Raspberry Pi Pico can be used in security projects to control
access systems, monitor surveillance cameras, and detect
intrusions. It can also be used to analyze data from sensors
such as motion detectors, door sensors, and smoke detectors.
Raspberry Pi Pico has a vast range of industrial applications
due to its versatility, affordability, and programmability. Its
small size and low power consumption make it an ideal
choice for projects where space is limited, and energy
efficiency is crucial.

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Chapter 12
STM Microcontroller Series

12.1 Introduction
STM series is a range of microcontrollers developed and
produced by STMicroelectronics, a global leader in the
semiconductor industry. STM microcontrollers are widely
used in various electronic applications such as automotive,
industrial, consumer electronics, and healthcare. These
microcontrollers are known for their high performance, low
power consumption, and advanced peripherals, making them
an attractive choice for developers.

The STM series offers a wide range of microcontrollers, from

low-power, low-cost devices to high-performance
microcontrollers with advanced features such as digital
signal processing, Ethernet, and USB connectivity. STM
microcontrollers are also available in different packages,
from small and compact devices to high-density ball grid
array packages, making them suitable for various
applications.

One of the main advantages of STM microcontrollers is their

compatibility with various development tools and software.
The STM32 series, for example, is compatible with the
popular open-source development environment, Arduino, as
well as the official development tools provided by
STMicroelectronics. This compatibility allows developers to
easily prototype and develop their projects, reducing time-to-
market and development costs.

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Overall, STM series microcontrollers are a popular choice for
developers due to their high performance, low power
consumption, and wide range of features and peripherals.
They are used in various industries and applications, from
small hobby projects to complex industrial automation
systems. With their compatibility with popular development
tools and software, STM microcontrollers offer developers a
flexible and reliable solution for their projects.

12.2 STM Microcontroller Series

STM32F0 Series: Entry-level 32-bit microcontrollers with
low power consumption and a compact form factor. Ideal for
cost-sensitive applications.
STM32F1 Series: Low to medium-performance 32-bit
microcontrollers with a wide range of connectivity options
and a rich set of peripherals.
STM32F2 Series: High-performance 32-bit microcontrollers
with advanced features such as hardware encryption,
Ethernet, and dual-bank Flash memory.
STM32F3 Series: 32-bit microcontrollers with advanced
analog peripherals and high-speed communication interfaces
such as USB and CAN.
STM32F4 Series: High-performance 32-bit microcontrollers
with advanced features such as DSP instructions, Ethernet,
and high-speed USB.
STM32F7 Series: High-performance 32-bit microcontrollers
with dual-core processors, advanced graphics support, and
hardware encryption.
STM32H7 Series: High-performance 32-bit microcontrollers
with dual-core processors, advanced graphics support, and

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hardware encryption. Also includes advanced analog
peripherals and Ethernet.
STM32L0 Series: Ultra-low-power 32-bit microcontrollers
with a wide range of connectivity options and a rich set of
peripherals.
STM32L1 Series: Ultra-low-power 32-bit microcontrollers
with advanced analog peripherals and a wide range of
connectivity options.
STM32L4 Series: Ultra-low-power 32-bit microcontrollers
with advanced features such as hardware encryption,
advanced graphics support, and USB.
STM32WB Series: Wireless microcontrollers with Bluetooth
Low Energy and Zigbee support, as well as a rich set of
peripherals.
STM8 Series: 8-bit microcontrollers with a compact form
factor and a wide range of peripherals.
Each STM microcontroller series is designed for specific
applications and use cases, with varying levels of
performance, power consumption, and feature sets.
Therefore, it is essential to choose the right series based on
your project requirements.

12.3 STM32F407VG
The STM32F407VG is a microcontroller from the STM32F4
family, which is a high-performance series of
microcontrollers based on the ARM Cortex-M4F core. It is
designed for embedded applications that require high
processing power, low power consumption, and rich
connectivity options. The STM32F407VG has a clock speed

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of up to 168 MHz, 1 MB flash memory, and 192 KB RAM,
making it suitable for a wide range of applications

Advantages
12.3.1 High Processing Power
The STM32F407VG has a clock speed of up to 168 MHz
and a floating-point unit (FPU), which makes it capable of
performing complex mathematical operations quickly and
efficiently.
12.3.2 Rich Connectivity Options
The microcontroller has various connectivity options such as
Ethernet, USB, CAN, and SPI, which makes it suitable for
applications that require communication with other devices.

Figure 12.1: STM32F4070 Microcontroller Board

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12.3.3 Low Power Consumption
The STM32F407VG has a low power consumption mode
that reduces the power consumption to as low as 2.7 µA in
standby mode, making it suitable for battery-powered
applications.
12.3.4 Large Memory
With 1 MB flash memory and 192 KB RAM, the
STM32F407VG has enough memory to store and run
complex applications.
12.3.5 Rich Peripherals
The microcontroller has a variety of built-in peripherals such
as ADCs, DACs, timers, and PWM controllers, which makes
it easier to interface with other components.

Disadvantages
12.3.6 Complexity
The STM32F407VG is a complex microcontroller that
requires a significant amount of expertise to use efficiently.
12.3.7 Cost
Compared to other microcontrollers, the STM32F407VG is
relatively expensive.
12.3.8 Power Supply
The microcontroller requires a 3.3V power supply, which
may not be compatible with some applications.

Factors
12.3.9 Development Environment

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The STM32F407VG requires a specialized development
environment, which includes an Integrated Development
Environment (IDE), a debugger, and a programmer.
12.3.9 Application Requirements
The microcontroller is suitable for applications that require
high processing power, low power consumption, and rich
connectivity options. Developers should consider the
application requirements before choosing this
microcontroller.
12.3.10 Expertise
The STM32F407VG requires a significant amount of
expertise to use efficiently. Developers should have
experience with embedded programming and
microcontroller architectures before using this
microcontroller.
The STM32F407VG is a powerful and versatile
microcontroller that is suitable for a wide range of
applications. Its high processing power, rich connectivity
options, and low power consumption make it an attractive
choice for developers who require a powerful and efficient
microcontroller. However, its complexity and cost may make
it less suitable for some applications.

12.4 Components of STM32F407VG

12.4.1 ARM Cortex-M4 Processor
STM32F407VG is powered by a 32-bit ARM Cortex-M4
processor with floating-point unit (FPU), which provides
high performance and low power consumption. It has a
maximum operating frequency of 168 MHz.
12.4.2 Flash Memory

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STM32F407VG has a 1 MB flash memory for program
storage. It allows for firmware updates and modifications
without the need for additional hardware.
12.4.3 SRAM
The microcontroller also has 192 KB of SRAM, which
provides temporary storage for data during program
execution.
12.4.4 GPIO Pins
STM32F407VG has 82 general-purpose input/output (GPIO)
pins, which can be configured to interface with various
sensors, actuators, and other devices.
12.4.5 ADC
The microcontroller has a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) with up to 24 channels, which allows for precise
measurement of analog signals.
12.4.6 DAC
STM32F407VG also has a 12-bit digital-to-analog converter
(DAC) with two channels, which allows for accurate output
of analog signals.
12.4.7 Timers
The microcontroller has 14 timers, which can be used for
various purposes such as measuring time intervals,
generating PWM signals, and controlling motors.
12.4.8 Communication Interfaces
STM32F407VG has several communication interfaces
including UART, SPI, I2C, CAN, and USB. These interfaces

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enable the microcontroller to communicate with other
devices and systems.
12.4.9 DMA
The microcontroller has a direct memory access (DMA)
controller, which allows for high-speed data transfer between
peripherals and memory.
12.4.10 Power Management
STM32F407VG has several power-saving features such as
multiple low-power modes, which help to extend the battery
life of battery-powered devices.
STM32F407VG is a highly capable microcontroller with a
range of components that enable it to interface with various
devices and perform complex tasks. Its powerful processor,
ample memory, and versatile communication interfaces
make it an ideal choice for a wide range of applications.

12.5 Pin Configuration of STM32F407VG

The STM32F407VG microcontroller has a total of 144 pins,
which are divided into different functional groups. Here is
the pin configuration of STM32F407VG in detail:

12.5.1 Power Supply Pins

These pins provide power supply to the microcontroller.
There are several pins for different voltage levels, including:
VDD: Supply voltage for the digital core (1.8V to 3.6V)
VDDA: Supply voltage for the analog circuits (2.4V to
3.6V)

VBAT: Backup battery supply (1.8V to 3.6V)

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 Figure 12.2 Board’s Pin Configuration

12.5.2 Reset and Boot Pins

These pins are used for reset and boot operations. There are
two main pins:

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 NRST: Active-low reset pin for the microcontroller
BOOT0: Pin used for boot selection (boot from flash
or system memory)

12.5.3 Oscillator and Clock Pins

These pins provide the clock signal to the microcontroller.
There are different pins for different clock sources,
including:
HSE: High-speed external oscillator input
LSE: Low-speed external oscillator input
HSI: High-speed internal oscillator
LSI: Low-speed internal oscillator
MCO: Master clock output

12.5.4 GPIO Pins

These pins are used for digital input/output operations. There
are a total of 82 GPIO pins in STM32F407VG, divided into
different ports (A to I).
12.5.5 Analog Pins
These pins are used for analog input operations. There are a
total of 16 analog pins in STM32F407VG, divided into three
ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) groups.
12.5.6 Communication Interface Pins
These pins are used for communication interfaces such as
UART, SPI, and I2C. There are several pins for each
interface, depending on the number of channels required.
12.5.7 Timers and PWM Pins
These pins are used for timer and PWM (Pulse-Width
Modulation) operations. There are a total of 17 timer
channels in STM32F407VG, divided into different timers.

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12.6 Industrial Applications of STM32F407VG
STM32F407VG is a powerful microcontroller with a wide
range of industrial applications. Its advanced features, high
performance, and low power consumption make it an
attractive choice for various projects. Here are some
industrial applications of STM32F407VG:

12.6.1 Industrial Automation

STM32F407VG can be used to build automation systems for
various industries. Its high processing speed, advanced
peripherals, and low power consumption make it an ideal
choice for industrial applications. It can be programmed to
automate processes, monitor equipment, and collect data.

12.6.2 Internet of Things (IoT)

STM32F407VG can be used in IoT projects due to its
connectivity options such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Ethernet.
It can be used to build smart devices such as temperature
sensors, door locks, and home automation systems.
12.6.3 Robotics
STM32F407VG can be used to build robots due to its
capability to control various motors and sensors. It can be
programmed to perform tasks such as object detection,
obstacle avoidance, and path planning.
12.6.4 Automotive
STM32F407VG can be used in automotive projects to
control various systems such as lighting, audio, and
infotainment. It can also be used to monitor vehicle
performance and collect data for analysis.

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12.6.5 Aerospace
STM32F407VG can be used in aerospace projects due to its
small size, low power consumption, and robustness. It can be
used to control various systems such as navigation,
communication, and propulsion.
12.6.6 Medical Devices
STM32F407VG can be used in medical devices due to its
advanced features, such as low power consumption, high
accuracy, and fast processing speed. It can be used to control
various medical equipment, such as monitoring devices,
infusion pumps, and diagnostic equipment.
STM32F407VG has a vast range of industrial applications
due to its versatility, advanced features, and low power
consumption. Its small size and high processing speed make
it an ideal choice for projects where space is limited, and
performance is crucial.

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Chapter 13
ESP Microcontroller Series

13.1 Introduction
The ESP series is a family of low-cost, low-power
microcontrollers designed for embedded applications and
IoT projects. The series is developed by Espress if Systems,
a Shanghai-based semiconductor company. The ESP series is
known for its Wi-Fi capabilities, which make it an attractive
choice for IoT projects that require wireless connectivity.

The first ESP microcontroller, the ESP8266, was released in

2014 and quickly gained popularity among hobbyists and
DIY enthusiasts due to its low cost and ease of use. Since
then, the series has expanded to include various models with
improved features such as increased processing power, more
memory, and support for Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low
Energy (BLE).

The ESP series is based on the Xtensa architecture, a highly

configurable and customizable 32-bit RISC processor
architecture designed by Tensilica. This architecture allows
for flexibility in designing the microcontroller to fit specific
requirements.

One of the standout features of the ESP series is its low power
consumption, making it an ideal choice for battery-powered
IoT devices. The microcontrollers also come with built-in
Wi-Fi or Bluetooth connectivity, eliminating the need for
additional components.

140
As, the ESP series has become a popular choice for IoT
projects due to its low cost, low power consumption, and
wireless connectivity capabilities. Its versatility and ease of
use have made it accessible to hobbyists, while its
capabilities have made it suitable for more advanced projects.

13.2 ESP Series

All the series of the ESP microcontrollers are as follow:

• ESP8266
• ESP32
• ESP8285
• ESP32-S2
• ESP32-C3
• ESP32-S3
• ESP32-H2
• ESP32-C6
• ESP32-WROOM
• ESP32-WROVER
• ESP32-PICO
• ESP32-DevKitC
• ESP-WROVER-KIT
• ESP-LyraT
• ESP32-Sense Kit
Each series of the ESP microcontrollers has its own unique
features and specifications, making them suitable for various
IoT and automation projects. The ESP series has become
increasingly popular due to its low cost, ease of use, and
excellent community support.

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13.3 ESP8266 Microcontroller
The ESP8266 is a low-cost Wi-Fi enabled microcontroller
that has gained popularity due to its ease of use and low cost.
Developed by Espressif Systems, it is designed for IoT
projects and can be programmed using the Arduino IDE. The
ESP8266 has a built-in Wi-Fi module, making it ideal for IoT
projects that require a wireless connection.

The ESP8266 is a single-core microcontroller that comes

with 80 MHz clock speed and 64KB of instruction RAM. It
has a built-in Wi-Fi module that supports IEEE 802.11 b/g/n
Wi-Fi standards and can be used as a Wi-Fi client or access
point. The ESP8266 can be programmed using the Arduino
IDE, which makes it easy for beginners to get started with
programming.

Figure 13.1: ESP8266 Microcontroller Board

142
 Advantages
13.3.1 Low Cost
The ESP8266 is one of the most affordable Wi-Fi enabled
microcontrollers available in the market.
13.3.2 Ease of use
The ESP8266 can be programmed using the Arduino IDE,
which is a popular development environment among
beginners.
13.3.3 Built-in Wi-Fi
The ESP8266 has a built-in Wi-Fi module, making it easy to
connect to a wireless network.
13.3.4 Large Community
The ESP8266 has a large community of users, which means
there are plenty of resources and tutorials available online.

Disadvantages
13.3.5 Limited RAM
The ESP8266 has limited RAM, which can be a problem for
complex projects.
13.3.6 Single-Core
The ESP8266 is a single-core microcontroller, which means
it may not be suitable for projects that require high processing
power.
13.3.7 Power Consumption
The ESP8266 consumes more power than some of the other
microcontrollers in the ESP series.

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 Factors
13.3.8 Applications
The ESP8266 is ideal for IoT projects that require a low-cost
Wi-Fi enabled microcontroller.
13.3.9 Connectivity
The built-in Wi-Fi module makes it easy to connect the
ESP8266 to a wireless network.
13.3.10 Programming
The ESP8266 can be programmed using the Arduino IDE,
which is a popular development environment among
beginners.
The ESP8266 is a low-cost, Wi-Fi enabled microcontroller
that is ideal for IoT projects. Its ease of use and large
community make it a popular choice among beginners.
However, its limited RAM and single-core architecture may
not be suitable for all projects.

13.4 Components of ESP8266

The ESP8266 is a popular Wi-Fi enabled microcontroller that
is widely used for IoT projects. It is a highly integrated chip
that includes various components on a single board. Some of
the key components of the ESP8266 include:

13.4.1 Microcontroller Unit (MCU)

The MCU is the brain of the ESP8266 and is responsible for
controlling all the other components. It is an 80MHz 32-bit
Tensilica Xtensa LX106 MCU that can be programmed using
the Arduino IDE or other development environments.
13.4.2 Wi-Fi Module

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The Wi-Fi module is a key component of the ESP8266 and
allows it to connect to Wi-Fi networks. It supports IEEE
802.11 b/g/n wireless standards and can operate in both
client and access point modes.
13.4.3 Flash Memory
The ESP8266 has integrated flash memory that is used for
storing firmware and user programs. It comes with either
512KB or 4MB of flash memory depending on the variant.
13.4.4 RAM
The ESP8266 has 80KB of RAM that is used for storing
program data and variables.
13.4.5 Power Management Unit (PMU)
The PMU is responsible for managing the power supply to
the ESP8266. It includes a voltage regulator, a power-on-
reset (POR) circuit, and other components that ensure stable
and reliable operation.
13.4.6 I/O Pins
The ESP8266 has several General-Purpose Input/Output
(GPIO) pins that can be used for interfacing with other
components. It also has a built-in ADC and PWM
functionality.

13.5 Pin Configuration of ESP8266

The ESP8266 microcontroller has a total of 17 General
Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins, which can be used for
various functions such as digital input/output, analog input,
PWM, I2C, SPI, and more. Here is a detailed pin
configuration of ESP8266:

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1.VCC: This pin provides a power supply voltage of 3.3V to
the microcontroller.
2.GND: This pin is the ground pin and is used to complete
the circuit.
3.GPIO0: This pin is used for programming and boot mode
selection. It should be pulled up or down depending on
the mode.
4.GPIO1: This pin is used for UART communication.
5.GPIO2: This pin is used for I2C communication.
6.GPIO3: This pin is used for SPI communication.
7.GPIO4: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
8.GPIO5: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
9.GPIO6: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
10.GPIO7: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
11.GPIO8: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
12.GPIO9: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
13.GPIO10: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
14.GPIO12: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
15.GPIO13: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
16.GPIO14: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin.
17.GPIO15: This pin is a general-purpose input/output pin
and is also used for boot mode selection.
It is important to note that some of these pins have specific
functions and may require additional circuitry for proper use.
Additionally, some pins are also used for communication
interfaces and may be unavailable for general-purpose use
when in use for communication. It is important to refer to the
microcontroller's datasheet and reference manual for more
detailed information on pin configuration and usage.

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Figure 13.2 Functional Diagram of ES8266EX

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13.6 Industrial Application of ESP8266
The ESP8266 has gained popularity due to its low cost, ease
of use, and Wi-Fi connectivity, making it a popular choice
for IoT applications. Some of the industrial applications of
ESP8266 include:

13.6.1 Home Automation

The ESP8266 can be used to automate home appliances and
devices such as lighting, HVAC systems, security systems,
and more. It can be used to connect these devices to a Wi-Fi
network, making it possible to control them remotely.
13.6.2 Smart Agriculture
The ESP8266 can be used in agriculture to monitor and
control the environment of plants. It can be used to measure
temperature, humidity, and soil moisture, and then transmit
this data to a remote server for analysis.
13.6.3 Industrial Automation
The ESP8266 can be used to monitor and control industrial
processes, such as monitoring the temperature of machines
and transmitting data to a central server for analysis.
13.6.4 Smart Energy
The ESP8266 can be used to monitor and control energy
consumption in homes and businesses. It can be used to
monitor the energy usage of appliances and devices and then
transmit this data to a central server for analysis.
13.6.5 Healthcare
The ESP8266 can be used in healthcare applications, such as
monitoring vital signs and transmitting this data to a remote
server for analysis.

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13.6.6 Smart Cities
The ESP8266 can be used in smart city applications, such as
monitoring traffic flow and air quality. It can be used to
collect data from sensors and then transmit this data to a
central server for analysis.
The ESP8266 is a versatile microcontroller that can be used
in a wide range of industrial applications. Its low cost, ease
of use, and Wi-Fi connectivity make it an attractive choice
for IoT projects.

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Chapter 14
Advance Sensors

14.1 Introduction
In this chapter and a few following chapters we’ll be studying
in depth about the sensors, actuator, and modules that can be
used with microcontrollers especially Arduino
microcontroller boards.

Sensors are the devices that can detect the change in their
physical surroundings and can measure them. These sensors
convert the physical data in the form of temperature, light, or
sound and converts it into an electrical signal which is much
easier for a microcontroller or a computer system to process.
Sensors play a key role in modern robotics, internet of things
(IOTs), electronics, automation systems, and measurement
systems.

14.2 Sensors
There a vast variety of sensors that can used to process a vast
variety of data. Some of these sensors are used in medical
equipment, military equipment, robotics industry, and many
other industries. The design of a specific sensor is based on
its utility.

For example, temperature sensors are quite common as they

are frequently employed in numerous applications and are
readily available. Sensors like advance spectroscopic,
ultraviolet imaging sensors that are used on various outer

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space telescopes and International Space Station (ISS) are not
common in market and not every country on the planet is
capable on making such advance sensors.

In this book we are going to discuss those sensors that are

frequently employed in robotics, automation, and day to day
use. Some these sensors are given below.

1. Temperature and Humidity Sensor

2. Light Sensor
3. Ultrasonic Sensor
4. Infrared Sensor
5. Accelerometer
6. Magnetometer
7. Pressure Sensor
8. Touch and Sound Sensor
9. Moisture and Water Level Sensor
10. Heart Rate Sensor

14.3 Working of Sensors

Sensing, signal conditioning, and data processing are the
three main stages of a sensor that works with a
microcontroller. A sensor system with a microcontroller is
depicted in the block diagram.

The sensing element is in charge of detecting the physical

phenomenon being measured and producing a signal that the
signal conditioner can process. To produce a clean, usable
signal, the signal conditioner may amplify the signal, filter
out noise, or perform other signal processing tasks.

The sensing element's signal is then fed into an analog-to-

digital converter (ADC), which converts the analogue signal
into a digital signal that the microcontroller can process. The
microcontroller, which could be an Arduino or another type
of microcontroller, reads the digital signal from the ADC and

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performs any data processing required to produce a
meaningful output, such as calibration or scaling.

The sensor system's final output is typically communicated

to other devices or systems, such as a display or a control
system, via a digital or analog interface.

Overall, the block diagram depicts how a sensor system with

a microcontroller typically consists of three major stages:
sensing, signal conditioning, and data processing, and how
the microcontroller serves as the sensor system's central
processing unit.

Sensing Signal
Element Conditioner

Microcontroller ADC

Data Processing

Figure 14.1 Working of Sensors

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14.4 Temperature Sensors
Temperature sensors are widely used in industrial,
automotive, medical, and consumer electronics applications.
They are the instruments that measure the temperature of an
object or environment and generate an electrical signal
corresponding to the temperature.

14.4.1 Working of Temperature Sensor

The working principle of temperature sensors is based on the

fact that the physical properties of materials change with
temperature. Temperature sensors use different physical
properties such as electrical resistance, voltage, or frequency
to measure temperature. For example, thermocouples use the
See beck effect to measure temperature, while RTDs
(Resistance Temperature Detectors) use the change in
resistance with temperature.

14.4.2 Types of Temperature Sensors

1. Thermocouples are the most common type of

temperature sensor, especially in industrial
applications. They create a junction by joining two
dissimilar metals. A voltage proportional to the
temperature difference between the two junctions is
produced by the temperature difference. Depending
on the metal used, thermocouples can measure
temperatures ranging from -200°C to 2300°C.
2. RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors): They are
based on the principle that the resistance of a metal
wire changes with temperature. Platinum is
commonly used as a metal in RTDs because of its
linear response to temperature changes. The
resistance of the wire increases with temperature,
and this change in resistance is used to measure the
temperature. RTDs are known for their accuracy and
stability over a wide temperature range.

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 3. Thermistors: They are made from semiconductor
materials and are known for their high sensitivity to
temperature changes. Thermistors are made from
ceramic or metal oxide materials and their resistance
decreases with increasing temperature. They are
commonly used in automotive and consumer
electronics applications.
4. IC temperature sensors: They are integrated circuit
(IC) chips that are designed specifically for
measuring temperature. They use a temperature-
dependent voltage or current to measure the
temperature. They are easy to use and offer high
accuracy and stability.

