Content

Introduction.
Type of Open Channels.
Types of Flow in Open Channels.
Flow Formulas in Open Channels.
 Most Economical Section of Channels.
Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow.
Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels.
Hydraulic Jump.

1
 Introduction
 Open channel hydraulics, a subject of great importance to
civil engineers, deals with flows having a free surface in
channels constructed for water supply, irrigation, drainage,
and hydroelectric power generation; in sewers, culverts,
and tunnels flowing partially full; and in natural streams
and rivers.
 An open channel is a duct in which the liquid flows with a
free surface.
 This is in contrast with pipe flow in which the liquid
completely fills the pipe and flow under pressure.
 The flow in a pipe takes place due to difference of pressure
(pressure gradient), whereas in open channel it is due to
the slope of the channel bed (i.e.; due to gravity).

2
 Introduction

 It may be noted that the flow in a closed conduit is not

necessarily a pipe flow. It must be classified as open
channel flow if the liquid has a free surface.
 for a pipe flow:
The hydraulic gradient line (HGL) is the sum of the
elevation and the pressure head (connecting the water
surfaces in piezometers).
The energy gradient line (EGL) is the sum of the HGL
and velocity head.
The amount of energy loss when the liquid flows from
section 1 to section 2 is indicated by hL.

3
Introduction

Pipe system 4
 Introduction

 For open channel flow :

The hydraulic gradient line (HGL) corresponds to the
water surface line (WSL); the free water surface is
subjected to only atmospheric pressure which is
commonly referred to as the zero pressure reference in
hydraulic engineering practice.
The energy gradient line (EGL) is the sum of the HGL
and velocity head.
The amount of energy loss when the liquid flows from
section 1 to section 2 is indicated by hL. For uniform
flow in an open channel, this drop in the EGL is equal
to the drop in the channel bed.

5
Introduction

Open Channel
6
 Type of Open Channels

 Based on their existence, an open channel can be natural

or artificial :
Natural channels such as streams, rivers, valleys , etc.
These are generally irregular in shape, alignment and
roughness of the surface.
Artificial channels are built for some specific purpose,
such as irrigation, water supply, wastewater, water
power development, and rain collection channels.
These are regular in shape and alignment with uniform
roughness of the boundary surface.

7
Type of Open Channels

8
Type of Open Channels

9
 Type of Open Channels

 Based on their shape, an open channel can be prismatic or

non-prismatic:
Prismatic channels: a channel is said to be prismatic
when the cross section is uniform and the bed slop is
constant.
)Non-prismatic channels: when either the cross section
or the slope (or both) change, the channel is referred to
as non-prismatic. It is obvious that only artificial
channel can be prismatic.
 The most common shapes of prismatic channels are
rectangular, parabolic, triangular, trapezoidal and circular.

10
 Type of Open Channels

 The most common shapes of prismatic channels are

rectangular, parabolic, triangular, trapezoidal and circular.

11
 Types of Flow in Open Channels
The flow in an open channel can be classified into the
following types :
A).Uniform and non-uniform flow:
 If for a given length of the channel, the velocity of flow,
depth of flow, slope of the channel and cross-section
remain constant, the flow is said to be uniform.
 Otherwise it is said to be non-uniform.
 Non-uniform flow is also called varied flow which can be
further classified as:
 Gradually varied flow (GVF) where the depth of the flow changes
gradually along the length of the channel.
 Rapidly varied flow (RVF) where the depth of flow changes
suddenly over a small length of the channel. For example, when
water flows over an overflow dam, there is a sudden rise (depth) of
water at the toe of the dam, and a hydraulic jump forms.
12
Types of Flow in Open Channels

13
Types of Flow in Open Channels
Uniform Flow

14
 Types of Flow in Open Channels
B). Steady and unsteady flow: :
 The flow is steady when, at a particular section, the depth
of the liquid and other parameters (such as velocity, area of
cross section, discharge) do not change with time. In an
unsteady flow, the depth of flow and other parameters
change with time.
C). Laminar and turbulent flow:
 The flow in open channel can be either laminar or
turbulent. In practice, however, the laminar flow occurs
very rarely. The engineer is concerned mainly with
turbulent flow. In the case of open channel Reynold’s
number is defined as:

