MATH for EE and CE (MATH 2346) School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences

Instructor: Dr. Ankush Goswami

Section 01
Final Review
April 30, 2023

Below is a list of problems for the final exam. Do check out the problems worked out in the examples in the lecture
notes and discussed in class.

1. Unit 1–2: Set, Logic, Matrices and their operations

(1) Let 𝐴 = [7], 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 : 𝑥 > 4}, 𝐶 = {𝑥 − 1 : 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. List the elements of (a) 𝐵, (b) 𝐶,
(c) 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 (d) 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 (e) 𝐴 − 𝐵 (f) 𝐵 − 𝐶 (g) 𝐶 − 𝐵.
Solution.
(a) 𝐵 = {5, 6, 7}, (b) 𝐶 = {4, 5, 6} (c) 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = {5, 6}, (d) 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = {4, 5, 6, 7}, (e)
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4} (f) 𝐵 − 𝐶 = {7}, (g) 𝐶 − 𝐵 = ∅.
(2) Write the statements (a) “∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 : ∃𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 : (3𝑎 > 𝑏 ⊻ 𝑎 + 𝑏 < 0)” and (b) “∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 :
∃𝑐 ∈ 𝐵 : ∀𝑑 ∈ 𝐴 : 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 < 3” in English.
Solution. (a) For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, there is a 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 such that either 3𝑎 > 𝑏 or 𝑎 + 𝑏 < 0 (not both).
(b) For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, there is a 𝑐 ∈ 𝐵 such that for all 𝑑 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 < 3.
(3) Write the following statements using quantifiers. (a) Every real number is equal to itself, (b)
There is a real number 𝑥 such that for all real numbers 𝑦, we have 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0, (c) For all 𝜖 > 0,
there is a 𝛿 > 0 such that for all real numbers 𝑥, if 𝑥0 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 + 𝛿, then | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑎| < 𝜖.
Solution. (a) ∀𝑥 ∈ R : 𝑥 = 𝑥. (b) ∃𝑥 ∈ R : ∀𝑦 ∈ R : 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0. (c) ∀𝜖 > 0 : ∃𝛿 > 0 : ∀𝑥 ∈
R : 𝑥 0 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 + 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑎| < 𝜖.
(4) Find the following cartesian products. (a) 𝐴 × 𝐵 with 𝐴 = {2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {7, 8}, (b)
[2] × [3], (c) 𝐴 × 𝐵 × 𝐶 with 𝐴 = [3] − {1}, 𝐵 = [3] ∩ [6], 𝐶 = [2].
Solution. (a) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {2, 3, 4} × {7, 8} = {(2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 7), (3, 8), (4, 7), (4, 8)}.
(b) [2] × [3] = {1, 2} × {1, 2, 3} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}.
(c) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {2, 3} × {1, 2, 3} = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}. Thus,
𝐴 × 𝐵 × 𝐶 = ( 𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶 = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)} × {1, 2}
= {(2, 1, 1), (2, 2, 1), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 1), (3, 2, 1), (3, 3, 1),
(2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 2), (2, 3, 2), (3, 1, 2), (3, 2, 2), (3, 3, 2)}.
 
2 5
(5) Consider the matrix 𝐴 = . Find the unique 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ R such that 𝐴2 = 𝑥 𝐴 + 𝑦𝐼.
3 1
Solution. We have
      
2 2 5 2 5 19 15 2𝑥 + 𝑦 5𝑥
𝐴 = = , 𝑥 𝐴 + 𝑦𝐼 = .
3 1 3 1 9 16 3𝑥 𝑥+𝑦
So, we have 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 19, 5𝑥 = 15, 3𝑥 = 9, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 16, solving which yields 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 13.
  