14.4.3 Interfacing with Microcontroller

Temperature sensors can be interfaced with a microcontroller

using different interfaces such as analog or digital. In analog
interfacing, the output of the temperature sensor is an analog
voltage or current, which can be read by the microcontroller's
analog-to-digital converter (ADC). In digital interfacing, the
temperature sensor communicates with the microcontroller
through a digital protocol such as I2C, SPI, or UART.

To interface temperature sensors with a microcontroller, you

need to follow these steps:

1. Choose the right temperature sensor for your

application based on its range, accuracy, and
resolution.
2. Determine the interface you will use to communicate
with the microcontroller.
3. Connect the temperature sensor to the
microcontroller using the appropriate interface.
4. Read the temperature data from the sensor using the
microcontroller's ADC or digital input/output pins.

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 5. Convert the raw temperature data into a meaningful
temperature value using appropriate calibration and
scaling techniques.
6. Use the temperature value for your desired
application, such as controlling a heating system,
monitoring the temperature of a room, or displaying
the temperature on a display.

14.4.4 Available Sensors

There are several temperature sensors that can be used with

Arduino boards. Here are some common ones:

LM35: This is an analog temperature sensor that can measure

temperatures in the range of -55°C to 150°C with an accuracy
of ±0.5°C.

DS18B20: This is a digital temperature sensor that can

measure temperatures in the range of -55°C to 125°C with an
accuracy of ±0.5°C.

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DHT11/DHT22: These are digital temperature and humidity
sensors that can measure temperatures in the range of -40°C
to 80°C with an accuracy of ±2°C.

TMP36: This is an analog temperature sensor that can

measure temperatures in the range of -40°C to 125°C with an
accuracy of ±1°C.

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MCP9808: This is a digital temperature sensor that can
measure temperatures in the range of -40°C to 125°C with an
accuracy of ±0.5°C.

MAX31855: This is a thermocouple amplifier board that can

interface with several types of thermocouples to measure
temperatures up to 1800°C.

There are many other temperature sensors available that can

be used with Arduino boards. The choice of sensor depends
on the specific application and the required temperature
range and accuracy.

14.5 light Sensors

Light sensors are electronic devices used to detect and
measure light. They are widely used in various applications
such as automatic streetlights, smart home automation,
industrial automation, and many more. Light sensors come in
different types and can be interfaced with microcontrollers
such as Arduino, Raspberry Pi, or other microcontrollers.

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14.5.1 Working of Light Sensors

The photoelectric effect is a physical phenomenon that drives

light sensors. When photons (light particles) collide with a
photosensitive material, a small current or voltage is
generated. The sensor converts this change in current or
voltage into a readable signal. The amount of current or
voltage generated is proportional to the amount of light
falling on the sensor.

14.5.2 Types of Light Sensors

1. Photodiodes are a type of semiconductor device that

converts light to electrical current. When light
photons strike the photodiode, a current is generated.
Photodiodes are commonly used in electronic
circuits for light detection.
2. Photoresistors, also known as Light Dependent
Resistors (LDRs), are resistors whose resistance
decreases as the intensity of light increases.
Streetlights, solar-powered devices, and light meters
all use photoresistors.
3. Phototransistors are light-sensitive bipolar
transistors. They function similarly to photodiodes,
but with a higher gain, allowing them to detect lower
levels of light.
4. Ambient Light Sensors (ALS) are sensors that
measure the amount of light in a given area. They are
commonly used in smartphones, laptops, and tablets
to adjust screen brightness based on ambient light
levels.

14.5.3 Interfacing Light Sensors with Microcontrollers

1. The first step in linking a light sensor to a

microcontroller is to select the appropriate sensor for
your assessment. As each type of sensor has unique
characteristics such as sensitivity, fast response, and

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 frequency response, you should select a sensor that
suits your requirements.
2. After you've decided on a light sensor, you'll need to
connect it to your microcontroller. The connections
will vary depending on the type of sensor and the
microcontroller platform, but typically, the power
and ground pins of the sensor must be attached to the
corresponding pins on the microcontroller. You must
also connect the sensor's output pin to an analog and
digital input pin on the microcontroller.
3. After interacting the light sensor to the
microcontroller, make a program that reads the
sensor output and performs the desired action. If
you're using a photoresistor to detect light, for
example, you can write a program that reads the
voltage on the analog signal pin and adjusts the
brightness of an LED or triggers a relay based on the
light level. Similarly, if you're using a photodetector
or photodiode, you can create a program that reads
the current or voltage on the input pin and takes
action based on the amount of light.

14.5.4 Available Sensors

There are several light sensors that can be used with Arduino
boards. Here are some common ones:

TSL2561: The TSL2561 is a digital light sensor capable of

measuring both visible and infrared light. It communicates
with Arduino via the I2C bus and can be used in a variety of
applications including smart home automation, industrial
automation, and more.

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BH1750: BH1750 is another digital light sensor that
communicates with Arduino over the I2C bus. It can measure
both ambient light and artificial light and is commonly used
in smartphones, laptops, and tablets to adjust the screen
brightness according to the surrounding light levels.

14.6 Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors are a type of sensor that can be used to
measure distance, detect obstacles, and perform other tasks
in electronic projects. We'll look at how ultrasonic sensors
work, different types of ultrasonic sensors, and how to
connect them to a microcontroller in this section.

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14.6.1 Working with Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors operate by emitting high-frequency sound

waves and measuring the time it takes for the waves to return
from an object. The sensor sends out a short burst of sound
waves, which travel through the air until they collide with an
object. When sound waves strike an object, they bounce back
to the sensor, which measures the time it takes for the sound
waves to return.

This time measurement is used by the sensor to calculate the

distance to the object. Because the speed of sound in air is
known, the time it takes for sound waves to travel to and from
the object can be used to calculate the distance. Ultrasonic
sensors are precise and can measure distances of several
meters.

14.6.2 Types of Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors are classified into two types: analogue and

digital.

1. Analog ultrasonic sensors produce an analogue

voltage proportional to the object's distance. A
microcontroller's analogue input pin can be used to
read the voltage. These sensors are easy to use and
can connect to almost any microcontroller.
2. Digital ultrasonic sensors generate a digital signal
that can be read by a microcontroller's digital input
pin. These sensors are more complicated than
analogue sensors, but they are more accurate and can
provide more information about the detected object.

14.6.3 Interfacing Ultrasonic Sensors with Microcontrollers

1. To connect an ultrasonic sensor to a microcontroller,

connect it to the microcontroller and write a program

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 that reads the sensor output and performs the desired
action.
2. To connect the sensor to the microcontroller,
typically connect the sensor's power and ground pins
to the corresponding pins on the microcontroller.
You will also need to connect the sensor's trigger pin
to a digital output pin on the microcontroller and the
sensor's echo pin to a digital input pin on the
microcontroller.
3. Sending a trigger signal to the sensor, measuring the
time it takes for the sound waves to bounce back, and
calculating the distance to the object based on the
time measurement are typical steps in the program
that reads the sensor output and performs the desired
action. Based on the distance measurement, the
program can then perform an action such as turning
on an LED, sounding an alarm, or controlling a
motor.

14.6.4 Available Sensors

There are several ultrasonic sensors that can be used with

Arduino boards. Here are some common ones:

HC-SR04: The HC-SR04 is a low-cost ultrasonic sensor that

can gauge distances up to 4 meters with a 3mm accuracy. It
communicates with Arduino through the GPIO pins and is
widely used in robotic systems, automation, and Internet of
Things (IoT) applications.

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JSN-SR04T: Another popular ultrasonic sensor, the JSN-
SR04T, can measure distances up to 6 meters with a 2mm
accuracy. It uses the UART interface to communicate with
Arduino and is commonly used in water level measurement,
obstacle avoidance, and other applications.

US-100: US-100 is a compact ultrasonic sensor that can

measure distances up to 4.5 meters with an accuracy of 1cm.
It communicates with Arduino over the GPIO pins and is
commonly used in robotics, drones, and other applications.

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SRF05: The SRF05 is an ultrasonic sensor capable of
measuring distances up to 4 meters with a 3mm accuracy. It
communicates with the Arduino through the GPIO pins and
is widely used in robotics, automation, and other
applications.

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These are just a few examples of ultrasonic sensors that can
be used in conjunction with Arduino. Other ultrasonic
sensors may be more appropriate for your project, depending
on its requirements. Before choosing a sensor for your
project, it's always a good idea to read the datasheets and
specifications.

14.7 Infrared Sensors

Infrared (IR) sensors are electronic devices that detect
infrared radiation, a type of electromagnetic radiation with a
longer wavelength than visible light. Temperature
measurement, motion detection, and object detection are just
a few of the applications for infrared sensors.

14.7.1 Working of Infrared Sensors

Infrared sensors work by detecting infrared radiation emitted

by an object. All objects with a temperature greater than
absolute zero emit infrared radiation, and the amount of
radiation emitted depends on the temperature of the object.
Infrared sensors detect this radiation and convert it into an
electrical signal that can be processed by a microcontroller or
other electronic devices.

14.7.2 Types of Infrared Sensors

There are different types of infrared sensors available in the

market, each designed for a specific application. Some of the
commonly used types of infrared sensors are:

1. Passive Infrared (PIR) Sensors detect the infrared

radiation emitted by moving objects, such as humans
or animals. They are commonly used in motion
detection systems for security or automatic lighting
systems.
2. Thermopile sensors measure the temperature of an
object by detecting the infrared radiation emitted by

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 it. They are commonly used in temperature
measurement and thermal imaging systems.
3. Infrared photodiodes detect infrared radiation by
converting it into an electrical signal. They are
commonly used in remote control systems, where
they detect the infrared signal emitted by a remote
control and convert it into an electrical signal.
4. Infrared reflective sensors detect the presence or
absence of an object by measuring the amount of
infrared radiation reflected back from the object.
They are commonly used in object detection and
position sensing applications.

14.7.3 Interfacing Infrared Sensors with Microcontrollers

Using the appropriate interface circuitry, infrared sensors can

be easily interfaced with microcontrollers. A signal
conditioning circuit amplifies and filters the electrical signal
generated by the infrared sensor, and an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) converts the analogue signal into a digital
signal that can be processed by the microcontroller.

The digital signal can then be used by the microcontroller to

perform various functions, such as controlling a motor or
activating an alarm. Infrared sensors can also be connected
to microcontrollers via communication protocols like UART,
SPI, or I2C.

14.7.4 Available Sensor

There are several infrared sensors that can be used with

Arduino. Here are a few examples:

The presence of objects in its vicinity is detected by emitting

an infrared beam and measuring the reflection. These sensors
are commonly used in robotics for obstacle avoidance.

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Infrared Thermometer Sensor this type of sensor detects the
infrared radiation emitted by objects to determine their
temperature. Temperature sensing and thermal imaging are
two applications for these sensors.

Sensor for Infrared Receipt Infrared signals from remote

controls and other sources are received by this type of sensor.
These sensors are capable of controlling devices such as
televisions and air conditioners.

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Infrared Line Sensor this sensor detects ground lines by
emitting an infrared beam and measuring its reflection. Line-
following robots frequently use these sensors.

14.8 Accelerometer Sensors

An accelerometer is a sensor that measures acceleration
caused by motion or gravity. It is a MEMS (Micro-Electro-
Mechanical System) sensor that is widely used in a variety of
applications such as smartphones, gaming controllers,
drones, and many others.

14.8.1 Working of Accelerometer

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An accelerometer works on the principle of a mass-spring
system. The basic idea is to measure the displacement of a
proof mass from its initial position when an external force is
applied. The proof mass is attached to a spring, which is in
turn attached to a fixed frame. When the accelerometer
experiences acceleration, the proof mass moves relative to
the frame, compressing or stretching the spring. The
displacement of the proof mass is then measured and used to
calculate the acceleration.

14.8.2 Types of Accelerometers

There are several types of accelerometers available,

including piezoelectric, capacitive, and piezoresistive. Each
type has its own advantages and disadvantages

1. Piezoelectric Accelerometer: A piezoelectric

accelerometer generates an electrical charge in
response to acceleration by using piezoelectric
crystals. This accelerometer has a wide frequency
range and is sensitive to both dynamic and static
acceleration.
2. Capacitive Accelerometer: A capacitive
accelerometer uses a change in capacitance between
two plates to measure acceleration. This type of
accelerometer is highly accurate and has a high
signal-to-noise ratio.
3. Piezoresistive Accelerometer: A piezoresistive
accelerometer measures acceleration by measuring
changes in resistance in a resistive material. This
accelerometer has a wide frequency range and is
extremely sensitive to changes in acceleration.

14.8.3 Interfacing with Microcontroller

Accelerometers are frequently used in projects based on

microcontrollers. To connect an accelerometer to a
microcontroller, connect the accelerometer's output pins to

169
the microcontroller's input pins. The accelerometer's output
pins typically provide an analog signal that must be
converted to a digital signal using an Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC). The microcontroller can process the signal
after it has been converted to a digital signal.

The accelerometer data can then be used by the

microcontroller to determine an object's orientation, tilt, and
movement. This data can be used to control motors, servos,
and other project components.

14.8.4 Available in the Market

There are several accelerometers that are available in the

market and readily connects with Arduino and other
microcontroller boards. Some of them are given below.

ADXL335 - It is a low-power, 3-axis MEMS accelerometer

that can measure acceleration in the range of ±3 g.

MPU-6050 - It is a 6-axis MEMS accelerometer and

gyroscope combination sensor that can measure acceleration
in the range of ±2 g, ±4 g, ±8 g, and ±16 g. It is most applied
sensor.

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MMA7361 - It is a low-power, 3-axis MEMS accelerometer
that can measure acceleration in the range of ±1.5 g, ±6 g,
and ±11 g.

LIS3DH - It is a low-power, 3-axis MEMS accelerometer

that can measure acceleration in the range of ±2 g, ±4 g, ±8
g, and ±16 g.

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BMA180 - It is a low-power, 3-axis MEMS accelerometer
that can measure acceleration in the range of ±1 g, ±1.5 g,
±2 g, ±3 g, ±4 g, ±8 g, and ±16 g.

14.9 Magnetometer
A magnetometer is a sensor that is used to measure magnetic
fields. It can measure the strength, direction, and magnitude
of the magnetic field. Magnetometers are used in various
applications such as navigation, mapping, and geology.

14.9.1 Working of Magnetometer

A magnetometer works on the principle of Faraday's law of

electromagnetic induction. When a magnetic field is applied
to a conductor, it induces a voltage in the conductor. The

172
strength of the induced voltage is proportional to the strength
of the magnetic field. The magnetometer measures the
induced voltage and uses it to determine the strength of the
magnetic field.

14.8.2 Types of Magnetometers

Magnetometers are classified into three types: Hall Effect,

Fluxgate, and Magneto resistive. Each type has its own set of
benefits and drawbacks.

1. Hall Effect Magnetometer: A Hall Effect

magnetometer measures the voltage produced by the
Hall Effect when a magnetic field is applied to a
conductor. This type of magnetometer is easy to use,
low cost, and has a high sensitivity.
2. Fluxgate Magnetometer: A fluxgate magnetometer
measures changes in magnetic fields using a
magnetic core. This type of magnetometer is
extremely accurate and can detect even minor
changes in magnetic fields.
3. Magneto Resistive Magnetometer: A magneto
resistive magnetometer measures changes in the
resistance of a material when a magnetic field is
applied. This type of magnetometer is highly
sensitive and has a low noise level.

14.9.3 Interfacing with Microcontrollers

Magnetometers are simple to connect to microcontrollers like

Arduino. To connect a magnetometer to an Arduino, connect
the magnetometer's output pins to the microcontroller's input
pins. The magnetometer's output pins typically provide an
analogue or digital signal that the microcontroller can read.

When the microcontroller receives the signal, it can be

processed and used to determine the strength, direction, and
magnitude of the magnetic field. This data can be used in a

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variety of applications, including navigation, mapping, and
geology.

14.9.4 Available Magnetometers in Market

There are several magnetometers available in the market that

can be

easily programmed with various microcontrollers especially

microcontrollers.

HMC5883L - It is a 3-axis digital magnetometer that can

measure magnetic fields in the range of ±8 gauss.

MAG3110 - It is a 3-axis digital magnetometer that can

measure magnetic fields in the range of ±1000 µT.

LIS3MDL - It is a 3-axis digital magnetometer that can

measure magnetic fields in the range of ±4 gauss.

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14.10 Pressure Sensors
A pressure sensor is a sensor that helps to measure the
pressure of liquids or gases. It is widely used to monitor and
control pressure in a wide range of industries including
automotive, aerospace, and medical etc.

14.10.1 Working of Pressure Sensors

The functionality of a pressure sensor is decided by its type.

Most pressure sensors, on the other hand, work on the
principle of converting compressive force into an electrical
signal that can be measured by a microcontroller.

14.10.2 Types of Pressure sensors

Pressure sensors can be various types, however the most

common types of pressure sensors includes are

1. Resistive pressure sensors work on the principle of a

change in resistance of a conductive material due to
an applied pressure. The resistance change is
proportional to the pressure, and it can be measured
by a Wheatstone bridge circuit. This type of sensor
is widely used in automotive and industrial
applications.

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 2. Capacitive pressure sensors operate on the principle
of a change in capacitance caused by applied
pressure. An oscillator circuit can measure the
capacitance change, which is proportional to the
pressure. This sensor type is commonly used in
medical and aerospace applications.
3. Piezoelectric pressure sensors operate on the
principle of an electric charge change caused by
applied pressure on a piezoelectric crystal. An
amplifier circuit can measure the charge change,
which is proportional to the pressure. This type of
sensor is common in high-pressure applications like
oil and gas.

14.10.3 Interfacing with Microcontrollers

Pressure sensors can be integrated into a microcontroller via

a variety of interfaces, including I2C, SPI, and analog. The
pressure reading is gained by reading the analog or digital
signal from the pressure transducer and handling it by the
microcontroller.

14.10.4 Available Pressure Sensors in Market

Some popular pressure sensor modules that can be used with

Arduino microcontrollers are as follows:

BMP280 Pressure Sensor Module: This module

communicates via I2C or SPI and is based on the Bosch
BMP280 chip. The pressure range is 300-1100 hPa, and the
resolution is 0.01 hPa.

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MPXV7002DP Pressure Sensor Module: This module
communicates via analog interface and is based on the
Freescale MPXV7002DP chip. It measures pressures from 0
to 2 kPa and has a resolution of 1 kPa.

MS5611 Pressure Sensor Module: This module

communicates via the I2C interface and is based on the
Measurement Specialties MS5611 chip. It measures
pressures from 10 to 1200 mbar and has a resolution of 0.01
mbar.

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LPS331AP Pressure Sensor Module: This module is based
on the STMicroelectronics LPS331AP chip and
communicates over I2C interface. It has a pressure range of
260-1260 hPa and a resolution of 0.01 hPa.

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14.11 Touch and Sound Sensors
Touch and sound sensors are two different types of sensors
that can detect and measure physical events. They can
communicate with microcontrollers like Arduino to obtain
data and carry out various tasks.

14.11.1 Types of Touch and Sound Sensors

Touch sensors detect the presence or absence of physical

contact. They are divided into two types: capacitive touch
sensors and resistive touch sensors.

1. Capacitive touch sensors work by measuring

changes in capacitance when a conductive object,
such as a finger, comes into contact with the sensor.
The sensor contains two conductive plates that are
separated by a dielectric material. When a finger
touches the sensor, it increases the capacitance
between the two plates, and the sensor detects the
change in capacitance.
2. Resistive touch sensors work by measuring changes
in resistance when a physical touch occurs. The
sensor contains two conductive layers that are
separated by a spacer. When a touch occurs, the two
layers come into contact, and the resistance between
them changes. The sensor detects the change in
resistance and registers the touch.

Sound sensors detect and measure sound levels in a given

environment. They are divided into two types: analog sound
sensors and digital sound sensors.

1. Analog sound sensors convert sound waves into an

analog electrical signal that a microcontroller can
read. A microphone in the sensor detects sound
waves and converts them into an electrical signal.

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 The microcontroller then amplifies and processes the
signal.
2. Digital sound sensors work by converting sound
waves into a digital electrical signal that can be read
by a microcontroller. The sensor contains a
microphone that detects sound waves and converts
them into a digital signal using an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC). The digital signal is then processed
by the microcontroller.

14.11.2 Interfacing with Microcontroller

Touch sensors can communicate with a microcontroller via a

variety of interfaces, including I2C, SPI, and digital. The
touch sensor's analog or digital signal is read by the
microcontroller and processed to detect the touch.

Sound sensors can be connected to a microcontroller via a

variety of interfaces, including I2C, SPI, and analog. The
sound sensor's analog or digital signal is read by the
microcontroller and processed to determine the sound level.

14.11. 3 Touch Sensors Available in Market

Some popular touch sensor modules that can be used with

Arduino microcontrollers are as follows:

TTP223B Touch Sensor Module: This module is a capacitive

touch sensor with a digital interface. It has an adjustable
sensitivity and can be used with a variety of Arduino boards.

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MPR121 Capacitive Touch Sensor Module: This module is a
capacitive touch sensor that communicates over I2C
interface. It has 12 touch pads and can be used with a variety
of Arduino boards.

Force Sensitive Resistor (FSR) Module: This is a resistive

touch sensor with an analog interface. It has a variable
resistance that changes with touch and is compatible with a
wide range of Arduino boards.

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14.11.4 Sound Sensors Available in Market

Some popular sound sensor modules that can be used with

Arduino microcontrollers are as follows:

KY-038 Microphone Sound Sensor Module: This is an

analog sound sensor with an analog interface. It has an
amplifier built in and can detect sound levels ranging from 0
to 100 dB.

LM393 Sound Detection Sensor Module: This is a digital

sound sensor with a digital interface. It includes an analog-
to-digital converter and can detect sound frequencies ranging
from 20 to 10000 Hz.

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14.12 Moisture and Water Level Sensors
Moisture and water level sensors are electronic devices that
measure the amount of moisture and water content in a
specific material or environment. They are widely used in
many industries, including agriculture, horticulture, food
processing, environmental monitoring, and many others.
These sensors aid in determining the optimal level of
moisture or water content required for proper plant, crop, and
material growth and maintenance. In this article, we will go
over the operation, types, and interfacing of moisture and
water level sensors with a microcontroller in great detail.

14.12.1 Working of These Sensors

Moisture and water level sensors work based on different

principles depending on the type of sensor. The most
commonly used principles for moisture sensing are resistive,
capacitive, and electromagnetic, while for water level
sensing, capacitive, ultrasonic, and pressure sensing
principles are used.

The electrical resistance of a material is measured by

resistive moisture sensors. Moisture in the material increases
its conductivity, resulting in a reduction in resistance.
Capacitive moisture sensors operate on the principle of
measuring a material's capacitance. Moisture increases the

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dielectric constant of the material, resulting in an increase in
capacitance. Electromagnetic moisture sensors operate on the
principle of measuring a material's dielectric constant.
Moisture changes the electromagnetic properties of the
material, resulting in a change in the dielectric constant.

The capacitance of the water level in a tank is measured by

capacitive water level sensors. The capacitance between the
sensor and the water increases as the water level rises.
Ultrasonic water level sensors measure the time it takes an
ultrasonic pulse to travel from the sensor to the water's
surface and back. Pressure water level sensors work by
measuring the pressure of the water at a specific depth. As
the depth of the water increases, so does the pressure.