15
 Types of Flow in Open Channels

Recall that Reynold’s number is the measure of relative effects

of the inertia forces to viscous forces. 16
Types of Flow in Open Channels

17
 Types of Flow in Open Channels
D). Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow:
 The criterion used in this classification is what is known by
Froude number, Fr, which is the measure of the relative
effects of inertia forces to gravity force:

18
 Types of Flow in Open Channels
D). Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow:
 The criterion used in this classification is what is known by
Froude number, Fr, which is the measure of the relative
effects of inertia forces to gravity force:

19
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels
In the case of steady-uniform flow in an open channel, the
following main features must be satisfied:
 The water depth, water area, discharge, and the velocity
distribution at all sections throughout the entire channel
length must remain constant, i.e.; Q , A , y , V remain
constant through the channel length.
 The slope of the energy gradient line (S), the water surface
slope (Sws), and the channel bed slope (S0) are equal.
S = Sws = S0
T.E.L
Water Surface
D

channel bed

20
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels
 The depth of flow, y , is defined as the vertical distance
between the lowest point of the channel bed and the free
surface.
 The depth of flow section, D , is defined as the depth of
liquid at the section, measured normal to the direction of
flow.
T.E.L

Water Surface
D

channel bed

Unless mentioned otherwise, the depth of flow and the depth of flow section
will be assumed equal. For uniform flow the depth attains a constant value
21
known as the normal depth, yn
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels
Many empirical formulas are used to describe the flow in open
channels
1.The Chezy Formula(1769)
The Chezy formula is probably the first formula derived for
uniform flow. It may be expressed in the following form

V C Rh S
C is the Chezy coefficient (Chezy’s resistance factor), m1/2/s, a dimensional
factor which characterizes the resistance to flow .

wetted A
Rh  hydraulic Radius 
wetted P
S  bed slope
22
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels

2. The Manning Formula: (1895)

where n = Manning’s coefficient for the channel roughness,

m-1/3/s.
Substituting manning Eq. into Chezy Eq, we obtain the
Manning’s formula for uniform flow:

wetted A
Rh  hydraulic Radius 
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V  Rh S S  bed slope
wetted P
n
n  Manning Coefficien t
23
Flow Formulas in Open Channels

24
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels

3. The Strickler Formula:

where kstr = Strickler coefficient, m1/3/s Comparing

Manning formula and Strickler formulas, we can see that

25
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels
Example 1
open channel of width = 3m as shown, bed slope = 1:5000,
d=1.5m find the flow rate using Manning equation, n=0.025.

1 2
V  Rh 3 S
n

1.5m
A  0.5  3  9 1.5  9 m 2 1

 
2
P  2 3  1.5  3  9.708
2 2
3.0m
A 9
Rh    0.927
P 9.708
2
1
V  0.927 3 1  0.538 m/s
0.025 5000
Q  VA  0.538  9  4.84 m 3 / s

26
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels
Example 2
open channel as shown, bed slope = 69:1584, find the flow rate
using Chezy equation, C=35.

27
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels
Example 2 cont.

V  C Rh S
2.52  5.04 0.72  2.52
A  2.52  16.8   3.6  0.72  150  162.52 m 2
2 2
P  0.72  150  1.8 2

 3.6 2  16.8  2.52 2

 5.04 2  177.18 m
A 162.52
Rh    0.917
P 177.18
0.69
V  35 0.917   0.7 m/s
1584
Q  VA  0.7  162.52  113.84 m 3 / s
28
 Flow Formulas in Open Channels
Example 3: Group work
The cross section of an open channel is a trapezoid with a ottom
width of 4 m and side slopes 1:2, calculate the discharge if the
depth of water is 1.5 m and bed slope = 1/1600. Take Chezy
constant C = 50.

29
 Most Economical Section of Channels
During the design stages of an open channel, the
channel cross-section, roughness and bottom slope
are given.

The objective is to determine the flow velocity, depth

and flow rate, given any one of them. The design of
channels involves selecting the channel shape and
bed slope to convey a given flow rate with a given
flow depth. For a given discharge, slope and
roughness, the designer aims to minimize the
cross-sectional area A in order to reduce
construction costs

30
 Most Economical Section of Channels
A section of a channel is said to be most economical
when the cost of construction of the channel is
minimum.
But the cost of construction of a channel depends on
excavation and the lining. To keep the cost down or
minimum, the wetted perimeter, for a given discharge,
should be minimum.
This condition is utilized for determining the
dimensions of economical sections of different forms of
channels. 31
 Most Economical Section of Channels

Most economical section is also called the best

section or most efficient section as the discharge,
passing through a most economical section of channel
for a given cross sectional area A, slope of the bed S0
and a resistance coefficient, is maximum.