𝑎 𝑏
(6) Given the matrix 𝐴 = . Show that 𝐴2 − (𝑎 + 𝑑) 𝐴 + (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)𝐼 = 0.
𝑐 𝑑
Solution. We have
    2   2 
2 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑
𝐴 = = , (𝑎 + 𝑑) 𝐴 = ,
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 2 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑑 2
 
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 0
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)𝐼 = .
0 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
Thus,
𝐴2 − (𝑎 + 𝑑) 𝐴 + (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)𝐼
 2   2     
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 0 0 0
= − + = .
𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 2 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑑 2 0 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 0 0
   
1 −1 3 4
(7) For the matrices 𝐴 = ,𝐵 = . Determine if 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.
2 3 2 7
Solution. We have
         
1 −1 3 4 1 −3 3 4 1 −1 11 9
𝐴𝐵 = = , 𝐵𝐴 = = .
2 3 2 7 12 29 2 7 2 3 16 19
Clearly, 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴.
(8) Let 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴. Show that (a) ( 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼) = (𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼)( 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) for 𝜆 ∈ R.
(b) 𝐴2 𝐵2 = 𝐵2 𝐴2 .
Solution. (a) We have
( 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)(𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼) = 𝐴𝐵 − 𝜆𝐴 − 𝜆𝐵 + 𝜆2 𝐼
= 𝐵𝐴 − 𝜆𝐵 − 𝜆𝐴 + 𝜆2 𝐼 (using 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴)
= (𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼)( 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼).
(b) We have
𝐴2 𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴( 𝐴𝐵)𝐵, (using associativity)
= 𝐴(𝐵𝐴)𝐵, (using 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴)
= 𝐴𝐵𝐴𝐵 = ( 𝐴𝐵)( 𝐴𝐵), (using associativity)
= (𝐵𝐴)(𝐵𝐴), (using 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴)
= 𝐵( 𝐴𝐵) 𝐴, (using associativity)
= 𝐵𝐵𝐴𝐴, (using 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴)
= 𝐵 2 𝐴2 .

(9) If ( 𝐴 + 𝐵) 2 = 𝐴2 + 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵2 . Show that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.

Solution. We have
( 𝐴 + 𝐵) 2 = ( 𝐴 + 𝐵)( 𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐵2 .
Thus, ( 𝐴 + 𝐵) 2 = 𝐴2 + 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵2 ⇔ 𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐵2 = 𝐴2 + 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵2 ⇔ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.
2
(10) Let 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) be such that 𝐴2 = 𝐼. Show that the matrices 𝐵 = 12 (𝐼 + 𝐴) and 𝐶 = 12 (𝐼 − 𝐴)
satisfy 𝐵2 = 𝐵 and 𝐶 2 = 𝐶.
Solution. We have
 2
2 1 1
𝐵 = (𝐼 + 𝐴) = (𝐼 + 𝐴)(𝐼 + 𝐴)
2 4
1  1
= 𝐼 + 2𝐴 + 𝐴2 = (𝐼 + 2𝐴 + 𝐼), (using 𝐴2 = 𝐼)
4 4
1
= (𝐼 + 𝐴).
2
In a similar way, it follows that 𝐶 2 = 𝐶.
(11) Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R). Is it true that (a) 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝐵 or (b) 𝐶 𝐴 = 𝐶𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝐵? If
not, under what condition(s) does this property hold?
Solution. Properties (a) or (b) are called cancellation property which holds only when
𝐶 ∈ 𝐺 𝐿 𝑛 (R) (the set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 invertible matrices). (a) Assume 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶. Then with
𝐶 ∈ 𝐺 𝐿 𝑛 (R), we have

𝐴 = ( 𝐴𝐶)𝐶 −1 (using associativity)

= (𝐵𝐶)𝐶 −1 (using 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶)
= 𝐵.

In a similar way, we can show (b).

(12) Use matrix inverse to solve the systems:
)
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 4,
 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑎,
(𝑖) , (𝑖𝑖) 𝑎 is a parameter
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3. 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 2 .
.
Solution. Recall that the system 𝐴x = b has a unique solution if 𝐴 is invertible, in which
case, the solution is given by x = 𝐴−1 b.
(i) The system of equations is equivalent to
     
1 3 𝑥 4
= . (1.1)
2 1 𝑦 3
| {z } |{z} |{z}
𝐴 x b

Computing determinant, we find | 𝐴| = 1 · 1 − 2 · 3 = −5 ≠ 0. So, 𝐴 is invertible, and

   
−1 1 1 −3 −1/5 3/5
𝐴 = = .
−5 −2 1 2/5 −1/5

Thus, the unique solution of (1.1) is given by

      
𝑥 −1 −1/5 3/5 4 1
x= =𝐴 b= = ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 1.
𝑦 2/5 −1/5 3 1
3
 (ii) The system of equations is equivalent to
     
𝑎 −1 𝑥 1−𝑎
= (1.2)
1 −𝑎 𝑦 𝑎 − 𝑎2
| {z } |{z} | {z }
𝐴 x b

In this case, | 𝐴| = 𝑎(−𝑎) − (−1)1 = 1 − 𝑎 2 . Thus, we see that | 𝐴| = 0 ⇔ 𝑎 = ±1.