14.12.2 Types of Moisture and Water Level Sensors

Moisture and water level sensors are available in different

types based on the principle of sensing and the material being
sensed. Some of the commonly used moisture sensors are:

1. Resistive moisture sensors: These sensors are made

of two conducting plates separated by a dielectric
material. When moisture is present, it increases the
conductivity of the dielectric material, resulting in a
decrease in resistance.
2. Capacitive moisture sensors: These sensors use a
capacitor to measure the dielectric constant of a
material. Moisture increases the dielectric constant
of the material, resulting in an increase in
capacitance.
3. Electromagnetic moisture sensors: These sensors
measure a material's dielectric constant using the
principle of electromagnetic waves. Moisture
changes the electromagnetic properties of the
material, causing a change in the dielectric constant.
4. Capacitive water level sensors: These sensors work
on the principle of measuring the capacitance

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 between the sensor and the water surface. As the
water level rises, the capacitance also increases.
5. Ultrasonic water level sensors: These work by
measuring the time it takes an ultrasonic pulse to
travel from the sensor to the water's surface and back.
6. Pressure water level sensors: These sensors work on
the principle of measuring the pressure of the water
at a particular depth.

14.12.3 Interfacing with Microcontroller

Moisture and water level sensors can be interfaced with

microcontrollers such as Arduino to collect data and control
devices based on the measured data. To interface a sensor
with a microcontroller, the sensor output is connected to an
analog or digital input pin on the microcontroller. The
microcontroller then reads the sensor output and processes it
according to the desired application.

14.12.4 Available in the Market

The following are the most common and readily available

moisture and water level sensors. That are to program with
Arduino boards, ESP, and other microcontrollers.

Capacitive Soil Moisture Sensor (SEN0193) - This sensor

has an adjustable threshold for detecting wet or dry soil and
can measure soil moisture content in the range of 0-50%. It
employs a digital output signal that Arduino can read.

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Grove - Moisture Sensor (SEN113) - This sensor measures
soil moisture content from 0 to 50% and has an analogue
output signal that Arduino can read. It has a wide operating
voltage range of 3.3V to 5V, making it compatible with a
variety of microcontrollers.

Water Level Sensor (SEN0204) - This sensor detects the

level of water in tanks or other containers. It detects the water
level with a contact-based probe and has a digital output
signal that Arduino can read.

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Waterproof Ultrasonic Sensor (SEN0205) - This sensor has
a measurement range of 3-500cm to a water surface. It
employs a non-contact, waterproof ultrasonic sensor with a
digital output signal that can be read by Arduino.

Ultrasonic Distance Sensor (SEN136B5B) - This sensor has

a measurement range of 3-500cm to a water surface. It
employs a non-contact ultrasonic sensor and has an analogue
output signal that Arduino can read.

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Water Level Sensor Depth Detection Module (SEN0257) -
This sensor detects water levels in tanks and other containers
while also measuring water temperature. It detects the water
level with a contact-based probe and has a digital output
signal that Arduino can read. It is capable of measuring water
levels up to 3 meters deep.

14.13 Heart Rate Sensor

Heart rate sensors are electronic devices that measure an
individual's heart rate. The electrical signals generated by the
heart during its contraction and relaxation cycles are used to
calculate the heart rate. These signals are detected by placing
electrodes on the skin, typically on the chest.

14.13.1 Working of Heart Rate Sensor

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A heart rate sensor's operation is based on the
electrocardiogram (ECG) signal. The ECG signal measures
the electrical activity of the heart muscle and is used to
diagnose a variety of heart conditions. The ECG signal is
made up of waves such as the P wave, QRS complex, and T
wave. Each of these waves represents a different stage of the
electrical activity of the heart.

14.13.2 Types of Heart Rate Sensor

Heart rate sensors are classified into two types: contact and
non-contact sensors. Contact sensors require electrodes to be
placed directly on the skin, whereas non-contact sensors
detect heart rate using other methods, such as optical sensors.

1. Contact sensors typically use two or more electrodes

that are placed on the skin. These electrodes detect
the electrical signals generated by the heart and
transmit them to a processing unit that calculates the
heart rate. Contact sensors are generally more
accurate than non-contact sensors, but they require
direct skin contact and may be uncomfortable for
some individuals.
2. Non-contact heart rate sensors detect heart rate using
optical sensors such as photoplethysmography
(PPG) sensors. PPG sensors measure the amount of
light absorbed or reflected by blood vessels by
shining a light through the skin. The heart rate is then
calculated using this measurement.

14.13.3 Interfacing with Microcontroller

Connecting a heart rate sensor to a microcontroller, such as

Arduino, and reading the sensor output using analogue or
digital input pins are the steps involved in interfacing a heart
rate sensor with a microcontroller. Most heart rate sensors
produce a digital output signal that the microcontroller can
read directly.

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14.13.4 Heart Rate Sensors Available in Market

MAX30105 Particle Sensor Breakout - This sensor uses PPG

to measure the heart rate and also provides a blood oxygen
level (SpO2) measurement.

AD8232 Heart Rate Monitor - This sensor uses ECG to

measure the heart rate and can be used with adhesive
electrodes.

Pulse Sensor Amped - This sensor uses PPG to measure the

heart rate and provides an analog output signal.

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ECG Monitor Sensor Module Kit - This sensor uses ECG to
measure the heart rate and provides a digital output signal
that can be read by Arduino.

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Chapter 15
Advance Modules

15.1 Introduction
In this chapter we’ll be studying in depth about the modules
and actuator that can be used with microcontrollers especially
Arduino microcontroller boards.

A module is a self-contained chunk of code or hardware that

performs a specific function and can be used as a building
block for bigger systems or applications in electronics and
computer programming.

Modules are often files or groupings of files in software

development that contain a set of related functions or classes
that can be imported into other programs or scripts. Modules
can be built in a variety of programming languages and used
to organize code, enhance code reuse, and simplify software
development.

Modules are gadgets or subsystems in hardware design that

can be joined or combined with additional modules to create
complex systems. A temperature sensor module, for
example, might be linked to a microprocessor module to form
a system for tracking the temperature. Hardware modules can
be built to be interchangeable and interoperable with one
another, making it easier to develop customized systems
without having to begin from scratch.

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15.2 Modules
There a vast variety of modules that can used to process a
vast variety of data. Some of these modules just like sensors
are used in medical equipment, military equipment, robotics
industry, and many other industries. The design of a specific
modules is based on its utility. A module may contain one or
more than one sensor based on it utility.

In this book we are going to discuss those modules or

embedded subsystems that are frequently employed in
robotics, automation, and day to day use. Some these sensors
are given below.

1. Wi-Fi Module
2. Bluetooth Module
3. Global Positioning System Module
4. GSM Module
5. Display Module
6. Motor Driver Modules

15.3 WIFI Module

A Wi-Fi module is a piece of hardware that links electronic
devices to a wireless network. It is an inexpensive device that
includes an antenna and a Wi-Fi chip that allows electronics
on the same network to interact wirelessly. Wi-Fi modules
are often found in electronic devices such as cell
phones, laptop computers, and smart home devices.

15.3.1 Working of WIFI Module

The Wi-Fi module transmits and receives data wirelessly by

using radio waves. To communicate with other network
devices, the Wi-Fi module employs the IEEE 802.11
standard. A device sends a signal to the Wi-Fi module when
it wants to connect to a Wi-Fi network. The Wi-Fi module
then searches for available networks and alerts the device

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when one is found. If necessary, the device can then join to
the network by inputting a password.

Once linked, the gadget can wirelessly send and receive data.
The Wi-Fi module functions as a bridge between the device
and the wireless network, allowing it to connect to the
internet and communicate with other network devices.

15.3.2 Types of Wi-Fi Modules

1. Embedded Wi-Fi modules are built into electrical

gadgets including cell phones, laptop computers, and
smart home devices. These modules are tiny and
lightweight, making them perfect for usage in mobile
devices. Embedded Wi-Fi modules are often less
powerful than standalone modules, but they are
handier and cost less.
2. Standalone Wi-Fi modules are independent devices
that can be plugged into any electronic device. These
modules are more powerful than embedded modules
and provide additional features and capabilities.
Standalone Wi-Fi modules are commonly utilized in
industrial applications where dependability and
performance are essential.

15.3.3 Interfacing with Microcontroller

To connect a Wi-Fi module to a microcontroller, use a serial

interface such as UART or SPI to link the module to the
microcontroller. The exact interface will be determined by
the Wi-Fi module and microcontroller you use. The majority
of Wi-Fi modules include a set of pins that can be linked to
the microcontroller through jumper wires or a connector.

Once the module is attached to the microcontroller,

commands delivered over the serial interface can be used to
communicate with it. The module will respond with data or

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status information, which will allow you to control it and
connect to the wireless network.

Many Wi-Fi modules include software development kits

(SDKs) that include libraries and examples for connecting
with the module in addition to the serial interface. These
SDKs can help you get started quickly with your project by
simplifying the process of connecting with the Wi-Fi module.

15.3.4 Available in the Market

Here are the few Wi-Fi modules that are available in market
that are inexpensive and are easy to interface with
microcontroller like Arduino.

ESP8266 is a low-cost Wi-Fi module that connects easily to

an Arduino. It includes a TCP/IP stack and can be
programmed with the Arduino IDE. It has a voltage range of
3.0V to 3.6V and supports Wi-Fi standards 802.11b/g/n.

ESP32 is a more powerful Wi-Fi module that can connect to

both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. It is powered by a dual-core 32-
bit CPU and can be programmed with the Arduino IDE. It
has a voltage range of 2.2V to 3.6V and supports Wi-Fi
standards 802.11b/g/n.

CC3000 Wi-Fi module designed by Texas

Instruments supports both SPI and UART interfaces. It has a
voltage range of 2.7V to 3.6V and supports 802.11b/g Wi-Fi
standards. It also contains TCP/IP support.

RN-XV designed by Roving Networks is a Wi-Fi module

that supports both SPI and UART interfaces. It has a voltage
range of 3.0V to 3.6V and supports Wi-Fi protocols
802.11b/g. It also has TCP/IP capabilities built in.

WIZnet WizFi210 is a Wi-Fi module with SPI and UART

interfaces. It has a voltage range of 3.0V to 3.6V and supports

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Wi-Fi standards 802.11b/g/n. It has TCP/IP support and can
be programmed using AT commands.

15.4 Bluetooth Module

A Bluetooth module is a piece of hardware that enables
wireless communication between electrical devices across
short distances. Bluetooth technology transmits data between
devices using radio waves, making it a convenient and
versatile form of wireless communication. In this post, we
will look at how a Bluetooth module works, the different
types, and how to connect it to a microcontroller.

15.4.1 Working of Bluetooth Module

A Bluetooth module transmits and receives data wirelessly

by using radio waves. A Bluetooth chip, an antenna, and a
microprocessor are all included in the module. A device
sends a signal to the Bluetooth module when it wishes to
connect to another device through Bluetooth. When the
Bluetooth module discovers an available device, it transmits
a signal to the device. If necessary, the device can then
connect to the other device by supplying a password.

Once connected, the two devices can wirelessly send and

receive data. The Bluetooth module functions as a bridge
between the two devices, allowing them to communicate via
wireless connection.

15.4.2 Types of Bluetooth Modules

1. Embedded Bluetooth modules are integrated into

electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, and
smart home devices. These modules are designed to
be small and lightweight, making them ideal for use
in portable devices. Embedded Bluetooth modules
are often less powerful than standalone modules, but
they are more convenient and less expensive.

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 2. Standalone Bluetooth modules are separate devices
that can be added to any electronic device. These
modules are more powerful than embedded modules,
and they offer more features and capabilities.
Standalone Bluetooth modules are typically used in
industrial applications, where reliability and
performance are critical.

15.4.3 Interfacing with Microcontrollers

To interface a Bluetooth module with a microcontroller, you

will need to connect the module to the microcontroller using
a serial interface such as UART or SPI. The exact interface
will depend on the specific Bluetooth module and
microcontroller you are using. Most Bluetooth modules
come with a set of pins that can be connected to the
microcontroller using jumper wires or a connector.

Once the module is connected to the microcontroller, you can

communicate with it using commands sent over the serial
interface.

The module will respond with data or status information,

allowing you to control the module and access the wireless
connection.

In addition to the serial interface, many Bluetooth modules

also come with software development kits (SDKs) that
provide libraries and examples for interfacing with the
module. These SDKs can simplify the process of interfacing
with the Bluetooth module and can help you get started
quickly with your project.

15.4.4 Available in the Market

Here are the few Bluetooth modules that are available in

market that are inexpensive and are easy to interface with
microcontroller like Arduino.

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HC-05 Bluetooth module is a common DIY electronics
project component. It is simple to operate and has a range of
up to 10 metres. The HC-05 supports the serial
communication protocol (UART) and can be interfaced with
a microcontroller such as Arduino with just four pins.

HC-06 is similar to the HC-05, except it is intended to

function as a slave device in a Bluetooth network. It also
supports the UART protocol and can communicate with a
microcontroller such as the Arduino using only four pins.

HM-10 is a Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) module that is

suited for low-power consumption projects. It has a range of
up to 30 meters and can communicate with a microcontroller
like Arduino using UART or I2C protocols.

JDY-08 is Bluetooth 4.0 module that supports both BLE and

traditional Bluetooth protocols. It has a range of up to 100
metres and can communicate with a microcontroller such as
the Arduino via the UART communication protocol.

CC2541 is a Bluetooth 4.0 module that supports both the

BLE and traditional Bluetooth protocols. It has a range of up
to 100 metres and can communicate with a microcontroller
such as the Arduino via the UART communication protocol.

15.5 GPS Module

GPS (Global Positioning System) modules are devices that
receive signals from GPS satellites with the goal to determine
a device's location. In recent years, these sensors have
increased in popularity and are utilized in a variety of
applications such as navigation, tracking, and geotagging.

15.5.1 Working of GPS

A GPS module consists of up of three parts: a GPS receiver,

an antenna, and a microcontroller. GPS satellites in orbit

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above the Earth send signals to the GPS receiver. GPS
satellites provide data on their location, transmission time,
and other parameters. This information is used by the GPS
receiver to determine its location.

The GPS receiver determines its location by timing the

arrival of signals from at least four GPS satellites. The GPS
receiver estimates the distance to each satellite according to
the time stamps in the signals. The GPS receiver can identify
its location through the use of trilateration.

15.5.2 Types of GPS Modules

1. Self-contained GPS modules - These modules do not

require any additional components or external
connections. They are simple to use and can
communicate serially with a microcontroller.
2. GPS modules with built-in antennae obviate the need
for an external antenna. They are small and simple to
use.
3. GPS data logging modules - These modules can log
GPS data to onboard storage or an external memory
card. They are perfect for applications that require
the storage of GPS data for later processing.

15.5.3 Interfacing with Microcontrollers

GPS modules can be interfaced with a microcontroller using

serial communication. The GPS module sends NMEA
(National Marine Electronics Association) sentences that
contain GPS data. The microcontroller reads the NMEA
sentences and extracts the required GPS data.

The GPS module can be interfaced with a microcontroller

using either UART (Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter) or SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)
communication. UART communication is simple and easy to

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use, while SPI communication provides faster data transfer
rates.

15.5.4 Available in Market

There are numerous GPS Modules available in the market

that can be connected to various microcontroller based on
their utility and communication strength. However some of
the most used GPS modules that also connects readily with
Arduino are the followings.

Adafruit Ultimate GPS Breakout - This module is a high-

quality GPS module that supports both UART and I2C
communication. It has a built-in antenna and supports up to
66 channels.

SparkFun Venus GPS with SMA Connector is a high-

performance GPS module with UART capability. It has an
antenna integrated in and can accommodate up to 50
channels.

u-blox NEO-6M GPS Module is low-cost and supports

UART connection. It has an antenna integrated in and can
accommodate up to 50 channels.

GlobalTop Gms-g9 is small and allows UART connectivity.

It has an antenna integrated in and can accommodate up to
99 channels.

Gowoops GPS Module with EEPROM and Antenna is

inexpensive and provides UART connection. It has an
antenna integrated in and can accommodate up to 51
channels.

15.6 GSM Module

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) modules
are wireless communication devices that operate on the GSM

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network. They are often utilized in remote control,
monitoring, and tracking applications. In this post, we will
discuss how GSM modules function, their many varieties,
how they interface with microcontrollers, and a list of widely
available GSM modules for Arduino microcontrollers.

15.6.1 Working of GSM Module

A GSM module is composed of three parts: a GSM modem,

an antenna, and a microcontroller that controls it. To connect
to a mobile network operator, the GSM modem
communicates with the GSM network to transfer and receive
data, the microcontroller employs AT commands to interface
with the GSM modem.

15.6.2 Types of GSM Module

1. Standalone GSM modules are self-contained units

that do not require any other components or external
connections. They are simple to use and can
communicate serially with a microcontroller.
2. GSM modules with built-in antennae obviate the
requirement for an external antenna. They are small
and simple to use.
3. GSM/GPRS modules - These modules support GSM
(Global System for Mobile) and GPRS (General
Packet Radio Service) communication. GPRS
enables data transmission over the GSM network.

15.6.3 Interfacing with GSM Module

GSM modules can be interfaced with a microcontroller using

serial communication. The microcontroller sends AT
commands to the GSM module to establish a connection with
the GSM network and send or receive data.

The GSM module can be interfaced with a microcontroller

using either UART (Universal Asynchronous

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Receiver/Transmitter) or SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)
communication. UART communication is simple and easy to
use, while SPI communication provides faster data transfer
rates.

15.6.4 Available in the Market

These GSM Modules are available in a variety of

communication requirements some of the frequently
employed in embedded systems are provided below.

SIM800L GSM/GPRS Module is a low-cost GSM/GPRS

module with UART functionality. It has a SIM card slot
integrated in and supports quad-band frequencies.

SIM900A GSM/GPRS Module is module is a high-

performance GSM/GPRS module with UART capability. It
has a SIM card slot integrated in and supports quad-band
frequencies.

SIM5320E 3G Module is a high-speed 3G module with

UART and SPI communication capability. It has a SIM card
slot integrated in and supports quad-band frequencies.

A7 GSM/GPRS/GPS Module is a multi-functional module

supports GSM/GPRS and GPS connectivity. It supports
UART connection and includes a SIM card slot as well as a
GPS antenna.

15.6 Display Modules

Display modules are electronic devices used to visually
display data or information. They are widely used in various
electronic systems such as computers, mobile phones, and
embedded systems. In this response, we will cover the
working of display modules, their types, interfacing with
microcontrollers, and a list of readily available display
modules for Arduino microcontrollers.

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15.6.1 Working of Display Modules

Display modules work by converting electrical signals into

visual information on a screen. There are different types of
display technologies such as LCD, LED, OLED, and E-Ink.
Each of these technologies has its unique working
mechanism, but the basic principle is the same.

For instance, LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) technology

works by using polarized light and liquid crystals to create
images. The LCD screen is made up of two glass plates, each
with a polarizing filter on its outer surface. In between the
two plates is a layer of liquid crystal material. When an
electric field is applied to the liquid crystals, they align to
allow light to pass through and create an image.

15.6.2 Types of Display Modules

1. LCD Displays - The most prevalent type of display

module that employs LCD technology. They come
in a variety of sizes and resolutions.
2. OLED Displays - OLED (Organic Light Emitting
Diode) technology is used in these displays, which
provides superior contrast and power efficiency than
LCD displays. They come in a variety of sizes and
resolutions.
3. LED Displays - LED (Light Emitting Diode)
technology is employed in these displays, which is
also used in digital signs, scoreboards, and outdoor
advertising displays. They come in a variety of sizes
and colors.

15.6.3 Interfacing with Microcontroller

Display modules can be interfaced with a microcontroller

using different communication protocols such as SPI (Serial
Peripheral Interface), I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit), and
UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter). The

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communication protocol used depends on the type of display
module and the microcontroller.

The microcontroller sends data to the display module using

the communication protocol, and the display module
converts the data into visual information on the screen. The
interfacing process may involve setting up the
communication protocol, initializing the display module, and
sending data to the display module.

15.6.4 Available in Market

Display modules are the most employed modules with the

Arduino, raspberry pie, and other microcontrollers. Most of
the embedded systems needs a display to display the output
either in the form of wave, result or a condition. Following
are the most used display modules which are also available
in market.

16x2 LCD Display is a common LCD display that can

display two lines of 16 characters each. It can be easily
interfaced with an Arduino microcontroller using the
LiquidCrystal library.

0.96 inch OLED Display the OLED display module has a

resolution of 128x64 pixels and can display graphics and text.
It can be interfaced with an Arduino microcontroller using
the Adafruit_SSD1306 library.

8x8 LED Matrix Display this display module consists of 64

LEDs arranged in an 8x8 matrix. It can display simple
graphics and animations and can be interfaced with an
Arduino microcontroller using the LedControl library.

7-Segment Display this display module consists of seven

LEDs arranged in a specific pattern to display numbers from
0 to 9. It can be interfaced with an Arduino microcontroller
using the SevSeg library.

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E-Ink Display this display module uses the E-Ink technology,
which provides a low power consumption display with high
contrast. It can be interfaced with an Arduino microcontroller
using the Adafruit-GFX library.

15.7 Motor Driver Modules

A motor driver module is an electronic device that allows for
the simple control and powering of motors. It enables a
microcontroller to regulate the speed and direction of a
motor, making it an important component in robotics,
automation, and CNC machines. In this post, we will discuss
how motor driver module’s function, their many sorts, how
they interface with microcontrollers, and a list of widely
available motor driver modules for Arduino
microcontrollers.

15.7.1 Working of Motor Driver Modules

Motor driver modules operate by supplying the motor with a

controlled power source. They regulate the speed and
direction of the motor using various control signals from a
microcontroller. An H-bridge circuit controls the current
going through the motor in the motor driver module. The H-
bridge circuit is made up of four transistors that can change
the direction of rotation of the motor as well as regulate the
current flowing through it.

15.7.2 Interfacing with Module

Using digital output pins, motor driver modules can be

connected to a microcontroller. The microprocessor delivers
control signals to the motor driver module, which controls
the speed and direction of the motor. Setting up the input
pins, initializing the motor driver module, and delivering
control signals to the motor driver module may all be part of
the interfacing process.

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15.7.3 Types and Available in the Market

L293D Motor Driver Module can control two DC motors or

one stepper motor. It can be interfaced with an Arduino
microcontroller using the Arduino motor library.

TB6612FNG Motor Driver Module can control two DC

motors or one stepper motor. It can be interfaced with an
Arduino microcontroller using the Adafruit Motor Shield
library.

L298N Motor Driver Module can control two DC motors or

one stepper motor. It can be interfaced with an Arduino
microcontroller using the L298N motor driver library.

DRV8825 Stepper Motor Driver Module is specifically

designed for stepper motors. It can be used to control bipolar
stepper motors up to 2.5A per coil. It can be interfaced with
an Arduino microcontroller using the AccelStepper library.

A4988 Stepper Motor Driver Module can control bipolar

stepper motors up to 2A per coil. It can be interfaced with an
Arduino microcontroller using the AccelStepper library.

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Part 03 Embedded
C and C++
Programming

207
Chapter 16
Introduction to
Programming

16.1 Introduction
Programming is the method by which we interact with
computers. While many individuals believe that computers
are intelligent and operate independently, the truth is quite
different since computers are actually unintelligent devices.
They require specific instructions or directives to function.
Thus, we provide the computer with commands to enable it
to perform various tasks in accordance with our needs. This
process of providing instructions to the computer is known
as programming.

Every type of communication involves language in some

way. Programming languages are those that are used to
communicate with computers. They serve as instructions for
the computer, and we can give it detailed instructions on what
to do by creating code in a programming language. The
computer will then follow these instructions to carry out the
requested tasks. Several programming languages are used for
diverse tasks depending on the requirements. Programming
allows us to control the computer's behavior and effectively
use its skills to accomplish our goals.

