Sanrio Joy Mendres

BSEd Science 1

The different Astronomical Instruments

Alidade
Uses and Importance:
An alidade (/ˈæ.lɪ.deɪd/) (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad,
alidad) or a turning board is a device that allows one to sight a distant
object and use the line of sight to perform a task. This task can be, for
example, to triangulate a scale map on site using a plane table drawing
of intersecting lines in the direction of the object from two or more
points or to measure the angle and horizontal distance to the object
from some reference point's polar measurement. Angles measured can
be horizontal, vertical or in any chosen plane. The term alidade can
refer to the sighting mechanism of any instrument used for surveying or
navigation. In this catalog the term refers to the sighting mechanism
used with a plane table for topographical work—that is, for mapping
the surface features of the earth. Early alidades were simple bars with
open sights at either end. The alidade is the part of a theodolite that
rotates around the vertical axis, and that bears the horizontal axis
around which the telescope (or visor, in early telescope-less
instruments) turns up or down.
Inventor:
It is likely that those made and used in the 12th century by Moors in
Spain were the prototypes of all later European armillary spheres.

Armillary Sphere
Uses and Importance:
An armillary sphere (variations are known as spherical astrolabe,
armilla, or armil) is a model of objects in the sky (on the celestial
sphere), consisting of a spherical framework of rings, centered on Earth
or the Sun, that represent lines of celestial longitude and latitude and
other astronomically important features, such as the ecliptic. As such, it
differs from a celestial globe, which is a smooth sphere whose principal
purpose is to map the constellations. Armillary spheres date back to the
ancients, and were certainly used by the 2nd-century astronomer and
mathematician Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria. They were
mathematical instruments designed to demonstrate the movement of
the celestial sphere about a stationary Earth at its centre. It is useful as
a teaching tool and as an analog computer for solving various
astronomical problems to a crude degree of accuracy.

Inventor:
It was invented separately first in ancient China during the 4th century
BC and ancient Greece during the 3rd century BC, with later uses in the
Islamic world and Medieval Europe.

Astrarium
Uses and Importance::
An astrarium, also called a planetarium, is the mechanical
representation of the cyclic nature of astronomical objects in one
timepiece. It is an astronomical clock. It allows to discover night sky as
seen from any point on the Earth and any date and time instant. There
are many celestial objects can be observed, from eight major planets to
faintest stars, asteroids and comets, deep sky objects, satellites and
more; you can predict astronomical phenomenae, like phases of the
Moon, planetary conjunctions and oppositions, as well as to get
detailed information about object ephemerides around 20 years to
1365–80. Solving the three puzzles within a location will open up a
special vault containing higher tier gear. They allow you to unlock the
secrets of the Heavens. Recreate the image of a constellation by
connecting the stars without making the same line twice.

Inventor:
The original astrarium was built by Giovanni Dondi in the second half of
the 14th century. The precise period is a bone of contention. It was first
dated as 1348–64, then subsequently that period was refuted by new
arguments and moved by 1365-80.

Astrolabe
Uses and Importance:
An astrolabe can only measure angles in a vertical plane and was
principally used for latitude-finding, although you can also use it for
purposes such as finding the height of something. The main uses of
astrolabes were to tell time during day or night, to identify the time of
sunrise and sunset, and the length of the day, and to locate celestial
objects in the sky. The mariner's astrolabe was an important
navigational tool for finding latitude. It is a simplified version of the
traditional astrolabe – an instrument that could help tell time, find
altitude, and find latitude. The mariner's astrolabe measures the height
of the sun or a star above the horizon.

Inventor:
Astrolabes were primarily invented by the ancient Greeks in 225 BCE by
Apollonius based on the theories and the findings of Hipparchus.

Astronomical Clock
Uses:
An astronomical clock, horologium, or orloj is a clock with special
mechanisms and dials to display astronomical information, such as the
relative positions of the Sun, Moon, zodiacal constellations, and
sometimes major 69 planets. It also tells the time, provides the date,
and, best of all, provides some theater for its viewers on the hour,
every hour. It shows the relative positions of the Sun, Moon, Earth, and
Zodiac constellations which is important in measuring their distance
and any other aspects related to its position.

Inventor:
The astronomical clocks developed by the English mathematician and
cleric Richard of Wallingford in St Albans during the 1330s, and by
medieval Italian physician and astronomer Giovanni de Dondi in Padua
between 1348 and 1364 are masterpieces of their type.

 The Antikythera mechanism, an astronomical clock

Uses and Importance:
The Antikythera mechanism (/ˌæntɪkɪˈθɪərə/ AN-tih-kih-THEER-ə) is an
Ancient Greek hand-powered orrery, described as the oldest example
of an analogue computer[1][2][3] used to predict astronomical
positions and eclipses decades in advance.[4][5][6] It could also be used
to track the four-year cycle of athletic games which was similar to an
Olympiad, the cycle of the ancient Olympic Games The Antikythera
mechanism had the first known set of scientific dials or scales, and its
importance was recognized when radiographic images showed that the
remaining fragments contained 30 gear wheels.

Inventor:
Captain Dimitrios Kontos (Δημήτριος Κοντός) and a crew of sponge
divers from Symi island discovered the Antikythera shipwreck in early
1900, and recovered artefacts during the first expedition with the
Hellenic Royal Navy, in 1900–01.

Blink Comparator
Uses and Importance:
A blink comparator is a viewing apparatus formerly used by astronomers to find
differences between two photographs of the night sky. It permits rapid switching
from viewing one photograph to viewing the other, "blinking" back and forth
between the two images taken of the same area of the sky at different times. It is
an astronomical instrument important for variable stars, minor planets, and stars
with large proper motions on photographic plates of the starry sky.
Inventor:
It was invented in 1904 by physicist Carl Pulfrich at Carl Zeiss AG, then
constituted as Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung

Bolometer
Uses and Importance:
It is very sensitive thermometer whose electrical resistance varies with
temperature, and which is used in the detection and measurement of
feeble thermal radiation and is especially adapted to the study of
infrared spectra. A bolometer is a highly sensitive instrument used for
detecting heat or electromagnetic radiation.
Inventor:
In the first bolometer, invented by the American scientist Samuel P.
Langley in 1880, a Wheatstone bridge was used along with a
galvanometer that produced a deflection proportional to the intensity
of radiation for small deflections.