Case 1: If 𝑎 ≠ ±1. In this case | 𝐴| ≠ 0. Thus, we have a unique solution of (1.2) given by
       
𝑥 −1 1 −𝑎 1 1 − 𝑎 (1 − 𝑎) −𝑎 1 1
x= =𝐴 b= 2 =
𝑦 1 − 𝑎 2 −1 𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑎 1 − 𝑎 2 −1 𝑎 𝑎
   
1 0 0
=
−(1 − 2 ) = 𝑎 − 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑎 − 1.
1+𝑎 𝑎
Case 2: 𝑎 = 1. In this case, the both the equations reduce to
𝑥−𝑦=0⇔𝑦=𝑥
which has infinitely many solutions.
Case 3: If 𝑎 = −1. In this case, the given equations reduce to
𝑥 + 𝑦 = −2 ⇔ 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 2
which also leads to infinitely many solutions.
(13) If 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) are non-singular (invertible) matrices, show that 𝐴𝐵 is also non-singular,
and ( 𝐴𝐵) −1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 .
Solution. Since 𝐴 and 𝐵 are non-singular, there are matrices 𝐶, 𝐷 ∈ 𝐺 𝐿 𝑛 (R) such that
𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 𝐴 = 𝐼, and 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐷𝐵 = 𝐼 (recall that 𝐶 and 𝐷 are called inverses of 𝐴 and 𝐵
respectively). Now,
( 𝐴𝐵)(𝐷𝐶) = 𝐴(𝐵𝐷)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐼)𝐶, (using 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐼)
= 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼, (using 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼).
Similarly, it follows that (𝐷𝐶)( 𝐴𝐵) = 𝐼. This shows that 𝐴𝐵 is non-singular since there is
a matrix 𝑀 = 𝐷𝐶 such that 𝑀 ( 𝐴𝐵) = ( 𝐴𝐵)𝑀 = 𝐼. Next, we have
(𝐵−1 𝐴−1 ) 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵−1 ( 𝐴−1 𝐴)𝐵 = 𝐵−1 (𝐼)𝐵 = 𝐵−1 𝐵 = 𝐼,
)

−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ ( 𝐴𝐵) −1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 .
( 𝐴𝐵)(𝐵 𝐴 ) = 𝐴(𝐵𝐵 ) 𝐴 = 𝐴(𝐼) 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼.

(14) If 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) with 𝐴3 = 0, show that (𝐼 − 𝐴) is non-singular with (𝐼 − 𝐴) −1 = 𝐼 + 𝐴 + 𝐴2 .

Solution. Since 𝐴3 = 0, we have
)
(𝐼 − 𝐴)(𝐼 + 𝐴 + 𝐴2 ) = 𝐼 + 𝐴 + 𝐴2 − 𝐴 − 𝐴2 − 𝐴3 = 𝐼,
2 2 2 3
⇒ (𝐼 − 𝐴) −1 = 𝐼 + 𝐴 + 𝐴2 .
(𝐼 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 )(𝐼 − 𝐴) = 𝐼 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 − 𝐴 − 𝐴 − 𝐴 = 𝐼.

(15) Let 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) satisfies 𝐴2 + 𝐴 + 𝐼 = 0, show that 𝐴 is non-singular and 𝐴−1 = 𝐴2 .