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16.2 History of Programming
Programming languages have been a critical component in
the advancement of computer science and technology. The
need for programming languages arose from the desire to
communicate with computers in a way that was more
accessible and understandable to humans. Prior to the
invention of programming languages, computers could only
be programmed using machine code, which was written in
binary and was difficult for humans to read and write. The
invention of programming languages removed this barrier
and made it easier for humans to write code that computers
could understand.

The first programming languages, such as FORTRAN,

COBOL, and LISP, were developed in the 1950s and were
designed for scientific and business applications. These early
languages paved the way for the development of more user-
friendly languages like BASIC in the 1960s, and the
efficiency-focused C language in the 1970s. The 1980s saw
the emergence of object-oriented programming languages
like C++ and Smalltalk, which revolutionized the way
software was developed. The 1990s were marked by the rise
of the World Wide Web and the development of scripting
languages like JavaScript and PHP, which made it possible
to build dynamic websites.

Over the past few decades, programming languages have

continued to evolve to meet the demands of emerging
technologies and applications. The emergence of mobile app
development in the 2000s led to the creation of Swift and
Kotlin, while the expansion of machine learning and AI has
resulted in the development of specialized languages such as
TensorFlow and PyTorch.

Programming languages have been instrumental in

eliminating the obstacle of binary machine code, making it
simpler for humans to write code that computers can

209
comprehend. They have facilitated the development of a
diverse range of software and applications, ranging from
scientific simulations to websites and mobile apps.
Additionally, programming languages have played a
significant role in the progress of computer science and
technology.

16.3 Various Programming Languages

In this book, this chapter will introduce you to various
languages as general information in the field of
programming. For practical purpose, this book will stick to C
and C++ programming. Following are a few programming
languages.

Low-Level Language: These programming languages are

considerably different from human language as they are
designed to be machine-friendly. This implies that low-level
languages, such as machine language and assembly
language, are close to computer hardware and can be
effortlessly understood by computers. Nonetheless, low-level
languages are not commonly employed nowadays due to
their lack of user-friendliness.

Machine Language: Machine language, also referred to as

First generation language (1GL), is a type of programming
language that can be understood directly by the computer. In
machine language, instructions are expressed in a numeric
format, typically in binary form using 0s and 1s. Since every
computer has its unique language, machine language is
machine-dependent.

Despite the fact that code written in machine language can be

executed very quickly by the computer, it is not user-friendly.
Writing and debugging code in machine language is
extremely difficult and time-consuming for humans.

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Assembly Language: It is a type of low-level language in
which instead of numeric we use symbols for the instructions.
Assembly language is also known as the second-generation
language (2GL). In this language to represent elementary
operations we use English-like abbreviations. These
abbreviations are known as mnemonics.

As we know that computer only understand the instruction in

machine code so, to convert assembly language into machine
code we use the translator which is known as assembler. The
code written in assembly language is easy to understand and
modifiable.

For example

INC COUNT; This instruction will increment the Increment

the variable COUNT.

MOV TOTAL, 20; This instruction will transfer the value 20

in the variable Total.

ADD TOTAL, 10; This instruction will add the value 10 in

the variable Total.

High Level Languages: In comparison to low-level

languages, high-level programming languages are intended
to be more user-friendly and simpler to comprehend, create,
and maintain. High-level languages are simpler to understand
since they are more similar to human language and include
English-like assertions. High-level languages are used
frequently today because of how user-friendly they are. A
translator called a compiler is employed to translate the high-
level language into low-level language because computers
can only read machine code. The high-level programming
languages C, C++, Python, and Java are a few examples.

Three additional categories are used to further categorize

high-level programming languages.

211
1. Procedural Languages: These Languages are a type
of high-level language that follows a sequence of
instructions to achieve a desired output. It is also
known as a third-generation language (3GL). The
computer executes these instructions one by one in
sequence, and a compiler is used to convert these
high-level language instructions into machine
language. Essentially, these instructions tell the
computer what to do and how to do it. Examples of
procedural languages include Pascal, ADA, BASIC,
and FORTRAN.
2. Non – Procedural Languages: g Non-Procedural
Programming Languages is a type of high-level
language in which the user specifies what output is
desired, but not necessarily how to achieve it. The
user does not need to write traditional program logic
as the computer automatically generates the
necessary steps to produce the output. This type of
language is also known as fourth-generation
language (4GL). For example SQL, Prolog, USP.
3. Object-Oriented Languages: Object-oriented
programming language (OOP) is a programming
paradigm in which a program is structured as a
collection of objects, each consisting of data and
behavior. OOP is designed to manage the complexity
of large programs by breaking them down into
smaller, reusable objects. The code written in OOP
is easily understandable and modifiable due to its
clear structure. The principle of "Don't Repeat
Yourself" (DRY) is followed in OOP, which means
avoiding the repetition of code to reduce redundancy.
Some examples of Object-Oriented Languages
include, C++, PHP, Python, Java.

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16.4 Frontend Programming
Frontend languages, also known as client-side languages, are
used to create the user interface and determine how the
website looks and feels

HTML, CSS, and JavaScript are the three primary frontend

languages that are used to create web pages and web
applications. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is used
to create the structure of a webpage, define its content, and
specify the relationship between different elements. CSS
(Cascading Style Sheets) is used to define the visual
appearance of a webpage, including its layout, colors, fonts,
and other visual elements. JavaScript is used to add
interactivity and dynamic functionality to web pages,
allowing users to interact with the website in real-time.

HTML is a markup language used to create the structure of a

webpage. It provides a set of predefined tags that define the
elements on a page, such as headings, paragraphs, images,
and links. HTML is the backbone of every webpage, and it is
essential for creating a well-structured, accessible, and search
engine optimized site.

CSS is used to define the visual appearance of a webpage,

including its layout, colors, fonts, and other visual elements.
CSS provides a set of rules and properties that determine the
style of each element on a page. It enables developers to
separate the content from the presentation, making it easier
to modify the appearance of a webpage without changing its
structure.

JavaScript is a programming language that is used to add

interactivity and dynamic functionality to web pages. It
enables developers to create animations, dynamic effects,
and interactive elements that respond to user actions.
JavaScript is essential for creating web applications that

213
provide a seamless user experience, such as form validation,
dropdown menus, and sliders.

In addition to these three primary frontend languages, there

are many other tools and frameworks that developers use to
create modern web applications. These include popular
libraries such as React, Angular, and Vue, which provide a
set of tools and components for building user interfaces and
managing state. Other popular tools include Bootstrap, a CSS
framework that provides a set of pre-designed UI
components, and jQuery, a JavaScript library that simplifies
the process of manipulating HTML and CSS.

In summary, frontend languages are essential for creating

modern web applications. They allow developers to create
well-structured, visually appealing, and interactive websites
that provide a seamless user experience. By mastering
HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, developers can create dynamic
and engaging web applications that are both functional and
aesthetically pleasing.

16.5 Backend Programming

Backend programming is a type of programming that focuses
on creating the server side of a web application. It involves
building the logic and functionality that powers a web
application, but which the end user cannot directly interact
with. Instead, the backend programming works behind the
scenes to ensure that the front end of a web application runs
smoothly.

The backend programming is responsible for managing the

database, processing requests from users, handling user
authentication and authorization, and performing other tasks
necessary for the web application to function. This
programming is done using server-side scripting languages
such as PHP, Ruby, Python, and Node.js.

214
One of the most important aspects of backend programming
is database management. The backend programmer is
responsible for designing the database schema, writing
queries, and optimizing the database for performance. A
well-designed database can significantly improve the speed
and reliability of a web application.

Another important aspect of backend programming is server

management. The backend programmer needs to ensure that
the web application is running on a secure and reliable server,
and that the server is properly configured to handle the load
from user requests. This often involves working with web
servers such as Apache, Nginx, and Microsoft IIS.

Backend programming also involves working with APIs

(Application Programming Interfaces) to integrate with
third-party services such as payment gateways, social media
platforms, and other web applications. The backend
programmer needs to ensure that the web application can
interact with these services securely and reliably.

In addition to server-side scripting languages, backend

programming also involves working with databases such as
MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB. These databases are
used to store and manage large amounts of data, and the
backend programmer needs to be skilled in designing
efficient database schemas and writing optimized queries to
retrieve and manipulate the data.

In summary, backend programming is an essential part of

building a web application. It involves creating the server-
side logic and functionality that powers a web application,
managing databases, optimizing server performance,
working with APIs, and ensuring that the web application is
secure and reliable. A skilled backend programmer is critical
to the success of any web application.

215
16.6 Human and Machine Interaction
An important part of bridging the gap between humans and
machines is the use of programming languages. By supplying
a set of instructions that the machine can comprehend and
carry out, they enable human-computer interaction. Although
they can be converted into machine code that computers can
comprehend and execute, programming languages offer a
structure and syntax that is accessible and understandable by
humans.

Humans may use programming languages to construct a wide

variety of software and applications, automate monotonous
operations, and solve complex issues. They make it simpler
to convey complicated thoughts to a computer by giving
people a systematic way to express their goals.

Programming languages have been continually evolving to

cater to the needs of humans and machines. The
communication between humans and machines through
programming languages is a two-way process that involves
humans writing code in a programming language and
computers executing it. Additionally, the computer can
provide feedback and results to humans, allowing for the
refinement and improvement of the code.

This interaction between humans and machines through

programming languages has enabled the creation of complex
software and applications that can solve problems, automate
tasks, and enhance our lives. The development of new
programming languages and tools has further expanded the
capabilities of programmers to create software solutions that
cater to specific needs.

Programming languages have played a vital role in advancing

computer science and technology. The ability to write code
that a computer can understand and execute has opened up
new frontiers in fields such as artificial intelligence, robotics,

216
and data analysis. Additionally, programming languages
have been instrumental in enabling the widespread use of the
internet and the development of the digital economy.

In conclusion, programming languages have emerged as an

essential bridge between humans and machines, enabling us
to communicate our intentions to computers and automate
tasks. The constant evolution of programming languages
continues to push the boundaries of what is possible in
computer science and technology.

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Chapter 17
Embedded Programming

17.1 Introduction
Embedded programming is the process of creating software
for devices with limited resources, such as processing power,
energy, and memory. The purpose of this programming is to
manage a specific function within a larger system. Examples
of embedded systems range from simple microwave ovens to
complex spacecraft.

One of the main challenges in embedded programming is

optimizing code for resource-constrained systems.
Programmers must write software that makes the most
efficient use of available resources, minimizing memory
usage and execution time. Additionally, a thorough
understanding of hardware architecture is necessary in order
to interact with hardware components and troubleshoot
issues.

Testing and debugging code is another critical aspect of

embedded programming. Due to the real-world conditions
under which embedded systems operate, such as those in a
car, tools such as emulators, debuggers, and oscilloscopes are
used to test and debug software to ensure reliable operation
in the intended environment.

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17.2 Embedded C and C++ Programming
Embedded programming involves creating software that runs
on microcontrollers or other embedded systems. C and C++
are two popular programming languages used for embedded
programming. C is a procedural language that is often used
for low-level programming. It is efficient, fast, and has a
relatively small runtime, making it a popular choice for
embedded programming. C allows for direct access to
memory and hardware, which can be important in systems
with limited resources, such as microcontrollers. On the other
hand, C++ is a more modern programming language that is
built on top of C. It is an object-oriented language that allows
for code reuse, modularity, and abstraction. C++ is often used
for larger projects that require more structure and
organization. It includes features such as exception handling,
operator overloading, and templates, which can make it
easier to write complex code.

When programming for embedded systems, both C and C++

are commonly used. C is often used for low-level
programming and performance-critical tasks, while C++ is
used for higher-level programming, abstraction, and code
organization. It is important to choose the right language for
the job and to write code that is efficient, reliable, and easy
to maintain. So, Embedded C and C++ programming are
widely used for developing software for embedded systems,
with each language having its own unique features and
advantages that can be leveraged to create efficient and
reliable code for a wide range of devices and applications.

Embedded C programming is a specialized version of the C

programming language designed for creating software for
microcontrollers and other embedded systems. C is a
procedural programming language that provides low-level
access to memory, making it ideal for systems with limited
resources. Due to its simplicity, low-level control, and speed,
C is widely used in embedded systems. Embedded C

219
programmers have direct control over the hardware, enabling
them to write code tailored to the specific hardware
requirements of the system. Embedded C is primarily used
for low-level programming tasks, such as interfacing with
hardware, real-time systems, and embedded operating
systems.

Embedded C++ programming is an extension of the C++

programming language used to develop software for
embedded systems. C++ is an object-oriented language that
offers features such as abstraction, encapsulation,
inheritance, and polymorphism. Compared to C, C++
provides a higher level of abstraction, making it easier to
write complex code. Embedded C++ programming is
employed in larger projects that require a structured approach
to coding. It enables the creation of reusable code and offers
improved code organization and maintenance. C++ is used to
build high-level software, such as embedded Linux systems,
graphical user interfaces (GUIs), and middleware.

Embedded C and C++ programming languages are powerful

tools for developing software for embedded systems,
providing low-level access to hardware and precise control
over system resources. The choice of programming language
depends on the specific application and system requirements.
However, both C and C++ are popular in the industry for
developing embedded systems software.

17.3 History of Embedded Programming

Embedded C and C++ programming languages have evolved
alongside advancements in embedded systems technology.
Assembly language was the first programming language used
in the 1960s, but its limitations in writing and maintaining
complex programs led to the development of higher-level
programming languages like C and C++ in the 1970s and
1980s. C's low-level access to memory and hardware made it

220
ideal for programming embedded systems, while C++ added
object-oriented features such as inheritance, encapsulation,
and polymorphism.

With the growth of embedded systems in the 1980s came a

demand for developers skilled in C and C++. The use of these
languages for embedded systems software development has
continued to expand ever since. Today, Embedded C and
C++ programming languages are widely used in various
industries, including automotive, medical devices, aerospace,
and consumer electronics.

17.4 Advantages of Embedded Programming

Programming in embedded C and C++ has a number of
benefits when creating software for embedded systems. The
following are some key benefits of utilizing these languages:

Low-level hardware access: Because C and C++ offer direct

access to hardware resources, it is simpler to build code that
is suited to the system's unique hardware needs. The ability
to precisely control system resources, including memory and
I/O ports, is necessary for creating software for embedded
systems.

Efficiency and speed: C and C++ are both renowned for their
efficiency and speed. For system-level programming, C is a
low-level language that is efficiently optimized, whereas
C++ offers a higher level of abstraction with little overhead.
Because of these characteristics, C and C++ are perfect for
creating software that must function quickly and efficiently.

Flexibility: C and C++ provide a high degree of flexibility,

enabling programmers to employ various programming
idioms and methods according to the particular specifications
of the system. It is feasible to write code that is optimized for

221
a specific task or collection of tasks because of this
flexibility.

Portability: C and C++ are highly portable languages, making

it possible to write code that can be easily ported to different
hardware platforms or operating systems. This is especially
important for embedded systems, where the software must be
able to run on a wide range of hardware platforms with
varying capabilities.

Code Reuse: It is made simpler by C++, an object-oriented

language that includes features like inheritance and
polymorphism. This can speed up development and enhance
the quality of the code.

Substantial Developer Community: C and C++ have been

used extensively for many years, and there is a sizable
developer community that is knowledgeable in these
languages. For developers working on embedded systems,
this community offers a plethora of tools and support.

17.5 Writing First Embedded Program

Writing Embedded C and C++ programs involves a unique
set of skills and techniques tailored to the requirements of
embedded systems, including a strong understanding of
hardware architecture, code optimization, and testing and
debugging. Embedded programmers must be capable of
optimizing code for limited resources and simulating real-
world conditions and hardware interactions to test and
diagnose issues effectively. These skills are essential for
developing high-quality, efficient, and dependable software
for embedded systems.

Note that the specifics of the program is executed on an

embedded system will depend on the hardware architecture
and the software development tools being used.

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Here is a simple "Hello, world!" program written in
Embedded C:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("Hello, World!\n");
return 0;
}

This program simply prints the message "Hello, world!" to

the console using the printf function from the standard C
library. The return statement at the end of the main function
returns a value of 0 to indicate that the program has executed
successfully.

Here is a simple "Hello, world!" program written in

Embedded C++:

This program uses the standard C++ library to output the

#include<iostream>
int main()
{
std::cout<<"Hello, World!"<<std::endl;
return 0;
}
"Hello, world!" message to the console using the cout object.
The endl object is used to add a newline character at the end
of the message. The return statement at the end of the main
function returns a value of 0 to indicate that the program has
executed successful

223
Chapter 18
Syntax and Semantics of
Embedded Programming

18.1 Introduction
Embedded C and C++ programming languages have syntax
and semantics that are similar to standard C and C++
programming languages. However, they also have unique
features and extensions that are specific to embedded
systems. Embedded C and C++ syntax is designed to be
lightweight, which is useful for systems with limited
resources. Additionally, the languages are designed to
provide direct access to the hardware of the system, which
enables developers to interface with the hardware at a low
level. For example, Embedded C and C++ allow direct access
to memory through the use of pointers, which enables
developers to manipulate the memory at a low level.

The semantics of C and C++ are also optimized for use in

embedded systems. For example, the volatile keyword in
Embedded C and C++ informs the compiler that the value of
the variable can change unexpectedly, and that the variable
should be fetched from its memory location every time it is
accessed. This is useful in systems that use hardware
interrupts, where variables can change unexpectedly.
Another example is the register keyword, which specifies

224
variables that should be kept in the register to optimize their
access. This can improve the overall performance of the
system, as the processor accesses the variables faster from
the registers than from memory.

The syntax and semantics of Embedded C and C++ are

optimized for use in embedded systems. They are designed
to be lightweight and to provide direct access to hardware
resources. The unique features and extensions of these
languages enable us to write efficient and reliable software
for embedded systems.

18.2 Control structures & Decision making

Embedded C and C++ programming languages support a
variety of control structures and decision-making constructs
that enable us to write efficient and reliable code for
embedded systems. Control structures allow us to control the
flow of execution of a program by executing specific pieces
of code based on certain conditions.

One of the most common control structures in Embedded C

and C++ is the if statement, which is used to test a condition
and execute a block of code if the condition is true. For
example, the following code of language embedded C checks
whether a variable x is greater than 10, and prints a message
based on the result:

225
 #include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x=2;
if (x>10)
{
print("x is greater than 10")
}
return 0;
}

If-else is also a control structure in Embedded C and C++,

which also perform decision making if one statement is false
then the else statement will execute. For example, the
following code checks whether a variable x is greater than
10, and prints a message based on the result:

#include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int x=2;
if (x>10)
printf("x is greater than 10");
else
printf ("x is less than equal to 10");
return 0;
}

Embedded C and C++ also support the switch statement,

which enables us to test a single variable against multiple
values. For example, the following code of language
embedded C checks the value of a variable x and performs
different actions based on the result:

226
 #include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int x=2;
switch (x)
{ case 1:
printf("x is greater than 1");
break;
case 2:
printf ("x is less than equal to 2");
break;
default:
printf("x is not equal to 1 or 2")
}
return 0;
}

In addition to these statements, Embedded C and C++

support loops, such as the for loop and the while loop. These
loops are used to execute a block of code multiple times
based on a condition. For example, the following code of
language embedded C uses a for loop to print the numbers 1
to 10:

#include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
for (int i=1; i<10; i++)
{
printf("%d\n",i);
}
return 0;
}

227
So, control structures in Embedded C and C++ enable us to
control the flow of execution of a program and execute
specific pieces of code based on certain conditions. The if
statement, switch statement, and loops like the for loop and
while loop are essential constructs for writing efficient and
reliable embedded software.

18.3 Data types in embedded C and C++

In Embedded C and C++, data types are used to specify the
type of data that a variable can hold. Different data types have
different ranges, precision, and memory requirements, which
can affect the kind of operations that can be performed on
them.

Let’s discuss some examples of data types in Embedded C

and C++:

Integer Types: Integer types are used to represent whole

numbers, either positive or negative. In Embedded C and
C++, there are several integer types available, including char,
short, int, long, and their respective unsigned versions. The
size of these types may vary depending on the compiler
implementation and target platform.
Char is the smallest integer type, typically taking up 1 byte
of memory. It can store integer values in the range of -128 to
127 or 0 to 255 when used as an unsigned type. Here is an
example:

228
 #include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
// Assigning character 'A' to Char variable
char myChar = 'A';
// Output: The ASCII value of A if 65
printf ("ASCII value of %c is %d\n", myChar,
myChar);
return 0;
}

Short is a 2-byte integer type that can store integer values in

the range of -32,768 to 32,767 or 0 to 65,535 when used as
an unsigned type. Here is an example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
// assigning the max value to short variable
short myshort =32767;
// output: the value of myshort is 32767
printf("the value of myshort is %d\n", myshort);
return 0;
}
Int is a 2- or 4-byte integer type (depending on the
implementation) that can store integer values in the range of
-32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 when
used as a signed type, and 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295
when used as an unsigned type. Here is an example:

229
 #include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
// assigning the max value to int variable
int myint =2147483647;
// output: the value of myint is 2147483647
printf("the value of myint is %d\n", myint);
return 0;
}

long is a 4-byte integer type that can store integer values in

the range of -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 or 0 to
4,294,967,295 when used as an unsigned type. Here is an
example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
// assigning the max value to long variable
long mylong =2147483647L;
// output: the value of mylong is 2147483647
printf("the value of mylong is %d\n", mylong);
return 0;
}
Note: The L suffix is used to indicate that the value is of type
long.

Floating-Point Types: Embedded C and C++ also support

floating-point types to represent fractional numbers. There
are two floating-point types in C and C++:

230
 #include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
// declare and initialize float variable called
"temperature"
float temperature = 98.6;
//print the value of temperature variable
printf("temperature is : %f\n", temperature);
return 0;
}

Float: A float data type is used to represent single-precision

floating-point numbers. It occupies 4 bytes (32 bits) in
memory. Here is an example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
// declare and initialize double variable called "pi"
double pi = 3.14159256;
//print the value of pi variable
printf("pi is : %f\n", pi);
return 0;
}
Double: A double data type is used to represent double-
precision floating-point numbers. It occupies 8 bytes (64 bits)
in memory. Here is an example:

Note: Floating-point operations can be less efficient than

integer operations on some embedded systems, so it's
important to consider the performance implications when
using floating-point types.

Boolean Type: The Boolean type in Embedded C and C++ is

a simple type used to represent logical values. In C++, the
bool keyword is used to declare Boolean variables, while in

231
Embedded C, the typedef keyword is used to define a
Boolean type as follows:

#include<stdio.h>
#inclue<stdbool.h> // includes bool library
int main ()
{
// declare and initialize boolean variable
bool israining =true;
if (israining)
{
//check if boolean is true or not
printf(" it is raining!\n");
}
else
printf(" it is not raining!\n");
return 0;
}

typedef enum {false, true} bool;

The bool type is typically used in control structures like if

and while statements to test conditions and execute code
based on the result. For example:

In this example, we include the Boolean library using

#include <stdbool.h>. Then, we declare and initialize a
Boolean variable isRaining with the value true.Next, we use
an if statement to check whether isRaining is true or false. If
it is true, we print the message "It is raining!" using printf. If
it is false, we print a different message.

Note: In C++, the bool type is a built-in type, so there is no

need to use typedef. Also, the header file <stdbool.h> is used
to include the Boolean type definition in Embedded C.

232
Void Type: In Embedded C/C++, void is a data type that
represents the absence of a value. It is commonly used to
define functions that do not return any value, such as
interrupt service routines. Unlike other data types, void
cannot be used to declare variables, but it can be used to
declare pointers to any data type.
Here is an example of a function that takes no parameters and
returns no value using void in Embedded C:

#include<stdio.h>
void display_message (void) // void function
{
printf(" Hello World!\n");
}
int main ()
{
// call the function
display_message ();
return 0;
}
In this example, the function display_message simply prints
the message "Hello, World!" to the console. Since the
function does not return any value, the return type is void.