Canterbury Astrolabe Quadrant

Uses and Importance:
This rare instrument-only seven dating from medieval times are known
to exist-combines the features of a quadrant and an astrolabe.
Essentially, the circular face of an astrolabe has been "folded over"
twice to create a quarter-circle. The Canterbury Astrolabe Quadrant is
the only one of its kind known to definitely have been made in England.
[2] Astrolabes are calculation instruments that enable their users to tell
the time and determine their geographical latitude using the position of
the sun and stars.
The quadrant will be a very important addition to our medieval
collection as an object which can explain the sophistication of science in
the Middle Ages and the transfer of knowledge between Muslim,
Jewish and Christian communities."

Inventor:
It is believed to date from 1388, and which was found in an
archaeological dig at the House of Agnes,[1] a bed and breakfast hotel
in Canterbury, Kent, England in 2005.

Celatone
Uses and Importance:
The celatone was a to observe Jupiter's moons with the purpose of
finding longitude on Earth. It took the form of a piece of headgear with
a telescope taking the place of an eyehole. The visor was hinged to the
side of the helmet and could be adjusted to align the axis of the
telescope with the eye of the observer. The wearer could thus
continuously adjust the aim to the ship's pitch and roll, and the planet
would always remain within the telescope's field of view. It is
importance in finding the longitude of the Earth, as well as the moons
of Jupiter.

Inventor:
Galileo had to prove his method worked. In the winter of 1616 he
began work on the celatone. The helmet was designed to allow any
sailor to do what he had done in his observatory. Spot the moons
through a telescope with one eye and of view.

Charge-coupled device
Uses and Importance:
A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a light-sensitive integrated circuit that
captures images by converting photons to electrons. A CCD sensor
breaks the image elements into pixels. Each pixel is converted into an
electrical charge whose intensity is related to the intensity of light
captured by that pixel. CCDs could deliver much better-quality images
than other types of sensors, including those based on CMOS
technology.

Inventor:
The pioneering work was first done at Bell Labs by George Smith and
the late Willard Boyle, who invented the CCD in 1969 — an invention
that earned them the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics, among many other
international awards. Their CCD work was then developed specifically
for imaging applications by Michael F. Tompsett, also at Bell Labs, in the
1970s.
 Computers
Uses and Importance:
Computers are important as a telescope to the modern astronomer.
Computers are used in astronomy in three broadly different senses. For
observational astronomy, the control of large modern telescopes and
the acquisition of the data that they produce would not be possible
without modern computer technology. This is most striking for the
orbiting observatories like the Hubble Space
Telescope where all control and observing must be done using remote
computer technology.
Computers are also essential for theoretical astronomy, where large
mathematical models are constructed to try to understand the
observations and these models can often only be solved using the
largest computers. Some of these models are among the most
challenging computational problems now tackled by supercomputers.
Computers play an essential role in making astronomy information
readily available, as is discussed in more detail in the right panel. In
fact, modern astronomy would be impossible without extensive use of
computers, both for control and for analysis and distribution of data.
Computers have revolutionized astronomy. Due to new detectors and
innovative telescopes, today's astronomers can observe objects in
unprecedented extend and with high resolution. Adding to this, there
are new, untapped wavelength-regimes.

Inventor:
Charles Babbage KH FRS was an English polymath. A mathematician,
philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Babbage originated the
concept of a digital programmable computer.

CMOS sensor
Uses and Importance:
An active-pixel sensor (APS) is an image sensor where each pixel sensor
unit cell has a photodetector (typically a pinned photodiode) and one
or more active transistors.[1][2] In a metal–oxide–semiconductor
(MOS) active-pixel sensor, MOS field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are
used as amplifiers. There are different types of APS, including the early
NMOS APS and the much more common complementary MOS (CMOS)
APS, also known as the CMOS sensor, which is widely used in digital
camera technologies such as cell phone cameras, web cameras, most
modern digital pocket cameras, most digital single-lens reflex cameras
(DSLRs), and mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras (MILCs). CMOS
sensors emerged as an alternative to charge-coupled device (CCD)
image sensors and eventually outsold them by the mid-2000s decade.
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) sensors are used to
create images in digital cameras, digital video cameras and digital CCTV
cameras. CMOS can also be found in astronomical telescopes, scanners
and barcode readers

Inventor:
Eric Fossum led the team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory that
created a miniaturized camera technology known as the CMOS active
pixel sensor camera-on-a-chip.
 Coronagraph
Uses and Importance:
It is a telescope that blocks the light of a star inside the instrument so
that objects close to the star can be observed. The Coronagraph
Instrument on the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope demonstrates
technology that allows astronomers to directly image planets in orbit
around other stars by greatly reducing the glare from the host star. It
will be far more powerful than any other coronagraph ever flown,
capable of seeing planets that are almost a billion times fainter than
their star.

Inventor:
It was invented in 1930 by the French astronomer and was used to
observe the Sun’s corona and prominences.
 Cosmolabe
Uses and Importance:
It is an instrument resembling the astrolabe formerly used for
measuring angular distances between heavenly bodies. It is also called
pantacosm. Jacques Besson also uses this name, or universal
instrument, for his invention described in Le cosmolabe (1567), which
could be used for astrometry, cartography, navigation, and surveying.
This is instrument to be used for navigation, surveying and cartography;
in association with other names in the area deriving from the early
development or use of geodetic instruments and methods.

Inventor:
Jacques Besson was a French mathematician and inventor. He is
perhaps best known today for his Theatrum Instrumentorum (ca 1571),
which was the first of the famous "Theatres of Machines" (cf Ramelli,
Zonca, Bockler) that were the rage in renaissance Europe. These books
depicted the mechanical marvels of their day, mostly comprising water-
driven gristmills and sawmills, woodworking machinery, etc. Besson's
Theatrum included several machines of his own invention. The
Cosmolabe is an earlier, and considerably rarer book describing the
astronomical measuring instrument that he invented, designed as a
generalization of the widely-used astrolabe.

Diopatra

Uses and Importance:

A dioptra (sometimes also named dioptre or diopter, from Greek:
διόπτρα) is a classical astronomical and surveying instrument, dating
from the 3rd century BC. The dioptra was a sighting tube or,
alternatively, a rod with a sight at both ends, attached to a stand. If
fitted with protractors, it could be used to measure angles. Greek
astronomers used the dioptra to measure the positions of stars; both
Euclid and Geminus refer to the dioptra in their astronomical works. It
continued in use as an effective surveying tool. Adapted to surveying,
the dioptra is similar to the theodolite, or surveyor's transit, which
dates to the sixteenth century. It is a more accurate version of the
groma.