Solution. We have
𝐴2 + 𝐴 + 𝐼 = 0 ⇔ 𝐴(−𝐼 − 𝐴) = 𝐼 ⇔ 𝐴−1 = −𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝐴2 (since − 𝐴 − 𝐼 = 𝐴2 ).
4
(16) Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R). If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐴𝐵 are symmetric, then show that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.
Solution. Recall that a matrix 𝑀 is symmteric if 𝑀 𝑇 = 𝑀. We are given 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴, 𝐵𝑇 =
𝐵, ( 𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝐵. Now,
𝐴𝐵 = ( 𝐴𝐵)𝑇 (since 𝐴𝐵 is symmteric)
= 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 (since ( 𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 )
= 𝐵𝐴 (since 𝐴, 𝐵 are symmteric).
(17) A matrix 𝑀 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) is said to be skew-symmetric if 𝑀 𝑇 = −𝑀. Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) be
such that 𝐴 is symmetric and 𝐵 is skew-symmetric. Show that 𝐴2 𝐵𝐴2 is skew-symmetric.
Solution. Let us put 𝑀 = 𝐴2 𝐵𝐴2 . We have
𝑀 𝑇 = ( 𝐴2 𝐵𝐴2 )𝑇 = ( 𝐴2 )𝑇 ( 𝐴2 𝐵)𝑇 = ( 𝐴2 )𝑇 (𝐵𝑇 ( 𝐴2 )𝑇 ), (using (𝐶𝐷)𝑇 = 𝐷 𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 )
= ( 𝐴𝑇 ) 2 (𝐵𝑇 ( 𝐴𝑇 ) 2 ) = 𝐴2 (−𝐵𝐴2 ), (using 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴, 𝐵𝑇 = −𝐵)
= −𝐴2 𝐵𝐴2 = −𝑀.

(18) If 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) is symmetric and non-singular, then 𝐴−1 is symmetric.

Solution. We have
( 𝐴𝑇 )( 𝐴−1 )𝑇 = ( 𝐴−1 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝐼 𝑇 = 𝐼, (using ( 𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 )
( 𝐴−1 )𝑇 ( 𝐴𝑇 ) = ( 𝐴𝐴−1 )𝑇 = 𝐼 𝑇 = 𝐼, (using ( 𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 )

The above shows that ( 𝐴𝑇 ) −1 = ( 𝐴−1 )𝑇 . Since 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴, this shows that 𝐴−1 = ( 𝐴−1 )𝑇 .
Thus, 𝐴−1 is symmetric.

(19) Let 𝐴, 𝑃 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R), show that 𝐴 is symmetric implies 𝐵 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐴𝑃 is symmetric.

Solution. We have 𝐴 is symmetric. So, 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴. Thus,
𝐵𝑇 = (𝑃𝑇 𝐴𝑃)𝑇 = 𝑃𝑇 (𝑃𝑇 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑃𝑇 ( 𝐴𝑇 (𝑃𝑇 )𝑇 )
= 𝑃𝑇 ( 𝐴𝑃), (using (𝑃𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝑃, 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴)
= 𝑃𝑇 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵.

(20) Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (R) such that 𝐴2 = 𝐼 and 𝐵2 = 𝐵. Show that (2𝐵 − 𝐼) 2 = 𝐼 and ( 𝐴 + 𝐼) 2 =
2( 𝐴 + 𝐼).
Solution. We have
(2𝐵 − 𝐼) 2 = (2𝐵 − 𝐼)(2𝐵 − 𝐼) = 4𝐵2 − 2𝐵 − 2𝐵 + 𝐼 = 4𝐵 − 4𝐵 + 𝐼 = 𝐼, (using 𝐵2 = 𝐵)
and
( 𝐴 + 𝐼) 2 = ( 𝐴 + 𝐼)( 𝐴 + 𝐼) = 𝐴2 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 2𝐴 + 𝐼 = 2( 𝐴 + 𝐼), (using 𝐴2 = 𝐼).
(21) Let 𝑥 represent a student in this class, and 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) be the following predicates:
𝑃(𝑥) : 𝑥 has a background in python programming,
𝑄(𝑥) : 𝑥 has a background in 𝐶 ++ coding.
5
 Then write the statement “There exists a student in this class that has a background in either
python or 𝐶 ++ coding but not both” using predicates.
Solution. The above statement is equivalent to
∃𝑥 : 𝑃(𝑥) ⊻ 𝑄(𝑥).

(22) Let ( 𝐴 − 𝐵) 2 = 𝐴2 − 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵2 . Show that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.

Solution. Foil the left-hand side of the given expression
( 𝐴 − 𝐵) 2 = ( 𝐴 − 𝐵)( 𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝐴2 − 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐵2

which equals 𝐴2 − 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵2 . Cancelling out common terms, we arrive at 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.

(23) (Traffic Flow) Consider the figure below near the university which shows the number of
cars (per hour) entering and leaving the junctions 𝐴 and 𝐵 at the W University Ave through
Sugar Rd and Jackson Rd, respectively.