Enumerated Type: Enumerated types, also known as enums,

are used to define a set of named constants. They are useful
in situations where you have a fixed set of values that a
variable can take. Enums are declared using the "enum"
keyword in C/C++. Each enum value is assigned an integer
value, which starts from 0 and is incremented by 1 for each
subsequent value.
Here is an example program that demonstrates the usage of
enums in Embedded C/C++:

233
 #include<stdio.h>
enum day_of_week
{
monday,
tuesday,
wednesday,
thrusday,
friday,
saturday,
sunday,
};
int main ()
{

enum day_of_week today = wednesday;

if (today == wednesday)
printf("today is wednesday. \n");
else
printf("today is not wednesday. \n");
return 0;
}
In this program, we have defined an enum called
"day_of_week" that represents the days of the week. We have
assigned integer values to each day, starting from 0 for
"MONDAY" and incrementing by 1 for each subsequent day.
In the main function, we have declared a variable called
"today" of type "day_of_week" and initialized it to
"WEDNESDAY". We then use an if-else statement to check
if "today" is equal to "WEDNESDAY", and print a message
accordingly.

Note: Enums are useful in Embedded C/C++ because they

allow you to define a set of named constants that are easy to
read and understand in your code. They are also useful for
improving code readability and maintainability, as they make
it clear what values a variable can take.

234
Array Types: Arrays are a fundamental data structure in
programming, and they are extensively used in embedded
systems for storing and accessing large sets of data. In
Embedded C and C++, an array is a collection of elements of
the same data type, which are stored in contiguous memory
locations. The size of the array is defined at the time of
declaration, and it cannot be changed during runtime.
Here's an example of declaring and initializing an array of
integers in Embedded C:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number[5] ={1,2,3,4,5};
for (int i=0; i<5; i++)
{
printf("element %d: %d\n", i, numbers[i]);
}
}
In this example, we've declared an array of integers named
"numbers" with a size of 5. We've also initialized the array
with the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.We then use a "for" loop to
iterate over the elements of the array and print their values to
the console. The loop runs from 0 to 4, since the index of the
first element of the array is 0 and the index of the last element
is 4.

Note: Arrays are useful for many applications in embedded

systems, such as storing sensor readings, audio data, or image
data. They allow for efficient access to large amounts of data
and can simplify code by enabling operations to be
performed on the entire array as a whole.

Structured Types: Structured types, also known as structures

or structs, are composite data types that allow you to group

235
variables of different data types under a single name. They
are widely used in embedded programming for representing
complex data structures such as packets, frames, and
configurations. Here's an example program that demonstrates
the use of a structured type in Embedded C:

#include<stdio.h>
// define a structured type called "person"
typedef structured
{
char name[50];
int age;
char occupation[50];

}person;

int main()
{
// declare a variable of type "person"
person Sadia;
// initialize the field "Sadia" variable
strcpy (Sadia.name, "Sadia Adrees");
Sadia.age =35;
strcpy (Sadia.occupation, "Software Engineer");
// print out the information of person
printf("Name: %s\n", Sadia.name);
printf("Age: %s\n", Sadia.age);
printf("Occupation: %s\n", Sadia.occupation);
return 0;

}
In this program, we first define a structured type called
"person" using the typedef keyword. This type contains three
fields: a character array called "name", an integer called
"age", and another character array called "occupation". We

236
then declare a variable called "john" of type "person", and
initialize its fields using the strcpy() function and assignment
statements. Finally, we print out the information about the
person using printf() statements.

Note: Structured types are useful in Embedded C because

they allow us to group related data together into a single
variable, making it easier to manage and manipulate. They
are commonly used in applications that deal with complex
data structures, such as communication protocols or file
formats.

Union Types: A union is a user-defined data type that can

hold multiple variables of different types in the same memory
location. The largest member of the union determined the
size of the union. In C and C++, unions are declared using
the union keyword. Here's an example program that
demonstrates the usage of unions in embedded C:

#include<Stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
union data
{
int num;
floar fnum;
char str[20];
};
int main ()
{
union data value;
value.num =10;
// accessing union member
printf ("value of num: %d\n", value.num);
value.fnum =3.14;
// accessing same memory location to store different data
printf("value of fnum%f\n", value.fnum);
strcpy(value.str, "embedded c");
// accessing same memory location to store different data
printf("value of str %f\n", value.str);
return 0;
}

237
In this program, we define a union data that contains three
members: an integer num, a floating-point number fnum, and
a character array str. In the main function, we declare a
variable value of type union data. We then initialize the num
member of the union to 10 and print its value. We then assign
a floating-point value to the fnum member of the union and
print its value. Finally, we use the strcpy function to copy a
string into the str member of the union and print its value.

One use case for unions in embedded systems is to conserve

memory when multiple data types are needed to be stored in
the same memory location. This is especially useful in
systems with limited memory, where memory usage must be
carefully managed. However, care must be taken when using
unions to ensure that the correct member of the union is being
accessed at the right time, as the same memory location is
being used for multiple data types.

18.4 Variables in embedded C/C++

In embedded C/C++, variables are used to store data values
that can be accessed and manipulated by the program. Here
are some examples of variable declarations in embedded
C/C++:

1. Declaring an integer variable:

int num;
Here, we are declaring an integer variable named num.
This variable can store any integer value within its range.

2. Declaring a floating-point variable:

float price;
Here, we are declaring a floating-point variable named
price. This variable can store any floating-point value
within its range.

238
3. Declaring a character variable:
char ch;
Here, we are declaring a character variable named ch.
This variable can store any character value within its
range.

4. Declaring a Boolean variable:

bool is_valid;
Here, we are declaring a Boolean variable named
is_valid. This variable can store either true or false
values.

5. Declaring a pointer variable:

int *ptr;
Here, we are declaring a pointer variable named ptr. This
variable can store the memory address of an integer
variable.

6. Declaring a constant variable:

const int MAX_NUM = 100;
Here, we are declaring a constant integer variable named
MAX_NUM. This variable can store the value 100, and
its value cannot be changed later in the program.

These are just a few examples of variable declarations in

embedded C/C++. Variables are essential components of any
program, as they allow the program to store and manipulate
data values as needed

18.5 Functions in Embedded C and C++

Functions in embedded C/C++ are used to perform specific
tasks or operations. They help in modularizing the code by
dividing it into smaller chunks. A function is declared using
the keyword "void" or the datatype of the value that it returns.

239
Here's an example program that demonstrates the usage of
functions in embedded C/C++.

In this program, we have defined a function called

printMessage() that takes a character array as an argument
and prints it to the console using the printf() function. The
function is declared before the main() function and defined
after it. In the main() function, we have declared a character
array called message and assigned it the value "Hello,
World!". We then call the printMessage() function, passing
the message array as an argument.

Note: Functions are an essential part of embedded C/C++

programming as they allow developers to break down
complex tasks into smaller, more manageable functions.
They also help in code reuse and make the code more
modular and easier to maintain.

#include<stdio.h>
// function declaration
void printMessage (char message[]);
int main()
{
//calling the function
char message [] ="Hello, world!";
printMessage(message);
return 0;
}
//function declaration
void printMessage(char message[])
{
printf("%s", message);
}

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Chapter 19
Basics of Embedded
Programming

19.1 Input and Output Operations

Input and output operations in embedded C programming
refer to the process of communicating with hardware
components such as sensors, actuators, and communication
interfaces. In general, input operations involve reading data
from hardware components, while output operations involve
sending data to them. Here are some details on input and
output operations in embedded C programming, along with
some examples:

19.1.1 Input Operations

1. Reading from a sensor:

To read data from a sensor, you would typically
use a function provided by a hardware library
that is specific to the sensor you are using. For
example, if you are using a temperature sensor
connected via I2C interface, you would use a
function like "read_temperature" from the I2C
library. Here is an example code snippet:

241
 #include “i2c_lib.h”
int main ()
{
float temp = read_temperature();
printf("temparature: %.2f\n", temp);
return 0;
}

2. Reading from a communication interface:

To read data from a communication interface
such as UART, you would use a function
provided by the communication library. For
example, you would use a function like
"UART_read" to read incoming data from a
serial port. Here is an example code snippet:

#include "uar_lib.h"
int main()
{
char buffer [100];
UART_read(buffer, 100);
printf("recieved data: %s\n", buffer);
return 0;
}

19.1.2 Output Operations

1. Writing to an Actuator:
To send data to an actuator, you would use a
function provided by a hardware library that is
specific to the actuator you are using. For
example, if you are using a motor connected via
a PWM interface, you would use a function like

242
 "set_motor_speed" from the PWM library. Here
is an example code snippet:

#include "pwm_lib.h"
int main()
{
set_motor_speed(50); // set motor speed at 50%
return 0;
}

2. Writing to a Communication Interface:

To send data over a communication interface,
you would use a function provided by the
communication library. For example, you would
use a function like "UART_write" to send data
over a serial port. Here is an example code
snippet:

#include "uart_lib.h"
int main()
{
char data[] ="Hello World!";
UAR_write (data, sizeof(data));
return 0;
}

So, input and output operations in embedded C

programming involve interfacing with hardware
components via functions provided by hardware
libraries. The specific functions used will depend on the
hardware components being used and the
communication interfaces being employed.

243
19.2 Standard Input and Output (I/O) library
functions
The Standard Input and Output (I/O) library functions
in Embedded C programming provide a set of functions
for performing input and output operations on the
standard input and output streams, which are typically
connected to a console or terminal. The standard input
stream (stdin) is used for reading input from the user or
from another program, while the standard output stream
(stdout) is used for displaying output to the user or
sending data to another program. Here are some of the
commonly used Standard I/O library functions in
Embedded C programming:
1. printf():
The printf() function is used for formatted output
to the standard output stream. It takes a format
string as the first argument, which specifies the
format of the output string, followed by zero or
more additional arguments that are used to
populate the format string. Here is an example
code snippet:

int main()
{
int x=10, y=20;
printf("value of x is %d and value of y is %d\n",
x, y);
return 0;
}

244
2. scanf():
The scanf() function is used for formatted input
from the standard input stream. It takes a format
string as the first argument, which specifies the
format of the input string, followed by pointers to
the variables where the input values should be
stored. Here is an example code snippet:
int main()
{
int x, y;
printf(" enter value of x and y:");
scanf("%d %d, &x, &y");
printf("sum of x and y is %d\n", x+y);
return 0;
}

3. getchar():
The getchar() function is used for reading a single
character from the standard input stream. It does
not take any arguments and returns the ASCII
value of the character read. Here is an example
code snippet:

int main()
{
char c;
printf(" enter a character:");
c = getchar();
printf("ASCII value of character is %d\n", c);
return 0;
}

4. putchar():

245
 The putchar() function is used for writing a single
character to the standard output stream. It takes a
single character as its argument and returns the
ASCII value of the character written. Here is an
example code snippet:

int main()
{
char c ='A';
putchar(c);
putchar('\n');
return 0;
}

Overall, the Standard Input and Output (I/O) library

functions in Embedded C programming provide a
convenient set of functions for performing input and
output operations on the standard input and output
streams. These functions can be used to interact with the
user, display output, and read input in a standardized
way, regardless of the underlying hardware platform.

19.3 Interfacing with Hardware Components for

I/O Operations
Interfacing with hardware components for I/O
operations in Embedded C programming involves
connecting hardware devices such as sensors, actuators,
and communication modules to a microcontroller or
microprocessor and writing code to interact with these
devices. Here are the basic steps involved in interfacing
with hardware components for I/O operations in
Embedded C programming:

246
1. Choose the Appropriate Hardware Component
The first step is to choose the appropriate
hardware component for the desired input or
output operation. For example, a temperature
sensor can be used to read the temperature of the
environment, while a motor driver can be used
to control the speed and direction of a motor.
2. Connect the Component to the Microcontroller
The next step is to connect the hardware
component to the microcontroller using the
appropriate interface. The interface can be
digital (e.g. GPIO pins) or analog (e.g. ADC,
DAC). The connections should be made
according to the pin-out of the microcontroller
and the datasheet of the hardware component.

3. Configure the Microcontroller

The microcontroller should be configured to
communicate with the hardware component.
This may involve setting up GPIO pins,
configuring the clock and interrupt system, and
initializing the communication protocol (e.g.
SPI, I2C, UART).

4. Code to Interact With the Hardware

Component
Once the hardware is connected and the
microcontroller is configured, the next step is to
write code to interact with the hardware
component. This involves reading or writing
data to the hardware component through the
appropriate interface. The code may also include
data processing and error handling.

247
 #define LM35_PIN A0
void setup()
{
// initialize ADC
ADC_init();
}
void loop()
{
int volts= ADC_read(LM35_PIN);
float temp = (volt/1023.0*500;)
//LM35 output is 10mv/c
printf("temp: %f\n",temp);
delay(1000);
}

Here are some examples of interfacing with hardware

components for I/O operations in Embedded C
programming:

1. Interfacing with a Temperature Sensor:

A popular temperature sensor is the LM35,
which provides a voltage output that is
proportional to the temperature. To interface
with this sensor, the analog output can be
connected to an ADC pin of the microcontroller.
The microcontroller can then read the voltage
value using the ADC module and convert it to
temperature using the appropriate formula. Here
is an example code snippet:

2. Interfacing with a Motor Driver:

A motor driver such as the L298N can be used
to control the speed and direction of a DC motor.

248
 The motor driver can be connected to GPIO pins
of the microcontroller to control the direction
and PWM pins to control the speed. Here is an
example code snippet:

#define DIR_PIN 2
#define PWM_PIN 3
void setup()
{
GPIO_init();
PWM_init();
}
void loop()
{
//set direction and speed of motor
GPIO_write(DIR_PIN, HIGH); // forward motion
PWM_write (PWM_PIN, 50); // speed at 50%

delay(1000);

//to stop motor

PWM_write(PWM_PIN, 0);
}

So, interfacing with hardware components for I/O

operations in Embedded C programming involves
connecting hardware devices to a microcontroller and
writing code to interact with these devices using the
appropriate interface. This process can be complex and
requires a good understanding of the hardware and the
programming language.

249
19.4 Interrupts and I/O Operations
Interrupts and I/O operations are closely related in
Embedded C programming. Interrupts are a mechanism
by which the microcontroller can be notified of a change
in the state of an input or output device, allowing the
microcontroller to respond to the change in real-time.
Now we will discuss how interrupts and I/O operations
work together in Embedded C programming, along with
some examples.
So, interrupts allow the microcontroller to execute a
specific code when an external event occurs, such as a
button press or a signal from a sensor. When an interrupt
is triggered, the processor will stop executing the
current code and jump to the interrupt service routine
(ISR) that handles the interrupt. Once the ISR has
completed, the processor returns to the main code.
In I/O operations, the microcontroller interacts with
input or output devices by sending or receiving data.
When an input device changes state, such as a sensor
detecting an object or a button being pressed, the
microcontroller must respond quickly to the change.
Interrupts allow the microcontroller to respond to
changes in real-time, enabling it to perform I/O
operations more efficiently.
Interrupts can be triggered by several sources, such as a
timer, a GPIO pin, or a communication module. The
microcontroller can be configured to handle interrupts
from multiple sources simultaneously, allowing it to
respond to multiple events simultaneously.

250
Here are some examples of how interrupts and I/O
operations work together in Embedded C programming:

1. Interrupts and GPIO Input

Suppose we have a push-button connected to a

#define DIR_PIN 2
#define PWM_PIN 3
void setup()
{
GPIO_init();
PWM_init();
}
void loop()
{
//set direction and speed of motor
GPIO_write(DIR_PIN, HIGH); // forward motion
PWM_write (PWM_PIN, 50); // speed at 50%

delay(1000);

//to stop motor

PWM_write(PWM_PIN, 0);
}

GPIO pin on the microcontroller. We want to

detect when the button is pressed and respond to
it immediately. Here's how we can use interrupts
to handle the button press:

In this example, we use the attachInterrupt

function to configure the interrupt on the GPIO
pin. When the button is pressed, the ISR

251
 buttonPress will be executed, which will print a
message to the console.

void setup()
{
//intialize GPIO pin as input
GPIO_init (INPUT_PIN);
// configure interrupt on the GPIO pin
attachInterrupt(INPUT_PIN, buttonPress,
RISING);
}
void loop()
{
// main execution code
}
void buttonPress()
{
// interrupt service routine to handle button
buttonPres
printf("Button pressed \n");
}

2. Interrupts and UART Communication

Suppose we have a microcontroller that
communicates with a computer using UART
communication. We want the microcontroller to
receive data from the computer and respond to it
immediately. Here's how we can use interrupts to
handle the incoming data:In this example, we use
the attachInterrupt function to configure the
interrupt on the UART receive pin. When data is
received, the ISR receiveData will be executed,
which will read the data and respond to it
accordingly.

252
Overall, interrupts and I/O operations work together in
Embedded C programming to enable the
microcontroller to respond to external events in real-
time, making I/O operations more efficient. Interrupts
can be triggered by various sources, such as timers,
GPIO pins, or communication modules, allowing the
microcontroller to respond to multiple events
simultaneously.

void setup()
{
// intialize UART
UART_init();
// configure interrupt on UART recieve
attachInterrupt(UART_RX, reciever=Data,
RISING);
}
void loop()
{
// main execution code
}
void recieveData()
{
//interupt service routine to handle incoming Data
char data=UART_read();
if(data=='A')
{
//respong to 'A'
UART_write("A recieved\n");
}
}

253
Chapter 20
Advance Embedded
Programming

20.1 Embedded programming for

Microcontroller
Embedded C and C++ programming are commonly used for
developing software for 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit
microcontrollers. These programming languages are
efficient, flexible, and easy to use, making them ideal for
developing embedded systems.

20.1.1 8-bit Microcontrollers

Embedded C and C++ programming for 8-bit
microcontrollers involve using compilers that are
specifically designed for these microcontrollers. The
most common compiler for 8-bit microcontrollers is the
Keil compiler, which provides support for a wide range
of microcontrollers. The programming language for 8-
bit microcontrollers is usually C, and the most
commonly used libraries are the Standard Peripheral
Libraries (SPL) provided by the microcontroller
manufacturer. These libraries provide access to the
microcontroller's peripherals, such as GPIO, UART,

254
and SPI, and make it easy to control and communicate
with external hardware.
20.1.2 16-bit Microcontrollers
Embedded C and C++ programming for 16-bit
microcontrollers are similar to those for 8-bit
microcontrollers. The programming language is still C,
and the most commonly used compilers are still the Keil
compiler and the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC). The
libraries used for 16-bit microcontrollers are also similar
to those used for 8-bit microcontrollers, with the SPL
being the most commonly used library. However, 16-bit
microcontrollers typically have more complex
peripherals than 8-bit microcontrollers, and the libraries
may be more extensive.
20.1.3 32-bit Microcontrollers
Embedded C and C++ programming for 32-bit
microcontrollers involve using compilers that are
specifically designed for these microcontrollers, such as
the Keil compiler, the GCC, and the ARM Compiler.
The programming language for 32-bit microcontrollers
is usually C or C++, and the libraries used are usually
provided by the microcontroller manufacturer or a third-
party library. The libraries provide access to the
microcontroller's peripherals and may be more
extensive than those used for 8-bit and 16-bit
microcontrollers.
So, Embedded C and C++ programming are commonly
used for developing software for 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-
bit microcontrollers. The programming language,
compiler, and libraries used may vary depending on the

255
type of microcontroller being used. However, the main
goal of the programming is to develop efficient and
reliable software for controlling and communicating
with external hardware.

20.2 Peripheral Interfacing with Embedded C

Peripheral interfacing with embedded C programming
involves using C language to interact with and control
the peripheral devices that are connected to a
microcontroller. These peripheral devices can include
sensors, displays, motors, and other external
components. The process of interfacing with these
peripherals typically involves setting up the
microcontroller to communicate with the device,
sending commands or data to the device, and receiving
data or status information from the device.
There are several steps involved in peripheral
interfacing with embedded C programming:

• Identifying the Peripheral

The first step in peripheral interfacing is to
identify the peripheral device that will be used.
This involves understanding the device's
communication protocol, interface
requirements, and data format.

• Configuring the Microcontroller

The next step is to configure the
microcontroller's hardware and software to
communicate with the peripheral device. This
may involve setting up the appropriate
communication protocol, such as UART, SPI,

256
 I2C, or CAN, and configuring the
microcontroller's pins, clock speed, and other
settings to match the requirements of the
peripheral device.

• Writing the Peripheral Driver

The peripheral driver is a software module that
provides an interface between the
microcontroller and the peripheral device. This
module may include functions for sending
commands or data to the device, receiving data
or status information from the device, and
handling errors or other exceptions.

• Integrating the Peripheral Driver

The next step is to integrate the peripheral driver
into the main application software running on
the microcontroller. This involves calling the
appropriate functions from the driver module
and processing the data or status information
received from the peripheral device.

• Testing and Debugging

Finally, the application software must be tested
and debugged to ensure that it is functioning
correctly and that the peripheral device is being
properly controlled.
Examples of Peripheral Interfacing with Embedded C
Programming:
1. Interfacing with an LCD Display: To interface
with an LCD display, the microcontroller must
be configured to communicate with the display

257
 using the appropriate protocol, such as SPI or
I2C. The peripheral driver for the display may
include functions for sending commands to the
display, such as setting the cursor position or
turning on/off the backlight, as well as functions
for writing data to the display, such as displaying
text or graphics.

2. Interfacing with a Temperature Sensor: To

interface with a temperature sensor, the
microcontroller must be configured to
communicate with the sensor using the
appropriate protocol, such as I2C or SPI. The
peripheral driver for the sensor may include
functions for reading the temperature value from
the sensor, converting the raw sensor data to a
temperature value, and handling any errors or
exceptions that may occur.

3. Interfacing with a Motor Controller: To

interface with a motor controller, the
microcontroller must be configured to
communicate with the controller using the
appropriate protocol, such as UART or CAN.
The peripheral driver for the controller may
include functions for sending commands to the
controller, such as setting the motor speed or
direction, as well as functions for receiving
status information from the controller, such as
the motor's current speed or temperature.

258
20.3 Debugging Embedded C and C++ program
Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors or
bugs in a program. Debugging embedded C and C++
programs can be more challenging than debugging
programs on a desktop computer, as there are often
fewer debugging tools and resources available.
However, there are still several effective methods for
debugging embedded programs:
1. Printing Debug Messages: One of the simplest
and most effective methods for debugging
embedded C and C++ programs is to use print
statements to output debug messages to a serial
port or other output device. These messages can
help identify where the program is executing,
which functions are being called, and the values
of key variables at different points in the
program. This method is especially useful for
debugging programs that run on
microcontrollers without a built-in debugger or
for programs running on systems where the
debugger cannot be connected to the system.

2. Using a Debugger: Many microcontrollers come

with a built-in debugger that can be used to step
through the program and examine the state of the
microcontroller's memory and registers. In
addition, there are several third-party debuggers
that can be used with microcontrollers that do
not have a built-in debugger. These debuggers
can be used to set breakpoints, step through the
code, and examine the contents of memory and

259
 registers. Debuggers can also be used to analyze
the program's execution flow and identify errors
or unexpected behavior.

3. Code Profiling: Code profiling involves

analyzing the program's execution to identify
performance bottlenecks, memory leaks, and
other issues that may affect the program's
performance or stability. This can be done using
tools such as profiling libraries, which can be
used to collect data on the program's execution
and identify areas where the program is using
too much memory or where it is taking too long
to execute certain functions.