Inventor:
A dioptra is an optical instrument for measuring angles or altitudes [5] invented
by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus, 150 BC

Equatorial Ring
Uses and Importance:
An equatorial ring was an astronomical instrument used in the
Hellenistic world to determine the exact moment of the spring and
autumn equinoxes. Equatorial rings were placed before the temples in
Alexandria, in Rhodes, and perhaps in other places, for calendar
purposes. The equatorial ring was about one to two cubits (45cm–
90cm) in diameter. Because the Sun is not a point source of light, the
width of the shadow on the bottom half of the ring is slightly less than
the width of the ring. By waiting until the shadow was centered on the
ring, the time of the equinox could be fixed to within an hour or so. If
the equinox happened at night, or if the sky was cloudy, an
interpolation could be made between two days' measurements.

Inventor:
This is a model of the ring and method used by Claudius Ptolemy (2nd
century A.D., Alexandrian astronomer) to determine the length of a
year.

Equatorium
Uses and Importance:
An equatorium (plural, equatoria) is an astronomical calculating
instrument. It can be used for finding the positions of the Moon, Sun,
and planets without arithmetic operations, using a geometrical model
to represent the position of a given celestial body. An equatorium is
one of the more rare among early astronomical instruments. It is used
to calculate the past or future positions of the planets according to the
planetary theory of Ptolemy. In this case the instrument has three
prominent small circles or 'epicycles', which can be adjusted to serve
for planetary positions in three groups: the moon, the 'inferior' planets
of Mercury and Venus, and the 'superior' planets of Mars, Saturn and
Jupiter. The sun was considered a planet in the Ptolemaic system, but
it, along with the stars, is treated by the astrolabe on the other side of
the instrument. Positions of all the elements in the astronomy of
Ptolemy can thus be found with a single instrument. In fact the
indications are that this instrument was used for the astrological
aspects of medicine, as the unusual provision of two retes and
especially the medical lines on one of the astrolabe plates, give it this
specialist function.

Inventor:
Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) (1028–1087), Islamic Spain was
the inventor of equatorium.
 Gnomon
Uses and Importance:
Gnomon, device originally meant as an instrument for calculating the
time. In its most simple form it seems to have been a rod placed
vertically on a plane surface, later upon the surface of a hemisphere. A
gnomon (/ˈnoʊˌmɒn, -mən/; from Ancient Greek γνώμων (gnṓmōn)
'one that knows or examines')[1][2] is the part of a sundial that casts a
shadow. The term is used for a variety of purposes in mathematics and
other fields.

Inventor:
The ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander (610–546 BC) is credited
with introducing this Babylonian instrument to the Ancient Greeks
 Inclinometer
Uses and Importance:
An inclinometer or clinometer is an instrument used for measuring
angles of slope, elevation, or depression of an object with respect to
gravity's direction. It is also known as a tilt indicator, tilt sensor, tilt
meter, slope alert, slope gauge, gradient meter, gradiometer, level
gauge, level meter, declinometer, and pitch & roll indicator.
Clinometers measure both inclines and declines using three different
units of measure: degrees, percentage points, and topos. The astrolabe
is an example of an inclinometer that was used for celestial navigation
and location of astronomical objects from ancient times to the
Renaissance. A tilt sensor can measure the tilting in often two axes of a
reference plane in two axes. In contrast, a full motion would use at
least three axes and often additional sensors. One way to measure tilt
angle with reference to the earth's ground plane, is to use an
accelerometer. Typical applications can be found in the industry and in
game controllers. In aircraft, the "ball" in turn coordinators or turn and
bank indicators is sometimes referred to as an inclinometer.
Inventor:
Invented by William Abney before 1880, it consisted of a small
telescope, a semicircle divided into degree and a bubble tube. Many
artifacts related to clinometers can be found in the collection of
Ingenium.

I
Interferometer
Uses and Importance:
Interferometers are investigative tools used in many fields of science
and engineering. They are called interferometers because they work by
merging two or more sources of light to create an interference pattern,
which can be measured and analyzed; hence 'Interfere-o-meter', or
interferometer. The interference patterns generated by
interferometers contain information about the object or phenomenon
being studied. They are often used to make very small measurements
that are not achievable any other way. This is why they are so powerful
for detecting gravitational waves--LIGO's interferometers are designed
to measure a distance 1/10,000th the width of a proton

Inventor:
Interferometers were pioneered in the mid-to-late 1800s by many
scientists including Hippolyte Fizeau, Martin Hoek, Éleuthère Mascart,
George Biddell Airy, Eduard Ketteler, in their attempts to measure the
velocity of light through various media (first and foremost, air and
water, then others) and especially through moving media (like flowing
water). This work was part of a study to understand the wave
properties of light, and their dependence on the medium that light
traverses. The interferometer was invented by German American
physicist Albert A. Michelson (1852–1931) around 1881.
 Kamal
Uses and Importance:
A kamal, often called simply khashaba (wood) in Arabic), is a celestial
navigation device that determines latitude. The invention of the kamal
allowed for the earliest known latitude sailing,[2] and was thus the
earliest step towards the use of quantitative methods in navigation.[3]
It originated with Arab navigators of the late 9th century,and was
employed in the Indian Ocean from the 10th century. It was adopted by
Indian navigators soon after,[5] and then adopted by Chinese
navigators some time before the 16th century. The kamal consists of a
rectangular wooden card about 2 by 1 inch (5.1 by 2.5 cm), to which a
string with several equally spaced knots is attached through a hole in
the middle of the card. The kamal is used by placing one end of the
string in the teeth while the other end is held away from the body
roughly parallel to the ground. The card is then moved along the string,
positioned so the lower edge is even with the horizon, and the upper
edge is occluding a target star, typically Polaris because its angle to the
horizon does not change with longitude or time. The angle can then be
measured by counting the number of knots from the teeth to the card,
or a particular knot can be tied into the string if travelling to a known
latitude.
Inventor:
The kamal (Fig. 7) is a navigational tool invented by Arabian sailors in
the 9th century CE (McGrail 2001).

Meridian Circle
Uses and Importance:
The meridian circle is an instrument for timing of the passage of stars
across the local meridian, an event known as a culmination, while at
the same time measuring their angular distance from the nadir. These
are special purpose telescopes mounted so as to allow pointing only in
the meridian, the great circle through the north point of the horizon,
the north celestial pole, the zenith, the south point of the horizon, the
south celestial pole, and the nadir. Meridian telescopes rely on the
rotation of the sky to bring objects into their field of view and are
mounted on a fixed, horizontal, east–west axis. The similar transit
instrument, transit circle, or transit telescope is likewise mounted on a
horizontal axis, but the axis need not be fixed in the east–west
direction. For instance, a surveyor's theodolite can function as a transit
instrument if its telescope is capable of a full revolution about the
horizontal axis. Meridian circles are often called by these names,
although they are less specific.