𝑥 → the number of cars (per hour) entering (exiting) the junction 𝐴 (resp. 𝐵),
𝑦 → the number of cars (per hour) entering Sugar and Jackson roads.
Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦, assuming that same number of cars enter and exit a junction.
The numbers (100, 200 and 250) indicate number of cars entering or exiting a junction per
hour.
Solution. We get the following system of equations:
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 200 + 250 = 450,

At A :
At B : 𝑦 + 200 = 𝑥 + 100 ⇔ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 100.
Solving the system yields 𝑥 = 275, 𝑦 = 175.
6
(24) What is the parity of the permutation 𝜎 = (1, 4, 3, 2) and 𝛿 = (2, 3, 4, 1)?
Solution. We can construct 𝜎 using transpositions as follows:

(1, 2, 3, 4) → (1, 4, 3, 2) = 𝜎
(1, 2, 3, 4) → (2, 1, 3, 4) → (2, 4, 3, 1) → (2, 3, 4, 1) = 𝛿.

Thus, 𝜎 is odd and 𝛿 is odd.

(25) Calculate the determinant of
 
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 
 
 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 
 
 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 

Solution. We have
     
 𝐶1→𝐶2+𝐶3  𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐     1 𝑏 𝑐 
  
 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏  −−−−−−−−−→  𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏  = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)  1 𝑎 𝑏 
     
 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐   𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎 𝑐   1 𝑎 𝑐 
 
 1 𝑏 𝑐   
𝑅2→𝑅2−𝑅1   𝑎−𝑏 𝑏−𝑐 
−−−−−−−−−→ (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)  0 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑏 − 𝑐  = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)   = −(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐).
𝑅3→𝑅3−𝑅1  0 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 0 
0 

(26) Calculate the following determinant using cofactor expansion:

 
 1 0 3 
 
 2 1 0 
 
 0 3 1 

Solution. We perform cofactor expansion along the first column to get

 
 1 0 3     
 2 1 0  = 1 ·  1 0  − 2 ·  0 3  = 1 · (1 − 0) − 2 · (0 − 9) = 1 + 18 = 19.
     
   3 1   3 1 
 0 3 1 
   
−1 −1 5 0 1 0
(27) If 𝐵 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = , find 𝐴.
2 −1 3 1
Solution. We have
    
−1 −1 −1 1 0 5 0 5 0
𝐴 = 𝐵(𝐵 𝐴 ) = = .
3 1 2 −1 17 −1
  −1    
5 0 1 −1 0 1/5 0
Thus 𝐴 = = = .
17 −1 (−5) −17 5 17/5 −1
(28) Use Cramer’s rule to solve the following system of equations.

𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 


2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0

𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=2  
7
 Solution. The given system of equations is equivalent to the following matrix equation:
1 2 −1 𝑥  0
     
2 −1 3   𝑦  = 0 .
     
1 1 1   𝑧  2
     
| {z } |{z} |{z}
𝐴 x b

Let us put
0 2 −1 1 0 −1 1 2 0
     
𝐴1 (b) = 0 −1 3  , 𝐴2 (b) = 2 0 3  , 𝐴3 (b) = 2 −1 0
2 1 1  1 2 1  1 1 2
     
By calculating the determinants (using cofactor expansions), we find

| 𝐴| = −5, | 𝐴1 (b)| = 10, | 𝐴2 (b)| = −10, | 𝐴3 (b)| = −10.

Thus, by Cramer’s rule, we find

| 𝐴1 (b)| 10
𝑥 = = = −2,
| 𝐴| −5
| 𝐴2 (b)| −10
𝑦 = = = 2,
| 𝐴| −5
| 𝐴3 (b)| −10
𝑧 = = = 2.
| 𝐴| −5
(29) Try the problems in Test 2 Review from problem 10 onwards.

2. Graph Theory
(30) For the following graphs, list 𝑉 (𝐺), 𝐸 (𝐺) and the values of the incidence mapping 𝜓𝐺 .

8
 Solution. For the first graph, 𝑉 (𝐺) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 , 𝑣 3 }, 𝐸 (𝐺) = {𝑒 1 , 𝑒 2 , 𝑒 3 } and 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 1 ) =
{𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 }, 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 2 ) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 3 }, 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 3 ) = {𝑒 3 }.
For the second graph, 𝑉 (𝐺) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 , 𝑣 3 , 𝑣 4 }, 𝐸 (𝐺) = {𝑒 1 , 𝑒 2 , 𝑒 3 , 𝑒 4 , 𝑒 5 , 𝑒 6 } and
𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 1 ) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 }, 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 2 ) = {𝑣 2 , 𝑣 3 }, 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 3 ) = {𝑣 2 , 𝑣 3 }, 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 4 ) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 3 }, 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 5 ) =
{𝑣 3 , 𝑣 4 }, 𝜓𝐺 (𝑒 6 ) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 4 }.

