Data

Research data is any information that has been collected, observed, generated, or created
to validate original research findings. Although usually digital, research data also includes
non-digital formats such as laboratory notebooks and diaries.

OR

Research data is any information that has been collected, observed, generated, or created
to validate original research findings. Research data may be arranged or formatted in a
such a way as to make it suitable for communication, interpretation, and processing. Data
comes in many formats, both digital and physical.

Types of Data:

1.According to characteristics

2.According to source

o Primary data
o Secondary data
Qualitative data (categorical data): cannot be measure but can be counted.

o Data that varies in kinds and used simply as a label to distinguish one from another.
o It focuses on meaning & experience having no magnitude and expressed as rate,
ratio, percentage, and proportion.
o They have scale of measurement and measured on nominal scale(mostly) or ordinal
scale.

Types of qualitative data:

a) Nominal data: These are unranked categorical data.

o generated by counting only.
o usually binary(dichotomous) showing only two categories e.g., sex.
o may be polychotomous showing more than two categories e.g., religion.
o Unordered(unranked) and mutually exclusive
e.g., religion, sex, blood group, marital status, eye color.
o In these data arithmetic mean & ratio is not meaningful.
b) Ordinal data: These are ranked categorical data.
generated by counting and ranking.

Types of quantitative data:

a) Continuous data:
o Data that can take any (countless) value, even fraction or decimal within certain
range.
o They are generated by measurement on continuous scale e.g., Blood pressure,
Height, weight, blood glucose concentration.
o In these data arithmetic mean and ratio is meaningful.
b) Discrete data:
o Data that take only the whole (integral) numerical values or limited number of
discrete values in given interval.
o They are generated by counting or enumeration. e.g., number of children in the
family, Number of beds in hospital, number of students in class. etc.
 o In these data an arithmetic mean is meaningful and sometimes ratio is meaningful
e.g., 2.5 children per family is meaningful. A 04 children family

There are many ways of classifying data.

A common classification is based upon who collected the data.

A. PRIMARY DATA:

Data that has been collected from firsthand experience is known as primary data. Primary
data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic, and objective. Primary data
has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore, its validity is greater than
secondary data.

Sources of Primary Data:

Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult to obtain data from
primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack of cooperation.

Following are some of the sources of primary data-

Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform

logical study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological
studies, nutrition and for other scientific studies. In experiments the experimenter must
keep control over the influence of any extraneous variable on the results.

Survey: Survey is most used method in social sciences, management, marketing, and
psychology to some extent.

Surveys can be conducted in different methods.

Questionnaire:

It is the most used method in survey. Questionnaires are a list of questions either open-
ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers. Questionnaire can be
conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic
mail or through fax and other methods.
Interview:

Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview the main

problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an in-
depth source of information.

Advantages of Using Primary Data

o The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

o There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
o If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

1.The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-

o Deciding why, what, how, when to collect;

o Getting the data collected (personally or through others);
o Getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
o Ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).

2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard

o all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in;
o there is no fake/ cooked up data;
o Unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.
o Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

B.SECONDARY DATA:

Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as
secondary data. The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data. It is
collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator
for another purpose).

Sources of Secondary Data:

The following are some ways of collecting secondary data –

• Books • Records • Biographies • Newspapers • Published censuses or other statistical
data • Data archives • Internet articles • Research articles by other researchers (journals) •
Databases, etc.

Advantages of Using Secondary Data –

o No hassles of data collection.

o It is less expensive.
o The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do
it’).

Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data –

o The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability
and accuracy of data go down.
o Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
o With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
o Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary
data a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
o Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright. Keeping in view
the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of the research
study and time factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and secondary data have
been selected. These are used in combination to give proper coverage to the topic.

Data collection:

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of

interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

The main methods of data collection include –

Quantitative Data Collection methods:

1. Survey / Questionnaires
2. Observation
 3. Interviews
4. Case-studies
5. Mystery Shopping
6. Experimental method

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

1. Focus Group Interviews

2. In-depth interviews
3. Projective Technique

Quantitative Data Collection methods:

SURVEY/QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD: A structured questionnaire administered to a

set of individuals selected from a population. A questionnaire is a research instrument
consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents.

Question Types:

o Open-ended- An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his/her own

answer.
o Closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of
options.

Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished –

o Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options.

o Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options.
o Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options.
o Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale.

Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: The basic rules are –

o Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different
subpopulations of the population of interest.
 o Use statements where people that have different opinions or traits will give different
answers.
o Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers.
o Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item. Use positive
statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
o . Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
o Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational
levels.
o Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
o Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g., Do you like
strawberries and potatoes?).
o A question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer.

Questionnaire Administration Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration

are –

o Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items

orally.
o Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on
paper
o Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the
computer.
o Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is
presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer
selects following items optimized for the teste’s estimated ability or trait

Advantages of Questionnaires: The advantages of questionnaires are –

o Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a

short period of time and in a relatively cost-effective way.
o Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited effect
to its validity and reliability.
o The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by
either a researcher or using a software package.
o Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.
o When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare other research and may
be used to measure change.
o Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or
test existing hypotheses.
o Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are –
o To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e., changes of
emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
o Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by
the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without
explanation.
o There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
o There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
o The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation.
o People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their
own interpretation of the question - i.e., what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’
to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged.
Steps for an Effective Questionnaire:

Prepare Questions
(Formulate & choose types of questions order the, write instructions, make copies)

Select respondent
Random/selected

Administer the questionnaire

(Date, time, venue)

Tabulate data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

Common ways to collect data using the survey method are:

1.Online Research
A survey that is administered over the internet, using a computer, tablet, mobile phone,
etc.

Advantage

o Efficient
o Quick
o Lower cost
o Enables usage of a diverse range of question types and media
o Respondent anonymity reduces bias
Disadvantage

o Theoretical coverage (can only reach a population with internet access)

o Control of the sample’s environment

2.Telephone Research

An interview that is administered over the phone.

Advantage:

o Theoretical coverage (almost all of the population has a landline and/or a mobile
phone)
o Quick
o Can be lower cost

Disadvantage:

o Limited range of question types

o Can’t expose respondents to physical stimuli
o Sample control

3. Face-to-face

An interview that is conducted face to face, either in-home, on-street or at a specialist

location (for example, mall intercepts).

Advantage:

o The stimuli options are only limited by how much the interviewer can carry with
them -unless the interview is on-street, then this becomes a con!
o The interviews can be longer – unless the interview is on-street, then this becomes
a con!
o Mall intercepts allow for full control of the research environment
Disadvantage:

o Inefficient
o Expensive
o Bias: with both with the interviewer and the respondent
o No anonymity: would be difficult to interview about sensitive topics
o Low incidence rate
o Slow: number of recruits limited to the people available to conduct the interviews
and mall hours

4. Mail Surveys

A questionnaire that is physically sent to a preselected respondent via mail

Advantage:

o Theoretical coverage (almost all the population can be reached by mail)

o Generally lower cost

Disadvantage:

o Inefficient
o All the questions can be seen by the respondent
o Stimuli is restricted to what can be shipped via mail
o Low incidence rate, which may increase costs

OBSERVATIONAL METHOD: -

Observation method is a method under which data from the field is collected with the help
of observation by the observer or by personally to the field. Quantitative observational
documents behavioral patterns in a systematic form. It mostly involves counting the
frequency of an attribute or behavior.

Some of the common ways to collect data with the observational method are:

In the wards of P.V Young

 “Observation may be defined as systematic viewing, coupled with consideration of seen
phenomenon”.

Steps for an effective observation:

Determine what needs to observed

Select participant
(random/selected)

Conduct the observation

(Venue, duration, recording materials, takes photographs)

Compile data collection

Analyze and interpret data collected

Classification of observation:

1. Structured observation: When the observation is characterized by a careful

definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed
information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of selected
data of observation.
2. Unstructured observation: When it takes place without the above characteristics.
3. Participant/personal observation: When the observer is a member of the group
which he is observing then it is participant observation.
4. Nonparticipant/ Mechanical observation: when observer is observing people
without giving any information to them then it is non-participant observation.
Usually used to measure ongoing activities. Mechanical observation can include
counting how many people are watching a TV channel, how many people
entered/exited a building, how many visited a website, and so on.
 5. Uncontrolled observation: when the observation takes place in natural condition
it is uncontrolled observation. It is done to get spontaneous picture of life and
persons
6. Controlled observation: when observation take place according to pre-arranged
plans, with experimental procedure then it is controlled observation generally done
in laboratory under controlle3d condition.

Advantages of observation:

o Produces large quantities of data.

o All data obtained from observations are useable.
o The observation technique can be stopped or began at any time
o relative inexpensive.