:
Inventor:
The making of circles was shortly afterwards taken up by Edward
Troughton, who constructed the first modern transit circle in 1806 for
Groombridge's observatory at Blackheath, the Groombridge Transit
Circle (a meridian transit circle).

Microchannel plate detector

Uses and Importance:
A microchannel plate (MCP) is used to detect single particles (electrons,
ions and neutrons and photons (ultraviolet radiation and X-rays). It is
closely related to an electron multiplier, as both intensify single
particles or photons by the multiplication of electrons via secondary
emission, however because a microchannel plate detector has many
separate channels, it can additionally provide spatial resolution.

Inventor:
Not Stated

Mural Instrument
Uses and Importance:
A mural instrument is an angle measuring instrument mounted on or
built into a wall. For astronomical purposes, these walls were oriented
so they lie precisely on the meridian. A mural instrument that
measured angles from 0 to 90 degrees was called a mural quadrant.
They were utilized as astronomical devices in ancient Egypt and ancient
Greece. The mural quadrant has been called the "quintessential
instrument" of 18th century (i.e. 1700s) observatories. It rose to
prominence in the field of positional astronomy at this time. The arc is
marked with divisions, almost always in degrees and fractions of a
degree. In the oldest instruments, an indicator is placed at the centre of
the arc. An observer can move a device with a second indicator along
the arc until the line of sight from the movable device's indicator
through the indicator at the centre of the arc aligns with the
astronomical object. The angle is then read, yielding the elevation or
altitude of the object. In smaller instruments, an alidade could be used.
More modern mural instruments would use a telescope with a reticle
eyepiece to observe the object.

Inventor:
Edmond Halley, due to the lack of an assistant and only one vertical
wire in his transit, confined himself to the use of a mural quadrant built
by George Graham after its erection in 1725 at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich. Bradley's first observation with that quadrant was made on
15 June 1742.

Nebra Sky disc

Uses and Importance:
The Nebra sky disc (German: Himmelsscheibe von Nebra) is a bronze
disc of around 30 cm (12 in) diameter and a weight of 2.2 kg (4.9 lb),
having a blue-green patina and inlaid with gold symbols.[1][2] These
symbols are interpreted generally as the Sun or full moon, a lunar
crescent, and stars (including a cluster of seven stars interpreted as the
Pleiades). Two golden arcs along the sides, interpreted to mark the
angle between the solstices, were added later. A final addition was
another arc at the bottom with internal parallel lines, which is usually
interpreted as a solar barge with numerous oars,[citation needed] the
Milky Way,[citation needed] a rainbow,[2] or the Aurora Borealis[3]).
The disc was found buried on the Mittelberg hill near Nebra in
Germany.[4] It is dated by archaeologists to c. 1800-1600 BCE and
attributed to the Early Bronze Age Unetice culture.[5][6] A paper
published in 2020 questioned the dating of the disc and proposed a
later Iron Age date instead,[7] however, various scientific analyses of
the disc, the items found with the disc, and the find spot have
confirmed the Early Bronze Age dating.

Inventor:
The disc, together with two bronze swords, two hatchets, a chisel, and
fragments of spiral bracelets were discovered in 1999 by Henry
Westphal and Mario Renner while they were treasure-hunting with a
metal detector.
 Nocturnal
Uses and Importance:
The nocturnal is a navigational instrument that was first invented in the
16th Century. By focusing on the stars it can estimate the time to within
10-15 minutes. The outer edge of the instrument is divided into days
and months. When this is set, the user holds it up at arm's length so
that the North Star shows through the central brass hole. The long arm
is then aligned with the star constellation known as The Great Bear. The
inner dial is marked in hours and minutes. The time can then be read
from where the arm crosses the inner dial. Nocturnals were often
favoured by mariners. Some rural communities continued to use them
until the early 19th century to set their town clocks. Only two wooden
nocturnals are known to exist in Ireland. The other is in the National
Museum of Ireland, Dublin. The nocturnal is basically an astrolabe for
night-time use.

Inventor:
The earliest image presenting the use of a nocturnal is in a manuscript
dated from the 12th century. Raymond Lull repeatedly described the
use of a sphaera horarum noctis or astrolabium nocturnum.
 Octant
Uses and Importance:
The octant, also called reflecting quadrant, is a measuring instrument
used primarily in navigation. It is a type of reflecting instrument.
instruments based on the quadrant, the octant was used to measure
the altitude (height above the horizon) of the sun, usually at noon when
the sun had reached its highest point, or other celestial body such as a
prominent star at night. In combination with suitable relating the height
of the sun to the date (contained in the mariner’s almanac), the latitude
of the ship could be worked out from this measurement. Basically, it
depended on the fact that the further you were from the equator, the
lower the sun would appear in the sky. An octant is a portable
instrument that uses a small mirror to bring two images together--
those of the sun and the horizon, for instance--to determine latitude at
sea by observing the altitude of celestial bodies.
Inventor:
The octant is a navigational instrument that was developed around
1730 almost simultaneously by an English mathematician, John Hadley,
and an American glazier, Thomas Godfrey.

Optical spectrometer, a.k.a., Spectrograph

Uses and Importance:
A spectrograph is an instrument that separates incoming light by its
wavelength or frequency and records the resulting spectrum in some
kind of multichannel detector, like a photographic plate. an instrument
for dispersing radiation (such as electromagnetic radiation or sound
waves) into a spectrum and recording or mapping the spectrum. Many
astronomical observations use telescopes as, essentially,
spectrographs. An optical spectrometer (spectrophotometer,
spectrograph or spectroscope) is an instrument used to measure
properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum, typically used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials.
[1] The variable measured is most often the light's intensity but could
also, for instance, be the polarization state. The independent variable is
usually the wavelength of the light or a unit directly proportional to the
photon energy, such as reciprocal centimeters or electron volts, which
has a reciprocal relationship to wavelength.