(31) Is it possible to construct a graph with 7 vertices of degree 3 and 2 vertices of degree 2?
Solution. Let 𝑉 (𝐺) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 , 𝑣 3 , 𝑣 4 , 𝑣 5 , 𝑣 6 , 𝑣 7 , 𝑢 1 , 𝑢 2 } where 𝑑 (𝑣 𝑖 ) = 3, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 7 and
𝑑 (𝑢 1 ) = 𝑑 (𝑢 2 ) = 2. Here 𝑑 (𝑤) denotes the degree of the vertex 𝑤. By the handshaking
lemma, we have

1 ∑︁ 1
|𝐸 (𝐺)| = 𝑑 (𝑤) = (𝑑 (𝑣 1 ) + · · · + 𝑑 (𝑣 7 ) + 𝑑 (𝑢 1 ) + 𝑑 (𝑢 2 ))
2 2
𝑤∈𝑉 (𝐺)

1© ª 1 25
= ­­3 + · · · + 3 +2 + 2®® = (7 × 3 + 4) = .
2 | {z } 2 2
« 7 times ¬

Since the number of edges |𝐸 (𝐺)| cannot be fraction, the graph with the required properties
in question is not possible.

(32) Let 𝐺 be a graph with 10 vertices such that 𝛿(𝐺) = Δ(𝐺) = 2. How many edges does 𝐺
have?
Solution. Let 𝑢 be any vertex in the graph 𝐺. Then we know (from definition of 𝛿(𝐺) and
Δ(𝐺)) that

𝛿(𝐺) ≤ 𝑑 (𝑢) ≤ Δ(𝐺) ⇒ 𝑑 (𝑢) = 2.

9
 By the handshaking lemma, we have

1 ∑︁ 1© ª
|𝐸 (𝐺)| = 𝑑 (𝑢) = ­­2 + 2 + · · · + 2®® = 10.
2 2 | {z }
𝑢∈𝑉 (𝐺)
« 10 times ¬
(33) Let 𝐺 be a graph with Δ(𝐺) = 4. Show that |𝐸 (𝐺)| ≤ 2|𝑉 (𝐺)|.
Solution. Let 𝑢 be any vertex of 𝐺. Then Δ(𝐺) = 4 implies 𝑑 (𝑢) ≤ 4. By the handshaking
lemma, we have
1 ∑︁ 1 ∑︁ ∑︁
|𝐸 (𝐺)| = 𝑑 (𝑢) ≤ 4=2 1 = 2|𝑉 (𝐺)|.
2 2
𝑢∈𝑉 (𝐺) 𝑢∈𝑉 (𝐺) 𝑢∈𝑉 (𝐺)