4. Using Simulation: Many microcontroller

development environments come with a
simulator that can be used to test and debug
programs without having to run them on the
actual hardware. This can be useful for
debugging programs that are difficult to test in
real-time, such as programs that control motors
or other physical devices.

5. Testing with Real Devices: Once a program has

been tested and debugged in simulation, it
should be tested on real devices to ensure that it
behaves as expected in a real-world
environment. This can involve using test
fixtures, which are devices that simulate the
behavior of real-world components, or testing

260
 the program on a prototype device that is similar
to the final product.

In addition to these methods, there are several best

practices that can help make debugging embedded C
and C++ programs easier and more effective. These
include using meaningful variable names, commenting
the code thoroughly, breaking the code into small, easily
testable functions, and testing the program frequently
throughout the development process.

20.4 Bit Manipulation and Bitwise Operators

Bit manipulation refers to the manipulation of
individual bits in a binary number. This can be done
using bitwise operators, which are operators that
perform operations on the individual bits of a number.
Bitwise operators are commonly used in embedded
systems programming to perform operations on
hardware registers or to implement low-level
algorithms.
There are six bitwise operators in C and C++:

1. AND: This operator performs a bitwise AND

operation on two numbers. The result is a
number in which each bit is set to 1 only if the
corresponding bits in both operands are also 1.
For example, the result of 0b1010 & 0b1100 is
0b1000.

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2. OR (|): This operator performs a bitwise OR
operation on two numbers. The result is a
number in which each bit is set to 1 if the
corresponding bit in either operand is 1. For
example, the result of 0b1010 | 0b1100 is
0b1110.

3. XOR (^): This operator performs a bitwise XOR

(exclusive OR) operation on two numbers. The
result is a number in which each bit is set to 1
only if the corresponding bits in the operands are
different. For example, the result of 0b1010 ^
0b1100 is 0b0110.

4. NOT (~): This operator performs a bitwise NOT

operation on a number. The result is a number in
which each bit is inverted (i.e., set to 0 if it was
previously 1 and vice versa). For example, the
result of ~0b1010 is 0b0101.

5. Left Shift (<<): This operator shifts the bits of a

number to the left by a specified number of
positions. The vacant bits on the right are filled
with zeros. For example, the result of 0b1010 <<
2 is 0b101000.

6. Right Shift (>>): This operator shifts the bits of

a number to the right by a specified number of
positions. The vacant bits on the left are filled
with zeros. For example, the result of 0b1010 >>
2 is 0b0010.

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Bitwise operators are often used for setting or clearing
individual bits in a register or for extracting specific bits
from a larger number.
For example, the following code sets bit 3 of a register:
register != (1 << 3);
This code sets bit 3 of the register to 1 by shifting the
number 1 three positions to the left and performing a
bitwise OR operation with the register.
Similarly, the following code clears bit 3 of a register:
register &= ~(1 << 3);
This code clears bit 3 of the register by shifting the
number 1 three positions to the left, inverting it using
the NOT operator (~), and performing a bitwise AND
operation with the register.

20.5 Using Macros and Preprocessor Directives

Macros and preprocessor directives are powerful tools in C
and C++ programming that allow developers to define
constants, create reusable code snippets, and perform
conditional compilation.

A macro is a piece of code that is defined using the #define

preprocessor directive. Macros are used to define constants
or to create simple code snippets that can be reused
throughout a program. Macros are expanded by the
preprocessor, which replaces the macro name with its
definition before the code is compiled.

Here is an example of a macro that defines a constant:

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#define PI 3.14159

This macro defines the constant PI as 3.14159, which can be

used throughout the program in place of the literal value.

Preprocessor directives are special instructions that are

interpreted by the preprocessor before the code is compiled.
These directives are used to include header files, define
macros, and perform conditional compilation.

Here are some common preprocessor directives:

• #include: This directive is used to include header

files in the code. Header files contain function
prototypes, constant definitions, and other
declarations that are needed by the program.

• #define: This directive is used to define macros.

• #ifdef and #ifndef: These directives are used to

perform conditional compilation. They allow code to
be included or excluded based on whether a macro is
defined or not.

• #if, #elif, and #else: These directives are used to

perform more complex conditional compilation.
They allow code to be included or excluded based on
the value of a macro or expression.
Here is an example of a program that uses macros and
preprocessor directives:

264
 #include <stdio.h>
#define DEBUG
int main()
{
int x=5;
#idef DEBUG
printf("x=%d\n",x);
#endif
return 0;
}

This program includes the stdio.h header file, defines the

macro DEBUG, and declares a variable x. The #ifdef
directive checks whether the DEBUG macro is defined, and
if so, it prints the value of x to the console. If the DEBUG
macro is not defined, the code inside the #ifdef block is
excluded from the compiled program.

Overall, macros and preprocessor directives are powerful

tools that allow developers to create more efficient and
flexible code. However, they should be used with caution to
avoid creating code that is difficult to read and maintain.

20.6 Memory Mapping and Optimization

Memory mapping is the process of assigning memory
locations to various sections of a program or a
microcontroller. In embedded systems, memory
mapping is an important technique used for memory
optimization, code optimization, and efficient usage of
available memory resources. In this process, hardware
peripherals, and memory mapped devices are also
assigned memory locations in the microcontroller's
memory map.

265
Optimizing memory usage is critical in embedded
systems, as resources such as RAM and ROM are
limited. Efficient use of memory is achieved by
minimizing the code size and reducing the data storage
requirements. The optimization techniques can be
broadly classified into two types - memory optimization
and code optimization.
Memory optimization techniques aim to minimize the
memory footprint of the program by reducing the data
storage requirements. One of the commonly used
memory optimization techniques is data compression,
which reduces the size of the data by encoding it into a
compressed form. Another technique is data packing,
which optimizes the data storage by packing the data
tightly into memory.
Code optimization techniques aim to reduce the code
size and improve the program's execution speed. One of
the commonly used code optimization techniques is
function in lining, which reduces the overhead
associated with function calls by replacing the function
calls with inline code. Another technique is loop
unrolling, which reduces the number of loop iterations
by unrolling the loop code.
To optimize the memory usage, developers can use
memory-mapped devices instead of using I/O ports.
Memory-mapped devices allow direct access to the
hardware peripherals, which reduces the processing
overhead and reduces the code size. Memory-mapped
devices are assigned memory locations, which allows
the microcontroller to access them like any other
memory location. Another important technique used for
memory optimization is bank switching. Bank

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switching allows the microcontroller to access more
memory than its actual address space by dividing the
memory into multiple banks. The microcontroller can
access only one bank at a time, and the bank is switched
depending on the memory address accessed by the
program.
So, memory mapping and optimization techniques are
important for developing efficient embedded systems.
By using memory-mapped devices, bank switching,
data compression, and code optimization techniques,
developers can minimize the code size and reduce the
data storage requirements, resulting in efficient use of
available memory resources.

20.7 Timing and Delay Techniques

Timing and delay techniques are essential in embedded
systems to control the timing and synchronization of
various hardware components and software tasks. These
techniques allow the system to perform tasks with
precise timing and ensure that different tasks are
executed at the right time.
In Embedded C programming, there are different
techniques to generate delays and control timing. The
most commonly used techniques are software delays
and hardware timers.
20.7.1 Software Delays
In software delays, the program waits for a specific
amount of time by executing a loop for a defined
number of iterations. The loop delay method is simple,
and the accuracy of the delay depends on the processor

267
speed and the number of loop iterations. The delay time
can be calculated using the following formula:
Delay time = Number of loop iterations × Time taken
for each iteration
For example, if we want to generate a delay of 1 second
using a loop delay, and the microcontroller's clock
frequency is 8 MHz, we can calculate the number of
iterations required as:
Number of iterations = (1 sec × 8 MHz) / 4
Assuming that each loop iteration takes 4 clock cycles,
the number of iterations required would be 2 million.
20.7.2 Hardware Timers
Hardware timers are used to generate accurate delays
and control timing in embedded systems. These timers
are available in most microcontrollers and are used to
generate interrupts at regular intervals. The interrupts
can be used to trigger specific actions or execute tasks
with precise timing. The timer's accuracy depends on
the processor clock frequency and the timer resolution.
Timer resolution is the smallest time interval that can be
generated by the timer. For example, a timer with a
resolution of 1 ms can generate a delay of 1 ms or
multiples of 1 ms.
For example, to generate a delay of 1 second using a
hardware timer, we can configure the timer to generate
an interrupt every 1 ms. When the timer interrupt is
triggered 1000 times, we can consider that the delay of
1 second has been generated.

268
Here's an example of how to generate a delay of 1
second using a hardware timer in Embedded C
programming:
In this example, we are using the Timer1 of the
ATmega328P microcontroller to generate a delay of 1
second. The delay_ms function uses the hardware timer
to generate a delay of the specified number of
milliseconds. The ISR function is the interrupt service
routine that is executed when the timer interrupt is
triggered. The count variable is used to count the
number of timer interrupts triggered, and the while loop
waits

20.8 Programming for Real-Time Operating

Systems
Embedded C and C++ programming for real-time
operating systems (RTOS) is a specialized area of
programming that involves designing and implementing
software for embedded systems with real-time
requirements. An RTOS is a type of operating system
designed for real-time applications that require
deterministic behavior, meaning that responses to input
events are guaranteed to occur within a certain
timeframe. This is achieved through the use of
scheduling algorithms, inter-task communication

269
mechanisms, and other features that enable efficient use
of system resources.

#include<avr/io.h>
#include<avr/interrupt.h>
#define F_CPU 800000UL
volatile unint16_t count =0;
ISR(TIMER1_COMPA_vect)
{
count++;
}
void delay_ms(unit_t ms)
{
count =0;
TCNT1 =0;
// timer compare value for 1ms
OCR1A = ((F_CPUR / 1000)/8)*ms
// set CTC mode
TCCR1B |= (1<<WGM12);
//set prescaler to 8
TCCR1B |= (1<<CS11);
// enable timer compare interrupt
TIMSK1 |= (1<<OCIE1A);
while (count <ms);
TCCR1B = 0; // stop timer
TIMSK1 = 0; // disable timer interrupt
}
int main(void)
{
DDRB |=(1<<PB0);
while (1)
{
PORTB^=(1<<PB0); //Toggle LED
delay_ms(1000); //delay 1second
}
}

270
The programming languages used for RTOS
development are typically C and C++, as these
languages provide low-level access to hardware and
memory resources, which is necessary for programming
embedded systems. Embedded C and C++
programming for RTOS involves designing software
that can manage hardware resources, handle interrupts,
and respond to real-time events. This requires a deep
understanding of the underlying hardware, as well as the
ability to write efficient code that can run on systems
with limited resources.
One of the key features of RTOS programming is the
ability to schedule tasks in a deterministic manner. This
involves using scheduling algorithms to determine
which tasks should be executed at any given time, based
on their priority levels and other factors. The priority of
a task is a measure of its importance, and tasks with
higher priorities are executed before tasks with lower
priorities. This ensures that critical tasks are given
precedence, and that real-time deadlines are met.
Another important aspect of RTOS programming is the
ability to handle interrupts in a timely manner.
Interrupts are events that occur outside of the normal
flow of program execution, and require immediate
attention. This can include hardware interrupts, such as
those generated by a timer or input device, as well as
software interrupts, such as those generated by other
tasks in the system. Interrupt latency refers to the time
it takes for the system to respond to an interrupt, while
interrupt response time refers to the time it takes to
complete the processing of the interrupt. Minimizing
interrupt latency and response time is critical for real-
time systems, as it ensures that the system can respond

271
to input events within the required timeframe. Finally,
embedded C and C++ programming for RTOS involves
implementing inter-task communication mechanisms
that allow tasks to communicate with each other and
share resources. This can include message passing,
semaphores, and other synchronization mechanisms
that ensure that tasks can operate safely and efficiently
in a multi-tasking environment. Efficient inter-task
communication is critical for real-time systems, as it
enables tasks to work together to achieve common
goals, and ensures that the system can respond to input
events in a timely and deterministic manner.
The embedded C and C++ programming for real-time
operating systems involves designing and implementing
software for embedded systems with real-time
requirements. This requires a deep understanding of
hardware resources and real-time programming
concepts, as well as the ability to write efficient and
deterministic code that can operate within the
constraints of limited system resources. Key features of
RTOS programming include scheduling algorithms,
interrupt handling mechanisms, and inter-task
communication mechanisms, which enable tasks to
work together to achieve common goals and ensure
timely response to input events.

20.9 Interrupt Latency and Response Time

In real-time systems, interrupt latency and response
time are critical factors that determine the system's
performance. Interrupt latency is the time taken by the
system to respond to an interrupt request. It is the time
from when an interrupt is generated to when the

272
corresponding interrupt service routine (ISR) starts
executing. Interrupt latency includes the time taken by
the hardware to handle the interrupt request, such as
saving the context and performing any necessary
operations, as well as the time taken by the operating
system to switch to the ISR. A short interrupt latency is
desirable in real-time systems to ensure timely response
to critical events.
Response time, on the other hand, is the time taken by
the system to complete a request after it has been
initiated. In the context of real-time systems, response
time is the time taken by the system to handle an event,
starting from the time the event is detected until the
response is generated. Response time includes the
interrupt latency, the time taken by the ISR to execute,
and any other time taken by the system to handle the
event. A short response time is desirable in real-time
systems to ensure timely handling of critical events.
In order to reduce interrupt latency and response time,
real-time systems use various techniques such as
interrupt prioritization, interrupt preemption, and
interrupt nesting. Interrupt prioritization is the process
of assigning different priorities to different interrupts,
such that higher priority interrupts are handled before
lower priority interrupts. Interrupt preemption is the
process of temporarily suspending the execution of a
lower priority interrupt to allow the handling of a higher
priority interrupt. Interrupt nesting is the process of
handling multiple interrupts simultaneously, such that a
higher priority interrupt can interrupt the handling of a
lower priority interrupt.

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To ensure timely response to critical events, real-time
systems often use a fixed-priority preemptive
scheduling algorithm. In this algorithm, tasks are
assigned priorities based on their criticality, and higher
priority tasks are executed before lower priority tasks.
The preemptive feature allows the system to temporarily
suspend the execution of a lower priority task to allow
the execution of a higher priority task. This ensures that
critical events are handled in a timely manner.
As, interrupt latency and response time are critical
factors that determine the performance of real-time
systems. Interrupt prioritization, interrupt preemption,
and interrupt nesting are techniques used to reduce
interrupt latency and response time. A fixed-priority
preemptive scheduling algorithm is often used in real-
time systems to ensure timely handling of critical
events.

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Part 04 Embedded
Systems Design
Engineering

275
Chapter 21
Modern Design and
Embedded Systems
Engineering

21.1 Introduction to Design Engineering

Since the days of drafting blueprints, design engineering has
gone a long way. Today it is a multidisciplinary field that
necessitates a thorough knowledge of materials, production
methods, ergonomics, aesthetics, and technology. Modern
design engineers use innovative technologies, techniques,
and approaches to build things that are not only useful but
also visually appealing, efficient, and long-lasting. This
chapter will look at some of the most important trends,
difficulties, and possibilities in current design engineering.

21.2 Role of Technology in Modern Engineering

In present-day engineering, technology is a key changer. It
has enabled designers to construct complicated things that
were previously impossible or extremely costly to
manufacture. Computer-aided design (CAD) software, for
example, enables designers to construct 3D models of items
and simulate their behavior in various contexts. This assists

276
in identifying potential design problems and optimizing the
product before it starts production.

Additive manufacturing, robotics, artificial intelligence (AI),

and the internet of things (IoT) are other technologies that
have transformed modern design engineering. Additive
manufacturing, commonly known as 3D printing, enables
designers to construct previously unattainable complex
shapes and lightweight structures. Manufacturing is now
more efficient, accurate, and safe thanks to robotics and
automation. AI and machine learning may help designers in
coming up with new ideas, perfect designs, and forecasting
product performance. The Internet of Things connects
products to the internet and collects data that can be utilized
to improve their functionality and user experience.

21.3 Creativity and Innovation

Despite the significance of technology in modern design
engineering, creativity, and innovation remain essential for
success. Designers must be able to think outside the box and
generate novel solutions to real-world challenges. They must
be able to balance form and function and produce things that
are not just visually appealing but also functional. Because
competition is tough and consumers are always looking for
the latest and greatest products, innovation is also critical in
modern design engineering.

Design thinking techniques are one way for designers to

promote creativity and innovation. Design thinking is a
human-centered approach to problem-solving in which
designers focus on understanding users' wants and desires
and developing solutions to suit those needs. It is an iterative
process that consists of prototyping, testing, and refining
ideas until the ultimate outcome is achieved.

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21.4 Sustainable Design Engineering
Sustainability is an increasingly important consideration in
modern design engineering. With the world facing
significant environmental challenges, designers must create
products that are not only functional and aesthetically
pleasing but also environmentally friendly. This involves
considering the entire lifecycle of the product, from raw
materials to disposal, and minimizing its impact on the
environment.

Using eco-friendly materials and production processes is one

option for designers to develop sustainable goods. Designers,
for example, can use recyclable or biodegradable materials
for typical plastics or metals. They can also create goods that
are simple to deconstruct and recycle at the end of their useful
lives.

Another way to improve sustainability in current design

engineering is to develop things that use less energy and
produce less waste. This includes developing products that
use less energy, emit less pollution, and make better use of
resources. Designers can, for example, construct items that
utilize renewable energy sources like wind and solar power,
or that incorporate energy-saving features like LED lighting
or smart sensors.

21.5 Evolution of Embedded Systems

Engineering
Modern embedded systems design engineering involves the
integration of hardware and software components to create a
system that performs a specific function or set of functions.

Since the days of microcontrollers and assembly language,

embedded system design engineering has gone a long way.
Designers now have access to a wide range of hardware and

278
software technologies that allow them to swiftly and
efficiently develop complicated systems. Microprocessors,
microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSPs), field-
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), and software
development kits (SDKs) are examples of these tools.

One of the key innovations in modern embedded systems

design engineering is the use of system-on-chip (SoC)
technology. SoCs integrate multiple components, such as
processors, memory, and peripherals, onto a single chip,
reducing system size, power consumption, and cost. SoCs are
particularly well-suited for mobile devices, where space and
power constraints are critical.

Taking advantage of open-source hardware and software is

another innovation in modern embedded system design
engineering. Designers can alter and contribute open-source
hardware and software as they see fit. This has resulted in a
vibrant developer community that shares ideas and
collaborates on projects, resulting in faster innovation and
higher quality.

21.6 Challenges in Embedded Systems Designs

Embedded systems design engineering presents several
challenges that designers must overcome to create successful
products. One of the most significant challenges is the need
to balance performance with power consumption. Embedded
systems are often battery-powered or run on low-power
sources, such as solar or kinetic energy. Designers must
optimize the system's power consumption to ensure long
battery life and minimize the system's environmental impact.

Another difficulty in embedded system design engineering is

ensuring system security. Because embedded systems are
frequently connected to the internet, they are vulnerable to
cyberattacks. To protect against these dangers, designers

279
must add security measures such as encryption and
authentication.

Finally, embedded systems design engineering necessitates a

thorough grasp of the system's application as well as the
environment in which it will function. When selecting
components and constructing the system, designers must
consider conditions such as temperature, humidity, vibration,
and shock. They must also guarantee that the system satisfies
regulatory and industry standards.

21.7 Opportunities in Embedded Systems Designs

Embedded systems design engineering offers numerous
options for growth and innovation. Integration of artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) into embedded
systems is one of the most significant potentials. AI and
machine learning can assist embedded systems in adapting to
changing situations, optimizing performance, and improving
user experience. AI and machine learning, for example, can
be employed in autonomous vehicles to improve safety and
efficiency, as well as in medical equipment to improve
diagnosis and treatment.

Another opportunity in embedded systems design

engineering is the development of internet of things (IoT)
applications. IoT involves connecting everyday objects, such
as appliances, cars, and buildings, to the internet, enabling
them to collect and share data. Embedded systems are at the
heart of many IoT applications, and designers can create
innovative products that enhance our lives, improve
efficiency, and reduce environmental impact.

280
Chapter 22
Embedded Systems Design
Techniques

22.1 Introduction
In this chapter we’ll look in depth on the modern embedded
systems design techniques that design engineer uses to
develop modern embedded systems. We will also study about
the test and verification of embedded systems before their
launch and will learn what are real time embedded systems.

22.2 Top Down and Bottom Up Techniques

Top-down and bottom-up design techniques are extensively
utilized in embedded system design.

The top-down design approach begins with an overall system

specification and then divides it into smaller subsystems,
which are then divided into smaller components. This
procedure is repeated until the components can be
implemented using existing hardware or software. The
system is created from a high level in this way, and the
specifics are filled in as the design advances.

When the system requirements are well-defined but the

system architecture is complex, the top-down method is

281
useful. This method can assist in identifying possible
concerns early in the design phase and allows for better
coordination between teams working on different portions of
the system.

The bottom-up design technique, on the other hand, begins

with the design of individual components, which are
subsequently merged to build bigger subsystems and,
eventually, the entire system. The emphasis in this method is
on designing and testing each component before merging it
into bigger subsystems.

When the system requirements are less well-defined and the

emphasis is on constructing and testing individual
components, the bottom-up approach is useful. This
approach is more adaptable and allows for more adjustments
to be made during the design phase.

In practise, both approaches are frequently used in tandem,

with the top-down approach used to establish system
architecture and the bottom-up approach used to develop
individual components.

22.3 Modular Design Techniques

An technique to system design known as "modular design" is
segmenting a system into smaller, more manageable modules
that may be developed, manufactured, and tested separately
from one another. Modular design is a common technique in
many industries, including software development, product
design, and engineering, as it enables better flexibility,
scalability, and reuse of system components. Following are
the several techniques and principles that are commonly used
in modular design.

282
1. Functional Decomposition
Functional decomposition is the process of breaking
down a system into smaller, more manageable sub-
systems or modules based on their functional
requirements. This allows for easier design,
development, and testing of individual modules,
which can then be combined to form the overall
system. Functional decomposition also helps to
identify any redundancies or overlaps in the system,
which can be eliminated to improve efficiency.
2. Standard Interfaces
Standard interfaces are a set of rules and protocols
that are used to enable communication between
different modules of a system. Standard interfaces
are critical in modular design because they allow
modules to be designed and tested independently of
each other, while ensuring that they can still work
together seamlessly. Standard interfaces also make it
easier to replace or upgrade individual modules
without affecting the rest of the system.
3. Design of Reuse
The modular design approach known as "design for
reuse" states that modules should be created with the
idea of reuse in other applications or systems. This
entails developing modular designs that are both
general enough to be applied in various situations
and precise enough to address the requirements of
the current system. By utilizing tried-and-true ideas
and architectures, design for reuse can drastically cut
down on design and development time while also
improving system performance.
4. Separation of Concerns
According to the design principle of separation of
concerns, various system components such as
functionality, performance, and user interface should
be divided into separate modules. Individual
modules can now be managed and changed more

283
 easily without having an impact on the entire system.
Separation of concerns enhances the system's overall
performance and dependability while also making it
simpler to evaluate individual parts.
5. Component Based Development
A system is built utilizing pre-existing software
components rather than from scratch when
employing the component-based development
process. This kind of modular design enables
programmers to take advantage of code libraries,
frameworks, and architectures already in use to
construct systems more rapidly and effectively.
Greater flexibility and scalability are also made
possible by component-based programming because
it is simple to alter or upgrade individual components
without affecting the system as a whole.

Overall, using modular design methodologies helps

designers and developers build more adaptable, scalable, and
dependable systems, which is a crucial component of
contemporary system design. System performance is
improved, development time and expenses are decreased,
and designers can more easily design, develop, and test
individual components when systems are divided into
smaller, more manageable modules.