Inventor:
Henry Draper invented the Optical Spectrometer
 Orrery
Uses and Importance:
An orrery is a mechanical model of the Solar System that shows the
relative positions and motions of the planets and moons according to
the heliocentric (Sun-centred) model. The planets in this orrery, which
are made of ivory, are mounted on brass armatures which extend from
a central shaft and are rotated independently by a geared wheelwork
mechanism contained in the base. The mechanism is operated by
turning a small handle extending from one side of the base. The overall
effect is to imitate the relative periods of rotation of the planets about
the Sun. They are typically driven by a clockwork mechanism with a
globe representing the Sun at the centre, and with a planet at the end
of each of the arms.
Inventor:
orrery, mechanical model of the solar system used to demonstrate the
motions of the planets about the Sun, probably invented by George
Graham (d. 1751) under the patronage of Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of
Orrery

Photographic Plate
Uses and Importance:
Photographic plates preceded photographic film as a capture medium
in photography, and were still used in some communities up until the
late 20th century. The light-sensitive emulsion of silver salts was coated
on a glass plate, typically thinner than common window glass.
Astronomical Plates are essentially an early form of photography that
used glass plates to capture images of the night sky. The application of
photography to astronomical research, in the last quarter of the 19th
century, revolutionized the science of the sky. he possibility to record
permanently the images of thousands of stars and other celestial
objects on a photographic plate looked like a miracle to astronomers
who, until then, could only record their visual impressions. Much of our
knowledge of the universe comes from measuring changes in objects
over time as recorded on photographic plates.

Inventor:
Discovery of minor planets using photographic plates was pioneered by
Max Wolf beginning with his discovery of 323 Brucia in 1891.
 Photometer
Uses and Importance:
A photometer is an instrument that measures the strength of
electromagnetic radiation in the range from ultraviolet to infrared and
including the visible spectrum. Most photometers convert light into an
electric current using a photoresistor, photodiode, or photomultiplier.
Photometers. Photometers, which measure optical brightness within a
single field of view, are the simplest optical instruments for measuring
the airglow. Most photometer applications include a narrow-band
filter, to isolate a single spectral emission feature. It is a device that
measures the strength of electromagnetic radiation in the range from
ultraviolet to infrared and including the visible spectrum. Such devices
are generally transducers that convert an electric current into a
mechanical indication—e.g., a pointer moving across a dial.
Inventor:
In 1836, the British astronomer John Frederick William Herschel
changed all that. Herschel invented a photometer (“astrometer” as he
called it) that allowed the observer to visually compare the brightness
of stars using a scale based on the reduced telescopic image of the
Moon. It was the first true photometer.

Planisphere
Uses and Importance:
A planisphere consists of a circular star chart attached at its center to
an opaque circular overlay that has a clear elliptical window or hole so
that only a portion of the sky map will be visible in the window or hole
area at any given time. The chart and overlay are mounted so that they
are free to rotate about a common axis. The star chart contains the
brightest stars, constellations and (possibly) deep-sky objects visible
from a particular latitude on Earth. In astronomy, a planisphere
(/ˈpleɪ.nɪˌsfɪər, ˈplæn.ɪ-/) is a star chart analog computing instrument in
the form of two adjustable disks that rotate on a common pivot. It can
be adjusted to display the visible stars for any time and date. It is an
instrument to assist in learning how to recognize stars and
constellations. The astrolabe, an instrument that has its origins in
Hellenistic astronomy, is a predecessor of the modern planisphere. The
term planisphere contrasts with armillary sphere, where the celestial
sphere is represented by a three-dimensional framework of rings.

Inventor:
The basic idea has been around for centuries and, depending who you
believe, was invented by Eudoxus of Cnidus (a Greek mathematician),
Hypatia (a Greek astronomer) or Vitruvius (a Roman architect and
engineer).

Quadrant
Uses and Importance:
The quadrant is a very simple tool that allows the user to determine his
or her latitude by measuring the altitude of a heavenly body. When
used in celestial navigation or astronomy, altitude means the angle of
elevation between the horizon and celestial bodies like the sun,
planets, moon, or stars. To measure your latitude using a quadrant, you
can find the North Star (also known as Polaris) in the night sky. Then
align your quadrant with the North Star and read off its altitude. That
number is your latitude.

Inventor:
It was invented by Edmund Gunter in 1623

Reticle
Uses and Importance:
A reticle, or reticule also known as a graticule, is a pattern of fine lines
or markings built into the eyepiece of an optical device such as a
telescopic sight, spotting scope, theodolite, optical microscope or the
screen of an oscilloscope, to provide measurement references during
visual inspections. Today, engraved lines or embedded fibers may be
replaced by a digital image superimposed on a screen or eyepiece. Both
terms may be used to describe any set of patterns used for aiding visual
measurements and calibrations, but in modern use reticle is most
commonly used for weapon sights, while graticule is more widely used
for non-weapon measuring instruments such as oscilloscope display,
astronomic telescopes, microscopes and slides, surveying instruments
and other similar devices.Reticle eyepieces are essential for anyone
interested in astronomy. These eyepieces attach to a finderscope or off-
axis guider in order to center your telescope on your desired celestial
object or guide star. Reticle eyepieces have also been around for nearly
as long as telescopes themselves.

Inventor:
The reticle is said to have been invented by Robert Hooke, and dates to
the 17th century. Another candidate as inventor is the amateur
astronomer William Gascoigne, who predated Hooke.
 Radio Telescope
Uses and Importance:
A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to
detect radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky.[1][2][3]
Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio
astronomy, which studies the radio frequency portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects, just as
optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional
optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum
coming from astronomical objects. Unlike optical telescopes, radio
telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night. Since
astronomical radio sources such as planets, stars, nebulas and galaxies
are very far away, the radio waves coming from them are extremely
weak, so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough
radio energy to study them, and extremely sensitive receiving
equipment. Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ("dish")
antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating
with satellites and space probes. They may be used singly or linked
together electronically in an array. Radio observatories are
preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, television, radar, motor
vehicles, and other man-made electronic devices

Inventor:
Karl Guthe Jansky was an American physicist and radio engineer who in
April 1933 first announced his discovery of radio waves emanating from
the Milky Way in the constellation Sagittarius. He is considered one of
the founding figures of radio astronomy.

Retroreflector
Uses and Importance:
A retroreflector (sometimes called a retroflector or cataphote) is a
device or surface that reflects radiation (usually light) back to its source
with minimum scattering. This works at a wide range of angle of
incidence, unlike a planar mirror, which does this only if the mirror is
exactly perpendicular to the wave front, having a zero angle of
incidence. Being directed, the retroflector's reflection is brighter than
that of a diffuse reflector. Corner reflectors and cat's eye reflectors are
the most used kinds. Retroreflectors are used in transportation systems
as unlighted night-time roadway and waterway markers, as well as in
numerous optical systems, including lunar ranging. Some are made of
relatively inexpensive plastic pieces or flexible plastic sheeting, and
some are made of high-priced precision optics.

Inventor:
In 1937 3M developed a retroreflective tape with a surface layer of
glass beads for bonding to the road surface but after durability
problems, this development effort was switched to vertical road signs.