(34) A graph with 4 edges has a vertex with degree 4, a vertex with degree 1 and one more
vertex. What is the degree of the third vertex?
Solution. For the graph 𝐺, let 𝑉 (𝐺) = {𝑢 1 , 𝑢 2 , 𝑢 3 } with 𝑑 (𝑢 1 ) = 4, 𝑑 (𝑢 2 ) = 1 and
|𝐸 (𝐺)| = 4. By the handshaking lemma, we have
1 ∑︁ 1
|𝐸 (𝐺)| = 𝑑 (𝑢) = (𝑑 (𝑢 1 ) + 𝑑 (𝑢 2 ) + 𝑑 (𝑢 3 ))
2 2
𝑢∈𝑉 (𝐺)
1
⇔4= (4 + 1 + 𝑑 (𝑢 3 )) ⇔ 8 = 5 + 𝑑 (𝑢 3 ) ⇔ 𝑑 (𝑢 3 ) = 3.
2
(35) Find 𝛿(𝐺) and Δ(𝐺) for each of the graphs 𝐺 = 𝐾5 , 𝐾5,7 , 𝑃4 , 𝐶6 . Find |𝑉 (𝐺)| and |𝐸 (𝐺)|
for each of these graphs.
Solution. Recall that 𝐾5 is the unique complete graph with 5 vertices. So, |𝑉 (𝐾5 )| = 5 and
𝐸 (𝐾5 ) = 9. Since 𝐾5 is complete, every vertex in 𝐾5 is connected to the other 4 vertices by
an edge, so 𝛿(𝐾5 ) = Δ(𝐾5 ) = 4.
Recall that 𝐾5,7 is the unique complete bipartite graph with vertex partition 𝑉1 and 𝑉2
(𝑉 (𝐾5,7 ) = 𝑉1 ∪ 𝑉2 ) such that |𝑉1 | = 5 and |𝑉2 | = 7. Also, each vertex in 𝑉1 is connected to
every vertex in 𝑉2 . Thus, |𝑉 (𝐾5,7 )| = 5 + 7 = 12 and |𝐸 (𝐾5,7 )| = 5 × 7 = 35. Next, for any
vertex 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉1 , we have 𝛿(𝑢) = Δ(𝑢) = 7 and for 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉2 , we have 𝛿(𝑣) = Δ(𝑣) = 5.
Recall that 𝑃4 is the path graph with 4 vertices. So, |𝑉 (𝑃4 )| = 4 and |𝐸 (𝑃4 )| = 3. Also,
if 𝑉 (𝑃4 ) = {𝑢 1 , 𝑢 2 , 𝑢 3 , 𝑢 4 } with 𝑢 1 (resp. 𝑢 4 ) be the initial (resp. terminal) vertex of 𝑃4 ,
then 𝑑 (𝑢 1 ) = 𝑑 (𝑢 4 ) = 1 and 𝑑 (𝑢 2 ) = 𝑑 (𝑢 3 ) = 2. Thus, 𝛿(𝑃4 ) = 1 and Δ(𝑃4 ) = 2.
Recall that 𝐶6 is the cycle graph with 6 vertices. Then |𝑉 (𝐶6 )| = 6 and |𝐸 (𝐶6 )| = 6.
Also, we have 𝛿(𝐶6 ) = Δ(𝐶6 ) = 2.

(36) For positive integers 𝑎, 𝑏, show that 𝐾𝑎,𝑏 is regular if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑏.
Solution. Using the ideas from the last problem, we can conclude that if 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are
vertex partitions (𝑉 (𝐾𝑎,𝑏 ) = 𝑉1 ∪ 𝑉2 ), then |𝑉1 | = 𝑎 and |𝑉2 | = 𝑏. Then for any vertex
𝑢 ∈ 𝑉1 , we have 𝑑 (𝑢) = 𝑏 and for any vertex 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉2 , 𝑑 (𝑣) = 𝑎. Thus, for 𝐾𝑎,𝑏 to be regular
(all vertices have same degree), we must have 𝑑 (𝑢) = 𝑑 (𝑣), that is, 𝑎 = 𝑏. Also, if 𝑎 = 𝑏,
then one can easily check that the graph 𝐾𝑎,𝑎 is regular.

(37) Let 𝐺 be a bipartite graph with bipartition 𝑉 (𝐺) = 𝑉1 ∪ 𝑉2 . If |𝑉1 | = 𝑎 and |𝑉2 | = 𝑎 + 2.
Show that |𝐸 (𝐺)| ≤ 𝑎 2 + 2𝑎.
Solution. Note that 𝐺 may not be a complete bipartite graph. So, for any vertex 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉1 ,
10
 we have 𝑑 (𝑢) ≤ 𝑎 + 2 and for any 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉2 , we have 𝑑 (𝑣) = 𝑎. By the handshaking lemma,
we have
!
1 ∑︁ 1 ∑︁ ∑︁
|𝐸 (𝐺)| = 𝑑 (𝑤) = 𝑑 (𝑢) + 𝑑 (𝑣)
2 2 𝑢∈𝑉
𝑤∈𝑉 (𝐺) 1 𝑣∈𝑉2
!
1 ∑︁ ∑︁
≤ (𝑎 + 2) 1+𝑎 1
2 𝑢∈𝑉 𝑢∈𝑉
1 2

1
= ((𝑎 + 2)|𝑉1 | + 𝑎|𝑉2 |)
2
1
= ((𝑎 + 2)𝑎 + 𝑎(𝑎 + 2)) = 𝑎 2 + 2𝑎.
2
(38) Let us the consider the complete bipartite graph with 3 vertices with vertex partition
𝑉 (𝐺) = 𝑉1 ∪𝑉2 with 𝑉1 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝑉2 = {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 }. Find 𝐺 [{𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑}] and 𝐺 − {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 }.