Disadvantages of observation:

o Extensive training is needed

o sometime provide limited information :
o It is expensive method

Interview:

The interview method of collective data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral, verbal responses. Interviewer ask questions (which are aimed to
get information required for study) to respondent.

INTERVIEWS METHOD:

Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in a study.
Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face interviews and face-
to-face group interviewing. The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by the
telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers). Interviews can be –

A. Structured,
B. Semi-structure or

C. Unstructured.

STRUCTURED INTERVIEW:

Characteristics of the Structured Interview

• The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions.

• The questions are created prior to the interview, and often have a limited set of response
categories.

• There is generally little room for variation in responses and there are few open-ended
questions included in the interview guide. Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page
212 Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

• Questioning is standardized and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept
consistent from interview to interview.

• The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but does not insert his
or her opinion in the interview.

• Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured interview

Semi-structured Interviews Characteristics of Semi-structured Interviews

• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview.

• The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide’. This is a list of questions and
topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order.

• The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical trajectories in the
conversation that may stray from the guide when s/he feels this is appropriate

Unstructured Interviews Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews

• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have a
scheduled time to sit and speak with each other and both parties recognize this to be an
interview.
• There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds

• Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control over informants’ responses.

• Ethnographic, in depth interviews are unstructured. Fontana and Frey (1994) identify
three types of in depth, ethnographic unstructured interviews – oral history, creative
interviews and postmodern interviews.

Informal Interviewing: Characteristics of Informal interviewing

• The interviewer talks with people in the field informally, without use of a structured
interview guide of any kind.

• The researcher tries to remember his/her conversations with informants, and uses jottings
or brief notes taken in the field to help in the recall and writing of notes from experiences
in the field.

• Informal interviewing goes hand-in-hand with participant observation.

• While in the field as an observer, informal interviews are casual conversations one might
have with the people the researcher is observing.

Steps for Effective interview:

Prepare interview schedule

Select subjects/Key respondent

Conduct the interview

Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

As with quantitative research, qualitative research has strengths and weaknesses. Methods
of qualitative data collection are classified as being direct or indirect in approach. The
direct approach is when the purpose of the qualitative research is disclosed or otherwise
obvious to the respondents, whereas the indirect approach is when the purpose is disguised
or kept hidden.

Direct Approach

A direct approach is appropriate when the goal of the research is to understand a

respondent’s understanding, attitude, assumptions, and feelings. A direct approach is
generally less expensive and less time-consuming and enables us to learn about the
respondent’s opinions and beliefs – not just their behavior. It’s important to keep in mind
that our learnings would be a result of our respondent’s reported behavior, which might not
match actual behavior or motivations. There are 2 popular methods to conduct a direct
approach to data collection:

1. Focus Groups Discussion (FGD)

A focus group discussion (or FGD) is a qualitative research method in the social sciences,
with a particular emphasis and application in the developmental program evaluation
sphere.

• Keep the simple, short ,probable, follow-up able number of questions

reasonable(under 10 if possible)
• An FGD should be between 60 and 90 minutes.
• Focus group discussions involve two to eight people on average.
• Creating homogeneity in the FGD group
• Make sure the participants have provided informed consent verbally or ideally on
a written form,
• As a moderator, it is important to ensure that all participants are comfortable and
engaged with the discussion,
 • Use a good audio or video recorder.
• FGD data is qualitative, it cannot necessarily be generalizable to the population.

Advantage:

• Group synergy and dynamics might generate interesting findings

• Client involvement

Disadvantage:

• Peer pressure or influence of a dominant group member might bias the data or lead
to “group think”
• Difficult to discuss sensitive topics
• The sample size is small and likely homogeneous

2. In-depth interviews

One-on-one interviews conducted by a moderator. In-depth interviews are a qualitative data

collection method that involves direct, one-on-one engagement with individual
participants. In-depth interviewing can take place face-to-face, or –– in some cases –– over
the phone. However, for the latter to be effective and to deliver reliable information, the
interviewer must be highly skilled to prevent data loss.

Advantage:

• Uncovers deeper insights

• Easier to interview professionals or even competitors
• Enables usage of a diverse range of question types and media
• Respondent anonymity reduces social desirability bias
Disadvantage:

• Labor intensive and slow

• Lack of structure makes it more susceptible to bias.
• The sample size is small.
• High cost

Indirect Approach

An indirect approach is appropriate when the goal of the research is to understand a

respondent’s behavior or habits. While it’s a good method to gain an accurate picture of a
respondent’s behavior, it can be labor-intensive and more expensive when compared to a
direct approach.