22.4 Design for Low Power Consumption

Today world is facing energy crisis. Most of the world’s
energy rely on coal and other natural minerals like petroleum
and crude oil. With it’s rapid depletion it is estimated that in
new few decades the world will run out of fossil fuel.
Scientists across the world are already putting an effort in
discovering new ways to produce clean and efficient energy.

Scientists and engineers are working on making the

electricity central power engine for the world and for that

284
they are developing and designing modern renewable energy
sources like generating energy from wind and sunlight. At
the same time scientists and engineers are also working on
designing more power efficient circuits.

So it is important for you as a design engineer to understand

the significance of low power consumption systems and
design your systems according to it. As more modern gadgets
rely on battery power or must adhere to energy conservation
rules, designing embedded systems with low power
consumption is becoming more and more crucial.

1. Power budgeting
The first step in designing a low-power consumption
embedded system is to determine the power budget
for the system. This involves calculating the total
power consumption of each component in the system
and setting an upper limit for the overall power
consumption. Once the power budget has been
established, designers can work to reduce the power
consumption of individual components to stay
within the budget.
2. Efficient use of Components
In order to create a low-power embedded system, it
is essential to choose components with low power
consumption. To ensure that they consume less
power in both active and sleep modes, components
including microcontrollers, sensors, and
communication modules should be carefully chosen.
In addition, components' idle power consumption
can be decreased by using power management
strategies including clock gating, dynamic voltage
scaling, and power gating.
3. Efficient Code and Algorithm
The software running on an embedded system also
plays a role in power consumption. Efficient code
and algorithms can reduce the computational load of

285
 the system, leading to less power consumption. For
example, algorithms that use a lower bit depth can
significantly reduce power consumption while still
providing sufficient accuracy for the application.
4. Energy Harvesting
Energy harvesting techniques can be used to
supplement or even replace the battery power in
embedded systems. Energy harvesting devices such
as solar cells, thermal energy harvesters, and
piezoelectric generators can be used to convert
ambient energy into electrical power. Energy
harvesting can extend the lifetime of battery-
powered systems and reduce the size of batteries
needed.
5. Sleep Modes
Components may not always need to be active in
embedded systems. When components are not
required, they can be put into a low-power state using
sleep modes. The lifespan of the system can be
increased and power consumption can be greatly
decreased by using sleep modes.
6. System Level Optimization
System-level optimization entails improving the
overall system to cut down on power usage. This
may entail maximizing the system's overall
architecture, designing for low-power
communication methods, and reducing the usage of
peripherals.

Designing low power consumption embedded systems

requires careful planning and optimization at all levels of the
system design. By selecting low-power components, using
efficient code and algorithms, implementing energy
harvesting techniques, and utilizing sleep modes, designers
can significantly reduce the power consumption of their
systems. Overall, the goal of low-power design is to extend

286
the lifetime of the system while still meeting its performance
and functionality requirements.

22.5 Design for High Reliability and Safety

In applications like medical devices, automotive systems,
and aircraft systems, where system failures can have serious
repercussions, designing embedded systems for high
dependability and safety is crucial. In this chapter, we'll talk
about various design strategies for making embedded
systems very reliable and safe.

1. Safety Standards
Adhering to applicable safety standards is one of the
first stages in developing an embedded system that is
trustworthy and secure. IEC 61508, ISO 26262, and
DO-178C are a few examples of standards that offer
guidance for the creation of safety-critical systems.
The system will be built, tested, and documented to
fulfill particular safety criteria if these standards are
followed.
2. Redundancy
Redundancy is a useful method for enhancing
embedded systems' dependability. Critical systems
and components can be duplicated so that, in the case
of a failure, the system can still run. To ensure that
the system can function even if one component fails,
redundant sensors or processors might be deployed.
3. Fault Tolerance
Another method for enhancing the dependability of
embedded systems is fault tolerance. In order to
ensure that the system can continue to work in the
case of a breakdown, fault tolerance entails
engineering the system to identify and respond to
defects. To identify and address system flaws,
methods like watchdog clocks and error-correcting
codes can be used.

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 4. Testing and Verification
To guarantee the dependability and security of
embedded systems, testing and verification are
essential. Functional and non-functional testing
should both be done to make sure the system satisfies
all criteria. To confirm that the system can manage
multiple failure scenarios, testing should also
incorporate fault injection testing.
5. Software Design
The reliability and safety of an embedded system can
be considerably impacted by its software design.
Static analysis, code review, and other design
methods can help to increase the software's quality
and dependability. Additionally, methods like
model-based design and formal verification can be
used to make sure that the program complies with
strict safety standards.
6. Environmental Factors
The dependability and security of embedded systems
can potentially be affected by environmental
conditions. To make sure that the system can
perform dependably in the specified environment,
the system design should take various elements like
temperature, humidity, and electromagnetic
interference into account.
7. Maintenance and Upkeep
Finally, reliable operation and safety depend on the
system's proper maintenance and upkeep. To make
sure all of its parts are operating properly, the system
needs to undergo routine inspections, testing, and
maintenance. Any software updates or modifications
should also be thoroughly tested and confirmed to
make sure they don't affect the system's
dependability or safety.

Finally, building embedded systems for high dependability

and safety necessitates a variety of approaches and factors.

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The most stringent reliability and safety requirements for
embedded systems can be met by designers by adhering to
safety standards, implementing redundancy and fault
tolerance, testing and verifying the system, designing high-
quality software, taking environmental factors into account,
and maintaining the system.

22.6 Unit and Integration Testing

Unit testing and integration testing are two different types of
software testing techniques that are used to ensure that
software applications meet their functional requirements and
quality standards.

Unit testing is a type of testing where individual units or

components of a software application are tested in isolation.
These units could be individual functions, classes, or
modules. The purpose of unit testing is to validate that each
unit performs as intended and to identify any defects or errors
that may exist in the code. Unit tests are usually automated
and are run frequently during the development process to
catch any defects early.

Integration testing, on the other hand, is a type of testing

where multiple units or components of a software application
are tested together as a group. The purpose of integration
testing is to validate that the units work correctly when
combined and that the application as a whole performs as
intended. Integration testing can be done in a variety of ways,
such as top-down, bottom-up, or a combination of both.

In summary, unit testing is focused on testing individual units

or components in isolation, while integration testing is
focused on testing how those units work together as a group.
Both testing techniques are important for ensuring that
software applications are reliable, functional, and of high
quality.

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22.7 Static and Dynamic Analysis
Static analysis is a technique that involves analyzing the
source code of a software application without actually
executing the code. The goal of static analysis is to identify
potential defects or errors in the code before the code is
actually executed. Static analysis can be performed
manually, but it is usually automated using tools that analyze
the code for common coding mistakes, such as buffer
overflows, null pointer dereferences, and uninitialized
variables.

Dynamic analysis, on the other hand, involves analyzing the

behavior of a software application while it is running. This
can be done through a variety of methods, such as software
profiling, memory analysis, or debugging. The goal of
dynamic analysis is to identify defects or errors that occur
during actual execution of the code, such as unexpected
behavior or crashes.

Both static and dynamic analysis are important for designing

and testing embedded systems. Static analysis can help
identify potential issues early in the development process,
which can save time and resources in the long run. Dynamic
analysis can help identify issues that are difficult to detect
through static analysis, such as issues related to timing or
concurrency.

In conclusion, static analysis is a method for examining code

without running it, whereas dynamic analysis is a method for
examining a software application's behavior as it is being
used. For designing and testing embedded systems to make
sure they are dependable, secure, and of a high caliber, both
methodologies are crucial.

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22.8 Real Time Embedded System
Real-time embedded systems are computer systems that are
designed to interact with the physical world, typically
through sensors and actuators. They are characterized by
their ability to respond to events in real-time, often with
stringent timing requirements.

In contrast to general-purpose computing systems, real-time

embedded systems are often designed for a specific purpose
and optimized for specific tasks. They are used in a wide
range of applications, such as automotive systems, medical
devices, aerospace, and industrial control systems.

Real-time embedded systems often have strict resource

constraints, such as limited processing power, memory, and
energy consumption. Therefore, designing such systems
requires careful consideration of the hardware and software
components, as well as the algorithms and protocols used to
communicate with other systems

Real-time embedded systems frequently go through

extensive testing and verification, including the use of
simulations, formal verification techniques, and testing in
real-world scenarios, to make sure they work correctly and
safely.

Real-time systems can be classified into two main categories:

hard real-time systems and soft real-time systems.

Hard real-time systems are those that must adhere to exact

timing specifications. In the case of a safety-critical system
controlling an airplane or medical equipment delivering life-
saving therapy, failure to fulfill deadlines can have
devastating results. Timing restrictions are essential in hard
real-time systems and must always be followed. Systems that
operate in hard real-time include pacemakers, missile
guidance systems, and aircraft control systems.

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On the other hand, timing constraints for soft real-time
systems are less stringent than those for hard real-time
systems. If timing requirements are not met, there may be
consequences, but they are normally not as severe as in hard
real-time systems. Soft real-time systems can cope with a
certain amount of timing ambiguity or variance. Networked
systems, online gaming, and multimedia streaming are a few
examples of soft real-time systems.

There may be some overlap between the two types of hard

and soft real-time systems, and the lines between them are
not always apparent. Real-world applications and the
ramifications of missing a deadline determine whether a
system is considered hard or soft.

22.9 Real-time scheduling and operating systems

Real-time operating systems (RTOS) are operating systems
designed to meet the strict timing requirements of real-time
systems. They provide services that enable tasks to be
executed in a deterministic and predictable manner, with the
ability to meet hard real-time deadlines.

Task scheduling, interrupt handling, memory management,

and task communication are just a few of the features that
RTOS normally offers. One of an RTOS's most important
parts, the task scheduling mechanism controls how resources
are distributed and how tasks are carried out. Real-time
operating systems employ a variety of scheduling strategies,
such as:

1. Rate Monotonic Scheduling (RMS): RMS is a

widely used scheduling algorithm that prioritizes
tasks based on their period or deadline. Tasks with
shorter periods or tighter deadlines are given higher
priorities, and the system ensures that higher-priority

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 tasks are always executed before lower-priority
tasks.
2. Earliest Deadline First (EDF): EDF is another
popular scheduling algorithm that prioritizes tasks
based on their deadline. The task with the earliest
deadline is given the highest priority and is
scheduled first. EDF can handle sporadic and
aperiodic tasks more efficiently than RMS.
3. Fixed Priority Scheduling (FPS): FPS is a scheduling
technique that assigns a fixed priority to each task in
the system. Tasks with higher priorities are executed
first, and lower-priority tasks are executed only when
there are no higher-priority tasks waiting to be
executed.
4. Round-Robin Scheduling (RR): RR is a scheduling
algorithm that allocates a fixed time slice to each task
in the system, allowing each task to execute for a
predefined time period before switching to the next
task.

RTOS and scheduling techniques play a critical role in

real-time systems, ensuring that tasks are executed on
time and in a deterministic manner, which is essential for
the reliable and safe operation of real-time systems.

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Chapter 23
Tools and Project
Management

23.1 Introduction
In this chapter we’ll look in depth on the modern embedded
systems design engineering tools that engineers can use to
design a stunning product. We will also look in depth on
engineering project management and why it is an essential
part of any engineering project. However let’s first discuss
the modern engineering tools.

23.2 Modern Engineering Tools

In the past decades when the computer technology was not
available modern design engineering structure doesn’t look
like it does today. Engineers have to carefully go through the
drafting and designing process on the papers. A single
mistake could lead to either whole design failure or partial
failure. However now days with modern engineering tools,
augmented reality, artificial intelligence, and various
computer aided drawing tools engineers can not only design
a master piece but can virtually view how the product will
look after finishing.

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The engineering tools both either in hardware and software
can vary upon utility. If you are an embedded engineer but
working closely with architecture engineers then you may
need to utilize architecture engineering tools. Similarly if you
are in a team that is designing an electric car then you will
see how automotive engineering and electrical engineering
and computer engineering tools are used to design a perfect
electric car. In this book we are going to introduce you to the
three types of engineering tools that are software based.

1. Computer Circuit Simulation

2. Integrated Development Environment
3. Computer Aided Drawing

These three types of software are some of the most utilized

software or tools that are used by engineers and designers
today. In the practical field you may see some tools that are
not included in this book, however those tools will fall in
either of the above three types of tools.

23.3 Computer Circuit Simulations

Computer circuit simulation software is used to design and
test digital and analog circuits before they are physically
built. These software programs allow engineers and
designers to create and analyze circuits in a virtual
environment, which can save time and money by identifying
potential issues and optimizing the design before it is built.
The following are a few of the main characteristics and
advantages of computer circuit simulation software:

23.3.1 Circuit Design

The majority of circuit simulation software comes with a

circuit design tool that gives engineers a graphical interface
for designing digital and analog circuits. Resistor, capacitor,
and diode libraries as well as bespoke components that may

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be made and stored for later use may be included in the
design tool.

23.3.2 Simulation

After the circuit is designed, it can be tested to see how it

behaves in various scenarios. Engineers can forecast how the
circuit will act in the real world thanks to software that
mimics the behavior of the circuit using mathematical models
and algorithms. Analysis of the simulation's results can
reveal potential problems such as voltage dips, signal
distortions, or current overloads.

23.3.3 Analysis

Circuit simulation software provides tools to analyze the

simulation results and troubleshoot problems. For example,
engineers can use the software to perform frequency response
analysis, transient analysis, and noise analysis to identify
potential issues in the circuit.

23.3.4 Optimization

The circuit design can be improved to increase performance

once the problems have been located. Software for circuit
simulation offers optimization tools that can automatically
change circuit parameters to meet predetermined
performance objectives, such as increasing gain or reducing
power consumption.

23.3.5 Visualization

Circuit simulation software allows engineers to visualize the

behavior of the circuit using graphs, charts, and waveforms.
The software can display the input and output signals, the
voltage and current levels, and other relevant data to help
engineers understand the behavior of the circuit.

23.3.5 List of Circuit Simulation Software

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Here are some of the most used circuit simulation software
that are used by engineers to design any kind of circuit
including embedded systems circuits.

1. LTSpice: LTSpice is a free circuit simulation

software that is widely used by engineers and
designers. It supports digital and analog circuits, and
provides a user-friendly interface for circuit design
and simulation.
2. SPICE: SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated
Circuit Emphasis) is a general-purpose circuit
simulation software that is widely used in the
electronics industry. It supports digital and analog
circuits, and provides advanced analysis and
optimization tools.
3. TINA: TINA (Toolbox for Interactive Network
Analysis) is a circuit simulation software that
provides a wide range of analysis and optimization
tools. It supports digital and analog circuits, and
includes a user-friendly interface for circuit design
and simulation.
4. PSpice: PSpice is a circuit simulation software that
is widely used in the electronics industry. It supports
digital and analog circuits, and provides advanced
analysis and optimization tools.
5. CircuitMaker: CircuitMaker is a free circuit
simulation software that provides a user-friendly
interface for circuit design and simulation. It
supports digital and analog circuits, and includes
libraries of pre-built components and models.

For engineers and designers who want to build and test

digital and analog circuits in a virtual environment,
computer circuit simulation software is a crucial tool.
Engineers can reduce the risk of mistakes and failures,
enhance the performance of their designs, and save time

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 and money by simulating and analyzing the behavior of
circuits before they are created.

23.4 Integrated Development Environment

An Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a piece of
software that streamlines the software development process.
It is a software suite that brings together a variety of tools and
functionalities in a single setting to make it easier for
programmers to write, test, and debug their code. A code
editor, a compiler or interpreter, a debugger, and other
software development tools are frequently found in an IDE.
Because they offer a complete development environment that
enables them to work effectively without having to switch
between different tools, IDEs are popular among developers.
Additionally, they offer a number of functions and tools that
improve the effectiveness of the development process,
including syntax highlighting, code completion, debugging
tools, and version control.

The brain of an IDE is the code editor. This text editor was
created with programming languages in mind. It offers
several tools, like syntax highlighting, code folding, and
auto-completion, to assist programmers in creating clean,
error-free code. Additionally, many IDEs offer plugins or
extensions that let developers adapt the editor to their
particular requirements.

Another crucial element of an IDE is the compiler or

interpreter. It is in charge of converting developer-written
code into machine code that a computer can understand and
use. Compilers or interpreters for numerous programming
languages are offered by many IDEs.

The debugger is a tool that helps developers find and fix

errors in their code. It allows developers to step through their
code line-by-line and examine the values of vari

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ables and other data structures. IDEs often include powerful
debugging tools that can help developers diagnose and fix
complex issues quickly.

IDEs also typically provide version control tools, which

allow developers to keep track of changes made to their code
over time. Version control tools enable developers to
collaborate on code with other developers and keep track of
changes made to the codebase.

One of the key advantages of an IDE is that it provides a

unified environment for the entire development process. This
can help reduce the time and effort required to develop
software by eliminating the need to switch between different
tools and environments. IDEs also typically include features
and tools that make it easier for developers to collaborate
with each other, such as shared code repositories and version
control tools.

There are numerous IDEs to choose from, each with a unique

set of features and functionalities. Arduino IDE, Eclipse,
Visual Studio, IntelliJ IDEA, and NetBeans are a few well-
known IDEs. The developer's individual requirements and
the kind of project they are working on will determine the
IDE they choose.

In conclusion, an Integrated Development Environment

(IDE) is a strong tool that can assist programmers in
effectively writing, testing, and debugging their code. It
offers a variety of features and tools that improve the
development process, and by offering a single environment
for the complete development process, it can assist shorten
the time and effort needed to develop software.

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23.5 Computer Aided Drawings
Using computer software to develop, alter, and analyze
designs is known as computer-aided design (CAD). A branch
of computer-aided design (CAD) that specialises in
producing two- or three-dimensional drawings is called
computer-aided drawing (CAD). In many different
industries, including engineering, architecture, and product
design, CAD software is widely utilized. We will concentrate
on computer-aided drawing and its uses in embedded systems
engineering in this essay.

The use of computer-aided drawing is now a need for

embedded systems engineers. They can use it to create and
see intricate systems, such as printed circuit boards (PCBs),
electronic circuits, and other pieces of hardware. Using CAD
software, it is possible to produce precise drawings and
schematics that can be used to direct the manufacturing
process.

Some of the popular CAD software available for embedded

systems engineers are:

1. Altium Designer: Altium Designer is a popular CAD

software used by embedded systems engineers to
design complex Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs). It
provides a range of features, including schematic
capture, PCB layout, 3D visualization, and
manufacturing outputs. Altium Designer is widely
used in the electronics industry due to its
comprehensive set of tools and capabilities.
2. Eagle PCB Design: Eagle PCB Design is a popular
CAD software used by embedded systems engineers
to create schematics and PCB layouts. It provides a
user-friendly interface and a range of features that
enable users to create complex designs quickly and
efficiently. Eagle PCB Design is widely used in the

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 hobbyist and prototyping communities due to its
affordability and ease of use.
3. KiCAD: KiCAD is an open-source CAD software
that provides a range of tools for schematic capture
and PCB layout. It includes features such as 3D
visualization, component libraries, and netlist
generation. KiCAD is widely used by hobbyists and
small businesses due to its affordability and
community-driven development.
4. Proteus: Proteus is a popular CAD software used by
embedded systems engineers to design electronic
circuits and simulate their behavior. It provides a
range of tools for schematic capture, simulation, and
debugging. Proteus is widely used in the education
and research communities due to its comprehensive
set of features and ease of use.
5. SolidWorks Electrical: SolidWorks Electrical is a
popular CAD software used by embedded systems
engineers to design complex electrical systems. It
provides a range of features, including schematic
capture, 3D visualization, and wiring diagrams.
SolidWorks Electrical is widely used in the
automation and manufacturing industries due to its
comprehensive set of tools and capabilities.

Embedded systems engineers now use computer-aided

drawing as a critical tool, to sum up. They are able to
efficiently and correctly design complicated systems,
which can be used to direct the production process. For
embedded systems engineers, a variety of CAD
programs are available, each with a unique set of features
and functionalities. The type of CAD software chosen by
the engineer will depend on their particular requirements
and the project they are working on

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 Initlization

Finalizing Planning

Control
Execution

Figure 23.1 Project Management Cycle.

23.6 Introduction to Project Management

Project management is the practice of planning, organizing,
and managing resources to achieve specific goals and
objectives within a defined timeline and budget. Project
management is essential for the successful completion of any
project, whether it is a small software development project or
a large construction project.

The project management process can be divided into five

main phases: initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and
control, and closure.

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23.6.1 The Initiation Phase

The initiation phase is the first phase of the project

management process. It involves defining the project's
purpose, objectives, and scope. The project manager
identifies the key stakeholders and creates a project charter
that outlines the project's goals, objectives, and scope. The
project charter is a document that provides a high-level
overview of the project and sets the stage for the project
planning phase.

23.6.2 The Planning Phase

The planning phase is the most critical phase of the project

management process. It involves developing a
comprehensive project plan that outlines the project's scope,
schedule, budget, and resources. The project manager creates
a work breakdown structure (WBS) that breaks the project
down into manageable tasks and identifies the dependencies
between tasks.

During the planning phase, the project manager also develops

a risk management plan that identifies potential risks that
may impact the project's success. The project manager
creates a communication plan that outlines how the project
team will communicate with each other and with
stakeholders. Finally, the project manager creates a quality
management plan that outlines how the project team will
ensure the project meets quality standards.

23.6.3 The Execution Phase

The execution phase is where the project plan is put into

action. The project manager coordinates the project team, and
resources to ensure that the project tasks are completed on
time and within budget. The project manager must also
ensure that the project team adheres to the quality

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management plan and that the project meets the project's
goals and objectives.

23.6.4 The Monitoring and Control Phase

The monitoring and control phase involves tracking project

progress, comparing actual progress to the project plan, and
making adjustments as necessary. The project manager must
monitor the project's performance against the schedule,
budget, and quality standards to ensure that the project stays
on track.

During the monitoring and control phase, the project

manager must also manage any issues that arise and
implement the risk management plan to mitigate potential
risks. The project manager must communicate project
progress to stakeholders and make any necessary adjustments
to the project plan.

23.6.5 The Closure Phase

The closure phase is the final phase of the project

management process. It involves closing out the project and
transferring ownership of the project deliverables to the
customer. The project manager must ensure that all project
deliverables have been completed and that the customer is
satisfied with the project's results.

In conclusion, project management is a critical practice that

involves planning, organizing, and managing resources to
achieve specific goals and objectives within a defined
timeline and budget. Effective project management requires
the project manager to be skilled in communication,
leadership, problem-solving, and risk management. By
following a structured project management process, project
managers can ensure that projects are completed on time,
within budget, and to the required quality standards.

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23.7 Project Time Management
Project time management is a critical aspect of project
management that involves developing and maintaining a
project schedule to ensure the project is completed on time.
Effective time management requires a project manager to
understand the project's scope, objectives, and requirements,
as well as the available resources and potential constraints.

Project time management can be broken down into four key

processes:

Define Activities

Sequence Activites

Estimation of Duration

Developing Time Schedule

Figure 23.2 Project Time Management

23.7.1 Define Activities

The first step in project time management is to define the

activities required to complete the project. The project
manager creates a list of all tasks and activities that must be
completed, including their dependencies and durations.

23.7.2 Sequence Activities

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Once the activities are defined, the next step is to sequence
them in the correct order. The project manager determines
the dependencies between tasks and creates a project
schedule that outlines the order in which the activities will be
completed.

23.7.3 Estimate Activity Durations

The project manager must estimate the time required to

complete each activity. This can be done using historical
data, expert judgment, or other estimation techniques. The
project manager should consider factors such as the
complexity of the task, the resources required, and any
potential risks or constraints that may impact the activity
duration.