Solution. Recall that if 𝑉0 ⊂ 𝑉 (𝐺), then 𝐺 [𝑉0 ] is the vertex induced subgraph with
vertex set 𝑉0 . Thus, 𝐺 [{𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑}] would be

and the graph 𝐺 − {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 } = 𝐺 [𝑉 (𝐺) − {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 }] = 𝐺 [{𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}] would be

(39) Consider the graph 𝐺 given by

11
 and the following walks: 𝑤 1 = (𝑎, 𝑒 1 , 𝑎, 𝑒 2 , 𝑏, 𝑒 3 , 𝑐) and 𝑤 2 = (𝑎, 𝑒 2 , 𝑏, 𝑒 4 , 𝑐). Deter-
mine if these walks are path or trail.
Solution. Note that each of the walks is an alternating sequence of vertices and edges. 𝑤 1
is a walk where the edges are distinct, but the vertices are not. Thus 𝑤 1 is a trail, but not a
path. 𝑤 2 is a walk where both the vertices and edges are distinct. Thus, 𝑤 2 is a path.
(40) Consider the following graph 𝐺:

List the components of 𝐺 − {𝑏 𝑓 } and 𝐺 − {𝑏, 𝑔}.

Solution. Notice that 𝐺 − {𝑏 𝑓 } is the edge induced subgraph obtained from 𝐺 by deleting
only the edge 𝑏 𝑓 (without deleting the vertices 𝑏 and 𝑓 ). Thus, 𝐺 − {𝑏 𝑓 } would have two
components as shown below.

12
 On the other hand, 𝐺 − {𝑏, 𝑔} = 𝐺 [𝑉 (𝐺) − {𝑏, 𝑔}] = 𝐺 [{𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 , ℎ}] is the vertex
induced subgraph shown below:

(41) Find the adjacency matrix of the following graph:

Solution. Recall that the adjacency matrix of a graph 𝐺 is a square matrix of size
|𝑉 (𝐺)| × |𝑉 (𝐺)|. In this case, |𝑉 (𝐺)| = 4. If 𝑢 𝑎 and 𝑢 𝑏 are any two vertices of 𝐺. Then
(
#{edges of 𝐺 between 𝑢 𝑎 and 𝑢 𝑏 }, 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏,
[ 𝐴(𝐺)] 𝑎𝑏 =
2#{loops on 𝑢 𝑎 }, 𝑎 = 𝑏.
Thus
0 1 0 0

1 0 1 1
𝐴(𝐺) = 
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 2

(42) Find the adjacency matrix of 𝐾4 .
Solution. Recall that 𝐾4 is the unique complete (simple) graph with 4 vertices. Thus, we
have
0 1 1 1
 
1 0 1 1
𝐴(𝐾4 ) = 
 
 1 1 0 1 

1 1 1 0
 
13
(43) Note from Problem 42 that the sum of the entries Í inÍ𝐴(𝐾4 ) equals 12 which equals 2|𝐸 (𝐾4 )|.
Show that for any graph 𝐺 with 𝑛 vertices, 𝑛𝑎=1 𝑛𝑏=1 [ 𝐴(𝐺)] 𝑎𝑏 = 2|𝐸 (𝐺)|.
Solution. Let 𝑉 (𝐺) = {𝑢 1 , 𝑢 2 , · · · , 𝑢 𝑛 }. From handshaking lemma, we have
∑︁𝑛
𝑑 (𝑢 𝑎 ) = 2|𝐸 (𝐺)|. (2.1)
𝑎=1
Using the properties of row sums of 𝐴(𝐺), we find
𝑛
∑︁
[ 𝐴(𝐺)] 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑑 (𝑢 𝑎 ). (2.2)
𝑏=1
Using (2.2) in (2.1) yields
𝑛 ∑︁
∑︁ 𝑛
[ 𝐴(𝐺)] 𝑎𝑏 = 2|𝐸 (𝐺)|.
𝑎=1 𝑏=1

14