1. Projective Technique

The projective technique is an unstructured and indirect way of research that encourages
respondents to project their underlying motivations regarding the issue researched. There
are multiple ways to use a Projective technique. For example:

• Association exercises: respondents are asked their first come-to-mind reaction to

stimuli
• Completion exercises: respondents complete an incomplete scenario
• Construction exercises: respondents construct a story or description
• Expressive exercises: respondents relay what they think others would feel towards
stimuli

Advantage:

• May elicit insights that wouldn’t be possible if the respondent knows the purpose
of the research
• Reduces the risk of bias
• Better at gaining insights related to subconscious behaviors
Disadvantage:

• Risk of interpretation bias

• Difficult to analyze results due to the open-ended and creative nature of the data
captured
• Expensive
• It’s impossible to know whether the behavior presented would be the same if not
observed.

Qualitative data collection methods

Qualitative data collection looks at several factors to provide a depth of understanding

to raw data. While qualitative methods involve the collection, analysis, and management
of data, instead of counting responses or recording numeric data, this method aims to
assess factors like the thoughts and feelings of research participants. Qualitative data
collection methods go beyond recording events to create context.

With this enhanced view, researchers can

• Describe the environment. Understanding where observations take place can add
meaning to recorded numbers.
• Identify the people involved in the study. If research is limited to a particular
group of people, whether intentionally or as a function of demographics or other
factors, this information can inform the results.
• Describe the content of the study. Sometimes, the specific activities involved in
research and how messages about the study were delivered and received may
illuminate facts about the study.
• Interact with study participants. Interactions between respondents and research
staff can provide valuable information about the results.
• Be aware of external factors. Unanticipated events can affect research outcomes.
Qualitative data collection methods allow researchers to identify these events
and weave them into their results narrative, which is nearly impossible to do with
just a quantitative approach.
There are three commonly used qualitative data collection methods: ethnographic,
theory grounded, and phenomenological.

Ethnography

Comes from anthropology, the study of human societies and cultures. Ethnography seeks
to understand how people live their lives. Through this method, researchers veer away
from the specific and practical questions that traditional market researchers use and
instead observe the participants in a non-directed way. This approach is intended to
reveal behaviors from a subject’s perspective rather than from the view of the
researchers.

Ethnography helps fill in the blanks when a participant may not be able to articulate
their desires or the reasons for their decisions or behaviors. Instead of, or in addition to,
asking why a participant acts a certain way, researchers use observation to understand
the why behind these desires, decisions, or behaviors.

Grounded theory

Arose when sociological researchers sought to provide a level of legitimacy to

qualitative research — to ground it in reality rather than assumptions. Before this
method, qualitative data analysis was actually done before any quantitative data was
collected, so it was disconnected from the collection and analysis process.

Grounded theory uses the following methods:

• Participant observation. Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of

subjects. Another term for this is “fieldwork.”
• Interviews. These can vary in formality from informal chats to structured
interviews.
• Document and artifact collection. Grounded theory often is about more than
observation and interviews. Researchers can learn about a group of people from
 looking at materials the group used. For example, a local community’s laws may
shed light on opinions and provide a clearer picture of residents’ sentiments.

Phenomenology

Describes how people experience certain events or unique encounters. This method
measures reactions to occurrences that are outside of the norm, so it’s essential to
understand the whole picture, not just facts and figures.

An example of phenomenology is studying the experiences of individuals involved in a

natural disaster. To analyze data from such an event, the researcher must become familiar
with the data; focus the analysis on the subject matter, time period, or other factors; and
categorize the data.

Completing these tasks gives the researcher a framework for understanding how the
natural disaster impacts people. Together, the understanding, focus, and organization
help researchers identify patterns, make connections, interpret data, and explain
findings.

Each of these qualitative data collection methods sheds light on factors that can be
hidden in simple data analysis. Qualitative data is one way to add context and reality to
raw numbers. Often, researchers find value in a hybrid approach, where qualitative data
collection methods are used alongside quantitative ones.
References

Guides: Research data management: What is data? (No date) Home - Guides at
University of South Australia.

Library (2017) Research Data Management explained, Library.