23.7.4 Develop and Manage the Schedule

The final step in project time management is to develop and

manage the project schedule. The project manager uses the
information gathered in the previous steps to create a project
schedule that outlines the start and end dates for each activity.

Once the project schedule is developed, the project manager

must monitor and control the schedule to ensure the project
stays on track. This involves regularly reviewing the project
schedule, identifying any potential delays or issues, and
making adjustments as necessary.

There are several tools and techniques that project managers

can use to manage project time effectively. One commonly
used tool is a Gantt chart, which is a visual representation of
the project schedule that shows the start and end dates for
each activity. Project managers can use software tools such
as Microsoft Project or Asana to create and manage project
schedules.

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Effective time management requires the project manager to
communicate regularly with the project team and
stakeholders to ensure everyone is aware of the project
schedule and any potential delays or issues. The project
manager should also regularly review the project schedule to
identify any areas where the schedule can be improved, such
as by reallocating resources or adjusting activity durations.

In conclusion, project time management is a critical aspect of

project management that involves developing and
maintaining a project schedule to ensure the project is
completed on time. Effective time management requires the
project manager to understand the project's scope, objectives,
and requirements, as well as the available resources and
potential constraints. By using tools and techniques such as
Gantt charts and regular communication with the project
team and stakeholders, project managers can effectively
manage project time and ensure project success.

23.8 Project Cost Management

Project cost management is a critical aspect of project
management that involves planning, estimating, budgeting,
and controlling costs throughout the project's lifecycle.
Effective cost management helps ensure the project is
completed within the allocated budget and resources. Project
cost management can be broken down into four key
processes.

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 Plan Cost Management

Estimate Costs

Budget Detrmination

Cost Control

Figure 23.3 Project Cost Management

23.8.1 Plan Cost Management

The first step in project cost management is to plan how the

project's costs will be managed. The project manager should
identify the resources required for the project, estimate the
cost of each resource, and determine how costs will be
tracked and reported.

23.8.2 Estimate Costs

The next step in project cost management is to estimate the

costs associated with each task and activity required to
complete the project. The project manager should consider
factors such as the resources required, the complexity of the
task, and any potential risks or constraints that may impact
the cost.

23.8.3 Determine Budget

Once the costs are estimated, the project manager can

determine the overall project budget. This involves

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aggregating the estimated costs for each task and activity to
determine the total project cost.

23.8.4 Control Costs

The final step in project cost management is to control costs

throughout the project's lifecycle. This involves monitoring
and tracking project costs against the budget and making
adjustments as necessary to ensure the project stays within
the allocated budget.

There are several tools and techniques that project managers

can use to manage project costs effectively. One commonly
used tool is a cost baseline, which is a snapshot of the
project's planned costs at a specific point in time. This
baseline can be used to track actual costs against the planned
costs throughout the project's lifecycle.

Other tools and techniques used in project cost management

include earned value analysis, which involves measuring the
project's progress against its planned cost and schedule, and
cost of quality analysis, which involves identifying the costs
associated with quality control and assurance.

Effective cost management requires the project manager to

communicate regularly with the project team and
stakeholders to ensure everyone is aware of the project's
budget and any potential cost overruns. The project manager
should also regularly review the project's cost performance
and make adjustments as necessary to ensure the project stays
within the allocated budget.

In conclusion, project cost management is a critical aspect of

project management that involves planning, estimating,
budgeting, and controlling costs throughout the project's
lifecycle. Effective cost management requires the project

309
manager to understand the project's requirements, allocate
resources effectively, and use tools and techniques such as
cost baselines, earned value analysis, and cost of quality
analysis. By communicating regularly with the project team
and stakeholders and monitoring the project's cost
performance, project managers can effectively manage
project costs and ensure project success.

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Chapter 24
Industrial and Future of
Embedded Systems

24.1 Industrial Automotive Industry

Embedded systems have become a crucial part of modern
vehicles, providing numerous benefits in terms of safety,
performance, and comfort. Embedded systems are electronic
systems that are integrated into a larger mechanical or
electrical system, such as a car. These systems are designed
to perform specific functions, often with real-time processing
requirements, and are tightly integrated with the overall
vehicle architecture.

In the automotive industry, embedded systems are used to

control various functions of the vehicle, such as the engine,
transmission, braking, and suspension systems. They are also
used to provide features such as entertainment systems,
navigation, and advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS).

One of the main benefits of embedded systems in the

automotive industry is improved safety. ADAS features such
as lane departure warning, forward collision warning, and
automatic emergency braking use embedded systems to
detect potential hazards and alert the driver or take corrective
action to avoid a collision. These systems rely on a

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combination of sensors, such as cameras and radar, and
advanced algorithms to make real-time decisions.

Another benefit of embedded systems in the automotive

industry is improved performance. Electronic control units
(ECUs) use embedded systems to monitor and adjust various
systems in the vehicle, such as the engine and transmission,
to optimize performance and fuel efficiency. These systems
also allow for more precise control of the vehicle's various
components, leading to smoother and more responsive
driving experiences.

Comfort and convenience features are also becoming

increasingly common in modern vehicles, with embedded
systems playing a key role in their implementation. These
features include climate control, entertainment systems, and
navigation, all of which rely on embedded systems to provide
the necessary functionality.

The development of embedded systems for automotive

applications involves a complex process that requires
expertise in multiple areas, including hardware design,
software development, and system integration. The
development process typically involves several stages,
including system requirements definition, hardware and
software design, verification and validation, and production.

In addition to the development process, the automotive

industry also has strict regulations and standards that must be
met to ensure the safety and reliability of embedded systems.
Standards such as the Automotive SPICE (Software Process
Improvement and Capability dEtermination) and ISO 26262
(Functional Safety for Road Vehicles) provide guidelines for
the development of safe and reliable embedded systems in
the automotive industry.

In conclusion, embedded systems have become a critical

component of modern vehicles, providing numerous benefits

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in terms of safety, performance, and comfort. The automotive
industry relies on embedded systems to control various
functions of the vehicle, from the engine and transmission to
advanced driver assistance systems and entertainment
features. The development of embedded systems for
automotive applications requires expertise in multiple areas,
as well as compliance with strict regulations and standards.
With continued innovation and development, embedded
systems will play an increasingly important role in the
automotive industry, improving safety, performance, and the
overall driving experience.

24.2 Healthcare Industry

Embedded systems are becoming increasingly important in
healthcare industry, as they offer numerous benefits such as
improved patient care, increased efficiency and reduced
costs. Embedded systems are computer systems that are
integrated into other devices or systems, and are designed to
perform specific tasks or functions.

In healthcare, embedded systems are used in a variety of

applications, such as patient monitoring systems, medical
imaging equipment, implantable medical devices, and
diagnostic equipment. These systems are used to collect and
analyze patient data, monitor vital signs, and provide real-
time feedback to healthcare professionals.

One of the major benefits of embedded systems in healthcare

is that they can help improve patient care. For example,
patient monitoring systems can track a patient's vital signs
and alert healthcare professionals if there are any
abnormalities. This can help prevent medical emergencies
and allow healthcare professionals to intervene early.

Another benefit of embedded systems is that they can help

increase efficiency in healthcare. For example, medical

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imaging equipment can produce high-quality images quickly,
allowing healthcare professionals to make faster and more
accurate diagnoses. Similarly, diagnostic equipment can
automate the process of collecting and analyzing patient data,
reducing the time and effort required by healthcare
professionals.

In addition, embedded systems can help reduce costs in

healthcare. For example, implantable medical devices can
monitor a patient's condition remotely, reducing the need for
frequent hospital visits. Similarly, diagnostic equipment can
reduce the need for expensive and invasive tests, saving both
time and money.

However, there are also challenges associated with

embedded systems in healthcare. One challenge is ensuring
the security and privacy of patient data. Embedded systems
must be designed with strong security measures to prevent
unauthorized access to patient data.

Another challenge is ensuring the reliability and safety of

embedded systems. Healthcare professionals rely on these
systems to make critical decisions, and any failures or errors
can have serious consequences for patients. Therefore,
embedded systems must be designed and tested rigorously to
ensure their reliability and safety.

Despite these challenges, embedded systems have great

potential to transform healthcare by improving patient care,
increasing efficiency, and reducing costs. As technology
continues to advance, we can expect to see even more
innovative and sophisticated embedded systems in healthcare
in the future.

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24.3 Aerospace Industry
Embedded systems have revolutionized the aerospace
industry by providing increased safety, efficiency, and
reliability in aircraft design and operation. These computer
systems are integrated into aircraft, spacecraft, and satellites
to perform specific tasks and functions, such as navigation,
control, communication, and monitoring.

One of the primary applications of embedded systems in

aerospace is in-flight control and navigation systems. These
systems use sensors and algorithms to monitor the position,
orientation, and velocity of the aircraft and make necessary
adjustments to maintain stability, safety, and efficiency. For
example, the fly-by-wire system is an embedded system that
replaces traditional mechanical systems with electronic
signals to control the aircraft's flight surfaces. This system
offers precise control and feedback, making it safer and more
efficient.

Another application of embedded systems in aerospace is in

communication systems. These systems enable real-time
communication between the aircraft and ground control, as
well as between aircraft in the air. For example, satellite-
based communication systems allow pilots to stay connected
to air traffic control and receive up-to-date weather
information, helping them to make informed decisions about
their flight paths.

Embedded systems are also used in aircraft monitoring and

diagnostics, providing information on the performance of
critical systems and components. This data can be used to
predict and prevent potential failures, reducing maintenance
costs and downtime. For example, aircraft engines are
equipped with sensors that monitor various parameters, such
as temperature, pressure, and vibration. This data is then
analyzed using embedded systems to detect any anomalies or
potential issues before they become major problems.

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Another application of embedded systems in aerospace is in
space exploration. Embedded systems are used in satellites
and spacecraft to perform a range of functions, such as
navigation, communication, and scientific experiments. For
example, the Mars Rover is equipped with embedded
systems that allow it to navigate and explore the Martian
terrain, collect data, and communicate with Earth.

While embedded systems offer numerous benefits in

aerospace, they also present challenges. One challenge is
ensuring the reliability and safety of these systems. In
aerospace, a failure or error in an embedded system can have
catastrophic consequences, so these systems must be
designed, tested, and verified to meet strict safety standards.

Another challenge is maintaining and updating embedded

systems in aircraft and spacecraft, which can have a long
operational lifespan. These systems must be designed with
modularity and flexibility to allow for upgrades and
replacements as technology advances.

In conclusion, embedded systems have transformed the

aerospace industry by providing increased safety, efficiency,
and reliability in aircraft design and operation. As technology
continues to advance, we can expect to see even more
innovative and sophisticated embedded systems in aerospace
in the future.

24.4 Consumer Electronics Industry

Embedded systems have had a significant impact on the
consumer electronics industry, powering a wide range of
devices that have become integral parts of our daily lives.
These computer systems are integrated into various
electronic devices, such as smartphones, smartwatches,
tablets, gaming consoles, and smart home devices, and
perform specific tasks or functions.

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One of the most ubiquitous applications of embedded
systems in consumer electronics is in mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets. These devices contain a range of
embedded systems, including processors, memory, sensors,
and wireless communication modules, all working together
to provide the user with a seamless experience. For example,
embedded systems enable smartphone users to navigate
through various applications, capture high-quality photos and
videos, and connect to the internet wirelessly.

Another application of embedded systems in consumer

electronics is in wearables such as smartwatches and fitness
trackers. These devices are equipped with embedded systems
that monitor various physiological parameters, such as heart
rate, blood pressure, and sleep patterns, providing users with
valuable health insights. They can also be connected to other
devices such as smartphones and laptops, allowing for
seamless integration and communication.

Embedded systems are also used in gaming consoles to

provide users with an immersive gaming experience. These
systems enable the consoles to handle complex graphics and
real-time data processing, providing high-quality graphics
and responsive gameplay. For example, gaming consoles
contain embedded systems that manage the user interface,
control game mechanics, and communicate with other
players over the internet.

Smart home devices such as smart speakers, thermostats, and

security cameras also rely on embedded systems to provide
users with a seamless and intelligent experience. These
devices contain embedded systems that enable them to
communicate with each other, learn user preferences, and
respond to voice commands. For example, a smart thermostat
uses embedded systems to learn the user's temperature
preferences and automatically adjust the temperature
accordingly.

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While embedded systems offer many benefits in consumer
electronics, they also present challenges. One challenge is
ensuring the security and privacy of user data. Consumer
electronics devices collect a vast amount of personal data,
and embedded systems must be designed with strong security
measures to prevent unauthorized access and protect user
privacy.

Another challenge is keeping up with the rapid pace of

technological advancements in consumer electronics.
Embedded systems must be designed to be flexible and
upgradable, allowing for future software updates and new
features to be added to devices.

In conclusion, embedded systems have transformed the

consumer electronics industry, providing users with seamless
and intelligent experiences. As technology continues to
advance, we can expect to see even more innovative and
sophisticated embedded systems in consumer electronics in
the future.

24.5 Emerging Trends in Embedded Systems

Embedded systems have been evolving rapidly, with new
technologies emerging and existing ones becoming more
sophisticated. Here are some emerging trends in embedded
systems:

24.5.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning

(ML)

AI and ML are becoming increasingly important in

embedded systems, enabling devices to learn from data and
make decisions based on that data. AI and ML are being used
in embedded systems for a wide range of applications, such
as voice recognition, image processing, and predictive
maintenance.

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24.5.2 Internet of Things (IoT)

The IoT is a network of devices that are connected to the

internet, enabling them to communicate and exchange data
with each other. Embedded systems are a crucial component
of the IoT, providing the intelligence and connectivity
needed for devices to communicate and work together. With
the growth of the IoT, we can expect to see more embedded
systems designed specifically for IoT applications.

24.5.3 Edge Computing

Edge computing is a distributed computing paradigm that

brings computation and data storage closer to the edge of the
network, closer to the devices and sensors. This is achieved
by using embedded systems to process data locally, reducing
latency, and improving the overall efficiency of the system.
Edge computing is being used in applications such as
autonomous vehicles, industrial automation, and smart cities.

24.5.4 Cybersecurity

With the increasing number of connected devices,

cybersecurity has become a critical concern. Embedded
systems must be designed with strong security features to
protect against cyber threats, such as malware and data
breaches. Emerging trends in embedded systems include
secure boot, hardware-based security, and secure
communication protocols.

24.5.5 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

RTOS is an operating system that guarantees a certain level

of performance within a specified time frame. RTOS is being
used in embedded systems for applications such as
autonomous vehicles, aerospace, and industrial automation,
where real-time performance is critical.

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24.5.6 Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency is becoming increasingly important in

embedded systems, especially in applications such as mobile
devices and IoT devices, which rely on batteries. Emerging
trends in embedded systems include low-power processors,
power management algorithms, and energy harvesting
technologies.

24.5.7 Open-Source Software

Open-source software is becoming increasingly popular in

embedded systems, as it offers flexibility, reliability, and
cost-effectiveness. With the growth of open-source software,
we can expect to see more embedded systems designed with
open-source software.

In conclusion, embedded systems are evolving rapidly, with

new technologies emerging and existing ones becoming
more sophisticated. Emerging trends in embedded systems
include AI and ML, IoT, edge computing, cybersecurity,
RTOS, energy efficiency, and open-source software. These
trends are driving innovation and creating new opportunities
for embedded systems in various applications and industries.

24.6 New Applications in Embedded Systems

Embedded systems are being used in a wide range of
applications, from consumer electronics to aerospace and
defense. New applications for embedded systems are
emerging as technology continues to evolve, enabling new
and innovative use cases. Here are some of the new
applications in embedded systems:

24.6.1 Medical Devices

Embedded systems are being used in medical devices to

provide real-time monitoring and analysis of patient data. For

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example, implantable medical devices such as pacemakers
and defibrillators use embedded systems to monitor and
regulate the patient's heartbeat. Other medical devices such
as insulin pumps, blood glucose monitors, and sleep apnea
machines also use embedded systems.

24.6.2 Autonomous Vehicles

Embedded systems are critical in enabling autonomous

vehicles to function. They provide the intelligence needed for
the vehicle to perceive its environment, make decisions, and
control its movements. Embedded systems are used in
autonomous vehicles for functions such as perception,
navigation, and control.

24.6.3 Smart Grids

Smart grids use embedded systems to monitor and control the

distribution of electricity. Embedded systems enable smart
grids to respond to changes in demand and supply in real-
time, making the distribution of electricity more efficient and
reliable. Smart grids also use embedded systems to monitor
and manage renewable energy sources such as solar and wind
power.

24.6.4 Smart Cities

Embedded systems are being used in smart cities to monitor

and manage various aspects of urban life. For example,
embedded systems are used in traffic management systems
to monitor and regulate traffic flow, reducing congestion and
improving safety. They are also used in smart lighting
systems to adjust lighting levels based on the time of day,
reducing energy consumption.

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24.6.5 Industrial Automation

Embedded systems are used in industrial automation to

monitor and control the manufacturing process. They provide
real-time feedback on production and quality control,
enabling manufacturers to optimize their processes and
improve efficiency. Embedded systems are also used in
robotics for tasks such as pick-and-place operations and
assembly.

24.6.6 Wearable Technology

Wearable technology such as smartwatches, fitness trackers,

and smart glasses use embedded systems to provide real-time
monitoring and analysis of physiological data. They enable
users to track their activity levels, monitor their health, and
receive alerts and notifications.

24.6.7 Agriculture

Embedded systems are being used in agriculture to monitor

and control various aspects of crop production. They are used
to monitor soil moisture levels, track weather patterns, and
control irrigation systems. Embedded systems also enable
precision farming, allowing farmers to optimize crop yields
and reduce waste.

In conclusion, new applications for embedded systems are

emerging as technology continues to evolve. From medical
devices and autonomous vehicles to smart grids and
agriculture, embedded systems are being used to monitor,
control, and optimize various aspects of modern life. These
new applications are driving innovation and creating new
opportunities for embedded systems in various applications
and industries.

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24.7 Careers and Opportunities in Embedded
Systems
Embedded systems are critical components of various
industries, from aerospace and defense to medical devices
and consumer electronics. As technology continues to
advance, the demand for skilled professionals in embedded
systems is growing rapidly. Here are some careers and
opportunities in embedded systems:

24.7.1 Embedded Systems Engineer

Embedded systems engineers design and develop embedded

systems, including hardware, firmware, and software. They
work on a wide range of applications, from aerospace and
defense to consumer electronics and medical devices.
Embedded systems engineers typically have a degree in
electrical or computer engineering, and they have experience
with programming languages such as C and C++.

24.7.2 Firmware Engineer

Firmware engineers are responsible for developing firmware

for embedded systems, which is the software that controls the
hardware. They work on a wide range of applications,
including medical devices, automotive systems, and IoT
devices. Firmware engineers typically have a degree in
computer engineering or computer science, and they have
experience with programming languages such as C and
Assembly.

24.7.3 Software Engineer

Software engineers work on the development of software for

embedded systems. They work on a wide range of
applications, from aerospace and defense to consumer
electronics and medical devices. Software engineers
typically have a degree in computer engineering or computer

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science, and they have experience with programming
languages such as C, C++, and Java.

24.7.4 Embedded Systems Architect

Embedded systems architects design and plan the

architecture of embedded systems, including hardware,
firmware, and software. They work on a wide range of
applications, including medical devices, automotive systems,
and IoT devices. Embedded systems architects typically have
a degree in electrical or computer engineering, and they have
experience with programming languages such as C and C++.

24.7.5 Quality Assurance Engineer

Quality assurance engineers test and verify the functionality

of embedded systems, ensuring that they meet the required
specifications and standards. They work on a wide range of
applications, from aerospace and defense to consumer
electronics and medical devices. Quality assurance engineers
typically have a degree in electrical or computer engineering,
and they have experience with testing tools and
methodologies.

24.7.6 Technical Sales Engineer

Technical sales engineers are responsible for selling

embedded systems to customers. They work with customers
to understand their needs and requirements, and they provide
technical support and guidance throughout the sales process.
Technical sales engineers typically have a degree in electrical
or computer engineering, and they have experience with
customer relations and sales.

In conclusion, embedded systems offer a wide range of career

opportunities in various industries. As technology continues
to advance, the demand for skilled professionals in embedded
systems is growing rapidly. Whether you are interested in

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hardware, firmware, or software development, there are
plenty of opportunities to build a rewarding career in
embedded systems.

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Appendix I
Glossary

Architecture: The organization of a computer system,

including the design of its processing units, memory, and
input/output subsystems.

ASIC: An application-specific integrated circuit is a custom-

designed integrated circuit for a specific application.

Assembly language: A low-level programming language that

uses mnemonics to represent machine language instructions.

Bit: A binary digit that can be either 0 or 1, used as the basic

unit of information in digital systems.

Bootloader: A program that initializes an embedded system

and loads the operating system or application software into
memory.

Cache: A type of high-speed memory used to store frequently

accessed data or instructions for faster access.

Clock speed: The frequency at which a processor's clock

signal oscillates, measured in Hertz (Hz).

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Compiler: A program that translates high-level programming
languages into machine code that can be executed by a
microcontroller.

Debugging: The process of identifying and correcting errors

or defects in software or hardware.

DMA: Direct memory access is a feature that allows

peripherals to access memory directly without involving the
microcontroller's CPU.

EEPROM: Electrically erasable programmable read-only

memory is a type of non-volatile memory that can be erased
and reprogrammed electrically.

Embedded system-on-chip (SoC): A microcontroller that

integrates multiple components, such as a processor,
memory, and input/output peripherals, onto a single chip.

Firmware: Software that is permanently stored in read-only

memory (ROM) and controls the operation of an embedded
system.

FPGA: A field-programmable gate array is a type of

programmable logic device that can be reconfigured to
implement different digital circuits.

Interrupt: A signal sent to a microcontroller that temporarily

suspends the main program and directs the processor to a
specific subroutine.

JTAG: Joint Test Action Group is a standard for testing and

debugging embedded systems.

Kernel: The core component of an operating system that

provides essential services such as memory management,
process scheduling, and input/output management.

327
Low-power mode: A power-saving mode used to reduce
power consumption in battery-powered embedded systems.

Memory-mapped I/O: A technique for interfacing with

peripherals where input/output devices are mapped to
specific memory addresses.

Microcontroller: A small computer on a single integrated

circuit that contains a processor, memory, and input/output
peripherals.

Operating system: A software system that manages hardware

resources and provides services to applications running on an
embedded system.

Peripheral: A device connected to a microcontroller that

provides input or output capabilities.

Real-time operating system (RTOS): A specialized operating

system designed to provide real-time responsiveness and
deterministic behavior.

Sensor: A device that detects and responds to a physical

stimulus such as light, temperature, or motion.

Simulation: The process of modeling an embedded system's

behavior using software tools to test and validate its
operation.

Software design pattern: A reusable solution to a common

problem in software design, used to improve code quality and
maintainability.

System on a chip (SoC): A microcontroller that integrates

multiple components, such as a processor, memory, and
input/output peripherals, onto a single chip.

328
Traceability: The ability to trace the behavior of an
embedded system from its requirements to its
implementation and testing.

UART: Universal asynchronous receiver-trans

329
Appendix II
References

For writing this book we authors give a huge gratitude to the

authors and engineers who have written various research
papers and books that helped us through our journey of
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Embedded Computing: A Designer's Guide for the 21st
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Lewis, F. L., & Liu, D. K. (2014). Embedded Systems

Interfacing for Engineers Using the Freescale HCS08
Microcontroller I: Assembly Language Programming.
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330
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Mazidi, M. A., & Naimi, S. (2010). AVR Microcontroller

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The End

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