Scaphe
Uses and Importance:
The scaphe (Ancient Greek: σκάφη, romanized: scaphe, lit. 'bowl'; also
known as a skaphe, scaphion (diminutive) or Latin: scaphium) was a
sundial said to have been invented by Aristarchus of Samos (3rd
century BC). There are no original works still in existence by Aristarchus,
but the adjacent picture is an image of what it might have looked like;
only his would have been made of stone. It consisted of a hemispherical
bowl which had a vertical gnomon placed inside it, with the top of the
gnomon level with the edge of the bowl. Twelve gradations inscribed
perpendicular to the hemisphere indicated the hour of the day.

Inventor:
Aristarchus of Samos (/ˌærəˈstɑːrkəs/; Ἀρίσταρχος, Aristarkhos; c. 310 –
c. 230 BC) was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who
presented the first known model that placed the Sun at the center of
the known universe with the Earth revolving around it (see Solar
System). He was influenced by Philolaus of Croton, but he identified the
"central fire" with the Sun, and put the other planets in their correct
order of distance around the Sun.[1] His astronomical ideas were often
rejected in favor of the geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy.
There are no original works still in existence by Aristarchus, but the
adjacent picture is an image of what it might have looked like; only his
would have been made of stone.
 Sextant
Uses and Importance:
A sextant is a doubly reflecting navigation instrument that measures
the angular distance between two visible objects. The primary use of a
sextant is to measure the angle between an astronomical object and
the horizon for the purposes of celestial navigation. It is an instrument
for measuring angular distances used especially in navigation to
observe altitudes of celestial bodies (as in ascertaining latitude and
longitude). The modern navigational sextant is designed to precisely
and accurately measure the angle between two points. In modern
usage it is most commonly used to measure the altitude of a celestial
object or the angle between a celestial object and the horizon
Inventor:
The sextant, an instrument for measuring angles, was developed from a
suggestion by Captain John Campbell of the Royal Navy in 1757. Those
promoting the use of lunar distances, or "lunars," for finding longitude
at the end of the 18th century stimulated the invention of the sextant.

Starshade
Uses and Importance:
The Starshade, in development by Northrop Grumman, is a mission
using a screen shaped like a set of flower petals, that would fly
thousands of miles in front of a space telescope and eclipse different
stars as needed to study planetary systems around the closest
stars.Working in conjunction with a space-based telescope, the
starshade is able to position itself precisely between the telescope and
the star that’s being observed, and can block the starlight before it
even reaches the telescope’s mirrors. The starlight suppressed, light
coming from exoplanets orbiting the star would be visible. Using this
technology, astronomers would be able to take actual pictures of
exoplanets – images that could provide clues as to whether such worlds
could support life as we know it.The flower-shaped petals are part of
what makes the starshade so effective. “The shape of the petals, when
seen from far away, creates a softer edge that causes less bending of
light waves,” said Dr. Stuart Shaklan, JPL’s lead engineer on the
starshade project. “Less light bending means that the starshade shadow
is very dark, so the telescope can take images of the planets without
being overwhelmed by starlight .”

Inventor:
More than 10 years ago, University of Colorado astronomer Webster
Cash designed a bit of space apparatus that might pull off such a feat.
Akin to a dark, flower-shaped kite minus the string, this rocket-powered
screen would fly into position in orbit where it would obstruct light
from a target star.

Space Telescope
Uses and Importance:
Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923, and the Hubble
telescope was funded and built in the 1970s by the United States space
agency NASA with contributions from the European Space Agency. Its
intended launch was 1983, but the project was beset by technical
delays, budget problems, and the 1986 Challenger disaster. Hubble was
finally launched in 1990, but its main mirror had been ground
incorrectly, resulting in spherical aberration that compromised the
telescope's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended
quality by a servicing mission in 1993.The Hubble Space Telescope
(often referred to as HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was
launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was
not the first space telescope, but it is one of the largest and most
versatile, renowned both as a vital research tool and as a public
relations boon for astronomy. The Hubble telescope is named after
astronomer Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA's Great Observatories.
The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) selects Hubble's targets
and processes the resulting data, while the Goddard Space Flight Center
(GSFC) controls the spacecraft. Hubble features a 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
mirror, and its five main instruments observe in the ultraviolet, visible,
and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Hubble's
orbit outside the distortion of Earth's atmosphere allows it to capture
extremely high-resolution images with substantially lower background
light than ground-based telescopes. It has recorded some of the most
detailed visible light images, allowing a deep view into space. Many
Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as
determining the rate of expansion of the universe.
Inventor:
Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler in 1837 discussed the
advantages of an observatory on the Moon. In 1946, American
theoretical astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer proposed a telescope in space.
Spitzer's proposal called for a large telescope that would not be
hindered by Earth's atmosphere. After lobbying in the 1960s and 70s
for such a system to be built, Spitzer's vision ultimately materialized
into the Hubble Space Telescope, which was launched on April 24, 1990
by the Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-31). The first operational space
telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory,
OAO-2 launched in 1968, and the Soviet Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope
aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971

Spectrometer
Uses and Importance:
A spectrometer (/spɛkˈtrɒmɪtər/) is a scientific instrument used to
separate and measure spectral components of a physical phenomenon.
Spectrometer is a broad term often used to describe instruments that
measure a continuous variable of a phenomenon where the spectral
components are somehow mixed. In visible light a spectrometer can
separate white light and measure individual narrow bands of color,
called a spectrum. A mass spectrometer measures the spectrum of the
masses of the atoms or molecules present in a gas. The first
spectrometers were used to split light into an array of separate colors.
Spectrometers were developed in early studies of physics, astronomy,
and chemistry. The capability of spectroscopy to determine chemical
composition drove its advancement and continues to be one of its
primary uses. Spectrometers are used in astronomy to analyze the
chemical composition of stars and planets, and spectrometers gather
data on the origin of the universe. spectrometer, Device for detecting
and analyzing wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, commonly
used for molecular spectroscopy; more broadly, any of various
instruments in which an emission (as of electromagnetic radiation or
particles) is spread out according to some property (as energy or mass)
into a spectrum and measurements are made at points or regions along
the spectrum. As used in traditional laboratory analysis, a spectrometer
includes a radiation source and detection and analysis equipment.
Examples of spectrometers are devices that separate particles, atoms,
and molecules by their mass, momentum, or energy. These types of
spectrometers are used in chemical analysis and particle physics.