Hence the discharge Q will be maximum when the wetted

perimeter P is minimum.
32
 Most Economical Section of Channels

The most ‘efficient’ cross-sectional shape is determined

for uniform flow conditions. Considering a given
discharge Q, the velocity V is maximum for the
minimum cross-section A. According to the Manning
equation the hydraulic diameter is then maximum.

It can be shown that:

1. the wetted perimeter is also minimum,
2. the semi-circle section (semi-circle having its
centre in the surface) is the best hydraulic section

33
Most Economical Section of Channels

Most Economical Rectangular Channel

Because the hydraulic radius is equal to the water cross
section area divided by the wetted parameter, Channel
section with the least wetted parameter is the best
hydraulic section
Rectangular section

34
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Most Economical Rectangular Channel
A  B D P  2D  B
A
P2D 
D
dP
0
dD
dP  A  A BD B
2 2 0 2 2  2 2 
dD D  D D D

B
D
2
35
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel
A
A(BnD )D or B  nD
D
PB2 D 1n 2
A
P (  nD )  2 D 1n 2
D
dP
0 dP A
dD   2  n 2 1n 2  0 2 1n 2  A n
dD D D2
(B nD)D B2nD
2 1n 2
2
n
D D
B2nD
D 1n 
2

2
36
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Other criteria for economic Trapezoidal section

OFD k

The best side slope for Trapezoidal section

dP
0
dk

1
k    60
3 37
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Most Economical Circular Channel
Circular section d 2d2
A  sin 2
4 8
P  2 r   d

Maximum Flow using Manning Maximum Velocity using Manning or Chezy

 154  D  0.95d  128.75  D  0.81d
Maximum Flow using Chezy

 151  D  0.94d
38
Most Economical Section of Channels

39
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Example 4
Circular open channel as shown d=1.68m, bed slope = 1:5000, find the
Max. flow rate & the Max. velocity using Chezy equation, C=70.
Max. flow rate  154
V  C Rh S
d2 d2 1.68 2  1.68 2
A  sin 2   154   sin 2  154  2.17 m 2
4 8 4 180 8

P   d  154   1.68  4.5 m
180
A 2.17
Rh    0.485m
P 4.5
1
V  70 0.485   0.69 m/s
5000
Q  VA  0.69  2.17  1.496 m 3 / s

40
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Example 4 cont.
Max. Velocity  128.75
V  C Rh S
d2 d2 1.68 2  1.68 2
A  sin 2   128.75   sin 2  128.75  1.93 m 2
4 8 4 180 8

P   d  128.75   1.68  3.378 m
180
A 1.93
Rh    0.57m
P 3.3775
1
V  70 0.57   0.748 m/s
5000

41
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Example 5
Trapezoidal open channel as shown Q=10m3/s, velocity =1.5m/s,
for most economic section. find wetted parameter, and the bed
slope n=0.014.
B  2kD
D 1 k 2 
2
2 B  2 3 D
D 1 3  2
2 2
0.6055D  B
Q 10
A   6.667m 2
V 1.5
A  B  kD D
3
A  (0.6055D  D)  D  6.667
2
D  1.78m 42
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Example 5 P  B  2D 1  k 2
cont. P  0.6055D  2 D 1  k 2
2
3
P  0.6055(1.78)  2 1.78  1     7.49m
To calculate bed Slope 2
1 2
V  Rh 3 S
n
A  6.667 m 2
P  7.49 m
A 6.667
Rh    0.89
P 7.49
2
1
V  0.89 3 S  1.5
0.014
S  1 : 1941.6
43
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Example 6:
Use the proper numerical method to calculate uniform water
depth flowing in a Trapezoidal open channel with B = 10 m, as
shown Q=10m3/s if the bed slope 0.0016, n=0.014. k = 3/2. to a
precision 0.01 m, and with iterations not more than 15.
Note: you may find out two roots to the equation.
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V  Rh S
n
B  B  2nD 
A D
2
P  B2 nD 2  D 2
A
Rh 
P
From Manning
2/3
Q 1  A
 S 1/ 2
A n  P  44
 Most Economical Section of Channels
Example 6 cont.
D  2.28m

A  102.28  (2.28) 2  30.7 m 2

3
2

Q 10
V   0.326m / s
A 30.7

45
Variation of flow and velocity with depth in circular pipes

46
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Referring to the figure shown, the total energy of a flowing
liquid per unit weight is given by
V2
Total Energy  Z  y 
2g T.E.L

Water Surface
Where: D
Z = height of the bottom of channel
above datum,
y = depth of liquid, channel bed
V = mean velocity of flow.