Inventor:
Although the apparatus Isaac Newton used in his work on the spectrum
of light can be considered a crude spectroscope, it is generally
recognized that the spectroscope was invented by Gustav Kirchhoff and
Robert Bunsen around 1860.
 Star Chart
Uses and Importance:
A star chart or star map, also called a sky chart or sky map, is a map of
the night sky. Astronomers divide these into grids to use them more
easily. They are used to identify and locate constellations and
astronomical objects such as stars, nebulae, and galaxies. With their
unique and slightly mysterious look, star charts attempt to capture
what we see and what we know about the night sky. Styles have
evolved over time, from elaborate decorated maps of centuries ago to
the crisp computer-generated charts of today. Without telescopes,
binoculars and other instruments of observation, star charts would not
exist as they do today. But star charts, in addition to serving as guides
to the sky for astronomers and mere astronomy buffs, have served as
important tools in non-astronomical areas of life, such as nautical
navigation. The Internet and other modern media have made star
charts -- many of them interactive -- all but ubiquitous. But star charts
have been around in some form for many millennia. Indeed, in 1979,
archaeologists discovered an ivory tablet dated at over 32,500 years old
and believed to depict, among other things, the constellation Orion.
Inventor:
The earliest Western catalog of stars was created by the Greek
astronomer Hipparchus around 129 BC, building on earlier work going
back to the Babylonians.

Sundial
Uses and Importance:
The term sundial can refer to any device that uses the Sun's altitude or
azimuth (or both) to show the time. Sundials are valued as decorative
objects, metaphors, and objects of intrigue and mathematical study. A
sundial is a horological device that tells the time of day (referred to as
civil time in modern usage) when direct sunlight shines by the apparent
position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the word, it
consists of a flat plate (the dial) and a gnomon, which casts a shadow
onto the dial. As the Sun appears to move through the sky, the shadow
aligns with different hour-lines, which are marked on the dial to
indicate the time of day. The style is the time-telling edge of the
gnomon, though a single point or nodus may be used. The gnomon
casts a broad shadow; the shadow of the style shows the time. The
gnomon may be a rod, wire, or elaborately decorated metal casting.
The style must be parallel to the axis of the Earth's rotation for the
sundial to be accurate throughout the year. The style's angle from
horizontal is equal to the sundial's geographical latitude.

Inventor:
The mathematician and astronomer Theodosius of Bithynia ( c. 160 BC
to c. 100 BC) is said to have invented a universal sundial that could be
used anywhere on Earth. The Romans adopted the Greek sundials, and
the first record of a sundial in Rome is 293 BC according to Pliny.

Telescope
Uses and Importance:
A telescope is an optical instrument using lenses, curved mirrors, or a
combination of both to observe distant objects, or various devices used
to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of
electromagnetic radiation. The reflecting telescope, which uses mirrors
to collect and focus light, was invented within a few decades of the first
refracting telescope. In the 20th century, many new types of telescopes
were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared
telescopes in the 1960s. The word telescope now refers to a wide range
of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors.
A telescope is a tool that astronomers use to see faraway objects. Most
telescopes, and all large telescopes, work by using curved mirrors to
gather and focus light from the night sky. The first telescopes focused
light by using pieces of curved, clear glass, called lenses.
Inventor:
Several men laid claim to inventing the telescope, but the credit usually
goes to Hans Lippershey, a Dutch lensmaker, in 1608. The first person
to apply for a patent for a telescope was Dutch eyeglass maker Hans
Lippershey (or Lipperhey). In 1608, Lippershey laid claim to a device
that could magnify objects three times. His telescope had a concave
eyepiece aligned with a convex objective lens. One story goes that he
got the idea for his design after observing two children in his shop
holding up two lenses that made a distant weather vane appear close.
Others claimed at the time that he stole the design from another
eyeglass maker, Zacharias Jansen.
 Torquetum
Uses and Importance:
The torquetum or turquet is a medieval astronomical instrument
designed to take and convert measurements made in three sets of
coordinates: Horizon, equatorial, and ecliptic. It is said to be a
combination of Ptolemy's astrolabon and the plane astrolabe. In a
sense, the torquetum is an analog computer. The various plates and
circles model the circles of the Celestial sphere. Thus the base of the
instrument, Franco's tabula orizontis, represents the horizon. A second
plate, the tabula equinoctialis, hinged to the base and held at the
complement to the observers latitude by a prop, the stilus, represents
the celestial equator. A circle on this plate is graduated in hours. The
basilica rotates over the tabula equinoctialis on a pin representing the
axis of the Earth. Attached to the basilica is the tabula orbis signorum,
which may be locked at an angle of 23.5° to represent the plane of the
ecliptic. A zodical calendar and degree scales are inscribed on the
tabula orbis signorum. A pointer, the almuri, is attached to the basilica
beneath the zero point of Capricorn. Rotating around the axis of the
ecliptic circle is the turnus which doubles as an alidade and as the stand
for a vertical circle divided to degrees, the crista. When the ecliptic
circle is folded flat, the crista corresponds to the meridians of the
celestial sphere. An alidade, the alidada circuli magni, rotates over the
crista. Finally, suspended from two arms on the alidada circuli magni, is
the semis, a half-circle divided in degrees (90-0-90). A plumb-line and
bob, the perpendiculum, is suspended from its center, fixing the zenith.
The torquetum can be used for observations in three different
coordinate systems

Inventor:
The origins of the torquetum are unclear.The earliest account of the
torquetum appear in the writings of Bernard of Verdun and Franco of
Poland.Franco of Poland's work was published in 1284; however,
Bernard of Verdun's work does not contain a date. Therefore, it is
impossible to know which work was written first. Franco's work was
more widely known and is credited with the distribution of knowledge
about the torquetum.The first torquetum is thought to have been built
by Jabir ibn Aflah (more commonly known as Geber). However, there is
conflicting evidence that suggests that Jabir simply inspired the
invention of the torquetum. One of the reasons is that little evidence
exists to suggest that it was created by Jabir.[4] However, it is equally
likely to be the invention of either Bernard of Verdun, Franco of Poland,
or Jabir ibn Aflah.The instrument was first created sometime in the
12th or 13th century. However, the only surviving examples of the
torquetum are dated from the 16th century. In the middle of the 16th
century, the torquetum had numerous structural changes to the
original design. The most important change was by instrument-maker,
Erasmus Habermel. His alteration allowed for astronomers to make
observations to all three of the scales.
 Triquetrum
Uses and Importance:
The triquetrum (derived from the Latin tri- ["three"] and quetrum
["cornered"]) was the medieval name for an ancient astronomical
instrument first described by Ptolemy (c. 90–c. 168) in the Almagest (V.
12). Also known as Parallactic Rulers, it was used for determining
altitudes of heavenly bodies. Ptolemy calls it a "parallactic instrument"
and seems to have used it to determine the zenith distance and
parallax of the Moon. The triquetrum performed the same function as
the quadrant and was devised to overcome the difficulty of graduating
arcs and circles. It consisted of a vertical post with a graduated scale
and two pivoted arms hinged at the top and bottom, the upper arm
carrying sights. The two arms were joined so that their ends could slide.
As a person sighted along the upper arm, the lower one changed its
angle. By reading the position of the lower rod, in combination with the
vertical length, the zenith distance (or, alternatively, the altitude) of a
celestial object could be calculated. The triquetrum was one of the
most popular astronomical instruments until the invention of the
telescope, it could measure angles with a better precision than the
astrolabe.Copernicus describes its use in the fourth book of the De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543) under the heading
"Instrumenti parallactici constructio." The instrument was also used by
Tycho Brahe[4] in the same century.

Inventor:
Originally the triquetrum was first described by Ptolemy in his Almagest
(hence its other name: “Ptolemy's ruler”), and it was used for
determining altitudes of heavenly bodies, as the zenith distance and
parallax of the Moon.

Zenith Telescope
Uses and Importance:
A zenith telescope is a type of telescope that is designed to point
straight up at or near the zenith. They are used for precision
measurement of star positions, to simplify telescope construction, or
both. A classic zenith telescope, also known as a zenith sector employs
a strong altazimuth mount, fitted with levelling screws. Extremely
sensitive levels are attached and the telescope has an eyepiece fitted
with a micrometer. They are used for the measurement of small
differences of zenith distance, and used in the determination of
astronomic latitude. Other types of zenith telescopes include the
Monument to the Great Fire of London, which includes a central shaft
meant for use as a zenith telescope. High-precision (and fixed building)
zenith telescopes were also used until the early 1980s to track Earth's
north pole position e.g. Earth's rotation axis position (polar motion).
Since then radio astronomical quasar measurements (VLBI) have also
measured Earth's rotation axis several orders of magnitude more
accurately than optical tracking.

Inventor:
A zenith telescope (or sector) is a refracting telescope designed to
observe stars as they pass overhead. Robert Hooke made the first
instrument of this sort in 1669, hoping to discover evidence of the
earth's annual motion about the sun (or solar parallax).
Stonehenge
Uses and Importance:
In the 1960s, a new theory surfaced that claimed Stonehenge was the
work of ancient astronomers, and that its giant stone pillars were used
to predict eclipses of the moon and sun.
Inventor:
Not stated.

Tellurion
Uses and Importance:
A tellurion (also spelled tellurian, tellurium, and yet another name is
loxocosm), is a clock, typically of French or Swiss origin, surmounted by
a mechanism that depicts how day, night, and the seasons are caused
by the rotation and orientation of Earth on its axis and its orbit around
the Sun. The clock normally also displays the age of the Moon and the
four-year (perpetual) calendar. an apparatus to illustrate the causation
of day and night by the rotation of the earth on its axis and the
dependence of the seasons on the sun's declination. It is related to the
orrery, which illustrates the relative positions and motions of the
planets and moons in the Solar System in a heliocentric model. The
word tellurion derives from the Latin tellus, meaning "earth"

Inventor:
Tellurium was first discovered in Transylvania. This was in 1783 by Franz
Joseph Muller von Reichenstein, the chief inspector of the mines there.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaphe
https://www.hsm.ox.ac.uk/armillary-sphere#:~:text=Armillary
%20spheres%20date%20back%20to,stationary%20Earth%20at%20its
%20centre.
https://omsi.edu/sites/default/files/LOTS_MeasureTheSky_ALL.pdf

https://www.ponceinlet.org/z/-
vf.0.0.0.190.C46BA4D37972D11A71835BC2E31E574BAAAEFEABBCE8B8
2CA6E1356E6E889D60#:~:text=The%20quadrant%20is%20a
%20very,planets%2C%20moon%2C%20or%20stars.
https://www.hsm.ox.ac.uk/orrery#:~:text=An%20orrery%20is%20a
%20mechanical,are%20mounted%20on%20brass%20armatures
https://www.britannica.com/science/orrery-astronomical-
model#:~:text=orrery%2C%20mechanical%20model%20of
%20the,Boyle%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Orrery.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/
photometer
https://www.britannica.com/technology/photometer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Photographic_plate#:~:text=Photographic%20plates%20preceded
%20photographic%20film,thinner%20than%20common%20window
%20glass.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spectrograph
http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/animateit/octant/#:~:text=Like%20earlier
%20instruments%20based%20on,a%20prominent%20star%20at
%20night.
https://astro-canada.ca/les_photometres-photometers-eng
https://www.mariamitchell.org/astronomical-plates-
collection#:~:text=Astronomical%20Plates%20are%20essentially
%20an,the%20science%20of%20the%20sky.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/
J3rt8WMATAqjIPYIpvzJVw#:~:text=The%20nocturnal%20is%20a
%20navigational,divided%20into%20days%20and%20months.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octant_(instrument)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural_instrument
https://www.britannica.com/science/coronagraph
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
cosmolabe#:~:text=Definition%20of%20cosmolabe,angular
%20distances%20between%20heavenly%20bodies
https://dragonageinquisition.wiki.fextralife.com/Astrariums
https://astrarium.space/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Antikythera-
mechanism#:~:text=The%20Antikythera%20mechanism%20had
%20the,fragments%20contained%2030%20gear%20wheels.
https://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/itineraries/multimedia/Celatone.html
https://www.h-its.org/2013/10/28/computer-science-helps-
astronomers-exploring-the-sky/#:~:text=In%20the%20past%20twenty
%20years,new%2C%20untapped%20wavelength%2Dregimes.
http://www.people.vcu.edu/~mjmurphy/history_of_science/
besson_cosmolabe/cosmolabe.html
https://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/epact/catalogue.php?ENumber=34746
https://www.bibalex.org/SCIplanet/en/Article/Details.aspx?id=5198
https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/object/astrolabe/
https://www.czechcenter.org/blog/prague-astronomical-clock
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
bolometer#:~:text=Definition%20of%20bolometer,the%20study%20of
%20infrared%20spectra
https://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/explore-the-universe/online/
etu_a_astrolabe.htm
https://www.techtarget.com/searchstorage/definition/charge-coupled-
device#:~:text=A%20charge%2Dcoupled%20device%20(CCD)%20is
%20a%20light%2D,light%20captured%20by%20that%20pixel.
http://www.bell-labs.com/about/history/innovation-stories/charge-
coupled-device/#gref