If the channel bed is taken as the datum (as shown),

then the total energy per unit weight will be.
This energy is known as specific energy, Es. Specific
energy of a flowing liquid in a channel is defined as
energy per unit weight of the liquid measured from
the channel bed as datum 47
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
The specific energy of a flowing liquid can be re-written in
the form:

T.E.L

Water Surface
D

channel bed

48
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Specific Energy Curve (rectangular channel)
It is defined as the curve which shows the variation of specific
energy (Es ) with depth of flow y. It can be obtained as follows:

Let us consider a rectangular channel in which a constant

discharge is taking place.

But

V2 Q2
Or Especific  y Es  y 
2g 2 g A2
49
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Specific Energy Curve (rectangular channel)
The graph between specific energy (x-axis) and depth (yaxis)
may plotted.
V2
2g
E

50
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Specific Energy Curve (rectangular channel)
Referring to the diagram above, the following features can be
observed:
1. The depth of flow at point C is referred to as critical depth, yc. It
is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the specific
energy is minimum, Emin, i.e.; Emin @ yc . The flow that
corresponds to this point is called critical flow (Fr = 1.0).
2. For values of Es greater than Emin , there are two corresponding
depths. One depth is greater than the critical depth and the other
is smaller then the critical depth, for example ; Es1 @ y1 and y2
These two depths for a given specific energy are called the
alternate depths.
3. If the flow depth y > yc , the flow is said to be sub-critical (Fr <
1.0). In this case Es increases as y increases.
4. If the flow depth y < yc , the flow is said to be super-critical (Fr >
1.0). In this case Es increases as y increases.
51
Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Froude Number (Fr)
V
Fr 
g Dh T

Area of Flow (Wetted Area) A

Dh  
Water Surface Width T

Q 2T
Fr  3
2

Ag
T

Fr Flow
1 > Fr Sub-critical
1 = Fr Critical
1 < Fr Supercritical
52
Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow

Critical Flow

Super critical
critical

Subcritical

53
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Rectangular Channel
For rectangular section V V
Fr  
At critical Flow g Dh gD

a) Critical depth, yc , is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at

which the specific energy is minimum, Emin,
1 1
V  Q 
2 q 2
 3
Fr  1  q=Q/B y C   
3
yc   2 
g Dh
B g  g 

b) Critical velocity, Vc , is the velocity of flow at critical depth.

54
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Rectangular Channel
c) Critical, Sub-critical, and Super-critical Flows:
Critical flow is defined as the flow at which the specific energy
is minimum or the flow that corresponds to critical depth. Refer
to point C in above figure, Emin @ yc .

and therefore for critical flow Fr = 1.0

If the depth flow y > yc , the flow is said to be sub-critical. In this case Es
increases as y increases. For this type of flow, Fr < 1.0 .

If the depth flow y < yc , the flow is said to be super-critical. In this case
Es increases as y decreases. For this type of flow, Fr > 1.0 .
55
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Rectangular Channel
d) Minimum Specific Energy in terms of critical depth:
At (Emin , yc ) ,

56
Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Other Sections
2
at critical flow Fr =1 where: Fr 2  3T  1
Q
Ag

3
Ec  Dc Rectangular section
2

(3B5nDc )Dc
Ec  Trapezoidal section
2( B2nDc )

d d (2 sin 2 )
Ec  (1cos  ) Circular section
2 16 sin 

5
Ec  Dc Triangle section
4 57
 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow

Example 1
Determine the critical depth if the flow is 1.33m3/s. the
channel width is 2.4m

Q 2T
3
1
A g

 1 
1.33 2  2.4  2  Dc 
Q 2 B  2  nDc   3 
 1
B  nDc Dc 3
g  1  
3

  2.4  Dc  Dc   9.81

 3  

Dc  0.31 m
58
Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Example 2

Rectangular channel , Q=25m3/s, bed slope =0.006,

determine the channel width with critical flow using
manning n=0.016
1 1 1
 Q   25
2 3   4  2
4 3 3
  
yc   2    2 
  2   2
 B g   B  9.81   B  B3
1 23
V R S
n
A Dc B
R 
P 2 Dc  B
2
25 1  Dc B  3
   0.006
Dc B 0.016  2 Dc  B 
59
Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow
Example 2 cont.
2
  4   3
  2 B 
25 1   B 3 
  0.006
4 2 B 0.016   4  
2  2  B

B 3  
  B 3 
2
1  4 B  3
25 
  0.006
4B
1
3 0.016  8  B 5 3 


B  3m

60
 Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Non-uniform flow is a flow for which the depth of flow is aried. This
varied flow can be either Gradually varied flow (GVF) or Rapidly
varied flow (RVF).
Such situations occur when control structures are used in the
channel or when any obstruction is found in the channel
Such situations may also occur at the free discharges and when a
sharp change in the channel slope takes place.
The most important elements, in non-uniform flow, that will be
studied in this sectionare:
 Classification of channel-bed slopes.
 Classification of water surface profiles.
 The dynamic equation of gradually varied flow.
 Hydraulic jumps as examples of rapidly varied flow. 61
Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:

62
 Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Classification of Channel-Bed Slopes

The slope of the channel bed can be classified as:

1) Critical Slope: the bottom slope of the channel is equal to the critical
slope. In this case S0 = Sc or yn = yc .
2) Mild Slope: the bottom slope of the channel is less than the critical
slope. In this case S0 < Sc or yn > yc .
3) Steep Slope: the bottom slope of the channel is greater than the
critical slope. In this case S0 > Sc or yn < yc .
4) Horizontal Slope: the bottom slope of the channel is equal to zero
(horizontal bed). In this case S0 = 0.0 .
5) Adverse Slope: the bottom slope of the channel rises in the direction
of the flow (slope is opposite to direction of flow). In this case S0 =
negative .
The first letter of each slope type sometimes is used to indicate the
slope of the bed. So the above slopes are abbreviated as C, M, S, H, and
A, respectively.
63
Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Classification of Channel-Bed Slopes

64
 Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles):

65
 Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles):

66
 Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles):

67
 Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles):

68
 Non-uniform Flow in Open Channels:
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles):

69
 Hydraulic Jump
A hydraulic jump occurs when flow changes from a supercritical
flow (unstable) to a sub-critical flow (stable). There is a sudden
rise in water level at the point where the hydraulic jump occurs.
Rollers (eddies) of turbulent water form at this point. These
rollers cause dissipation of energy.

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 Hydraulic Jump
General Expression/consideration for Hydraulic Jump:
In the analysis of hydraulic jumps, the following assumptions are
made:
(1) The length of hydraulic jump is small. Consequently, the loss
of head due to friction is negligible.
(2) The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is due to
hydrostatic before and after the jump.
(3) The slope of the bed of the channel is very small, so that the
component of the weight of the fluid in the direction of the flow
is neglected.

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 Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

But for Rectangular section

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 Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

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 Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

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 Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

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Hydraulic Jump

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Hydraulic Jump

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 Hydraulic Jump
Example 1
A 3-m wide rectangular channel carries 15 m3/s of water at a 0.7 m
depth before entering a jump. Compute the downstrem water depth
and the critical depth
15
q  5 m 3 /s.m
3
2
5
dc  3  1.366m
9.81
q 5
V1    7.14m / s
d1 0.7
V1 7.14
Fr1    2.72
gd1 9.81 0.7

d2 1
0.7 2
 1  8(2.72) 2  1 
d 2  2.365m 78
 Hydraulic Jump
Example 2

d2

d1=dn

dn = Depth can calculated from manning equation

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 Hydraulic Jump
a) Q  1 R 2 3 S
h
A n
A  BD  3D d2

P  2D  B  2D  3 d1=dn
2
15 1  3D  3

   0.004
3D 0.01  2 D  3 
D  d n  d1  1.08m
15
V1   4.63m / s
3d1
V1 4.63
Fr1    1.42  1  the flow is supercritical
gd1 9.811.08

b) d2
1.08 2

1

1  8(1.42) 2  1 
d 2  1.7m
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 Hydraulic Jump
c)

d2

d1=dn
15 15
V2    2.94m / s
3d 2 31.7 
 4.632   2.94 2 
E  1.08    1.7    0.032m
 2g   2g 

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