A Summary of Classical Chinese Analytic Syntax - The System of Basic Syntactic Categories - Chapter - 2016
A Summary of Classical Chinese Analytic Syntax - The System of Basic Syntactic Categories - Chapter - 2016
The romanisations given are those of modern Mandarin Chinese Pīnyīn. For
reconstructed ancient pronunciations see the Phonology File in tls.uni-hd.de.
What are analysed and exemplified below are the basic syntactic func-
tions for which I have found it useful to register Lexeme Entries so far in
Thesaurus Linguae Sericae.
Ronald W. Langacker’s bold generalisation may hold some chastening
truth for our efforts to make classical Chinese grammar as precise as we can:
1
In the 1980ies, when Professor Yakhontov taught Chinese linguistics for a semester in
the University of Oslo, he left with me two fat folders of photocopies of his detailed notes
on classical Chinese grammar, thousands of record cards. Together with the brief summary
in Древнекитайский язык “Old Chinese Grammar” this has been of singular importance
for my work on Chinese grammar ever since. For the present draft it is with great pleasure
that I thank Professor Yakhontov’s student David Sehnal, my friend Göran Malmqvist,
Stockholm, and my ēnshī 恩師 Jiang Shaoyu 蔣紹 , Peking, for detailed and substantial
comments on every aspect of the many earlier versions of this draft. Of course, remaining
mistakes and misconceptions are all my own responsibility. This draft is continuously be-
ing revised and updated. It is to be used in conjunction with the Hànxuéwéndiăn 漢學文
典 Thesaurus Linguae Sericae which is currently being largely developed and expanded by
cooperation between Princeton University and Kyoto University, but which for the time
being can still be found at the following url: tls.uni-hd.de. An earlier version of this hand-
out has been published in two parts in 汉语 学报 as 漢語 法系統簡略. Comments,
suggestions, and criticisms will always remain welcome. The calligraphy above is by our
long-term collaborator and dear friend, the philosopher Páng Pú 龐 (1928–2015).
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1
Ronald W. Langacker, Metonymic Grammar, 2009: 46.
2
The process is strictly mechanical, to be sure. A theoretically possible (i.e. well-formed)
formula like vtoN.adV:postS is taken to correspond to ((vtoN)adV)adS. The formula
vtoN.adN:postS_1:.adS_2 must be taken to correspond to (((vtoN)adN)postS_1)adS_2.
The formula vtoN.adN:postS_1:.adS_2::postadV would have to be taken to correspond
to ((((vtoN)adN)postS_1)adS_2)postadV.
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The symbol “@” (as in n@hum “noun referring to a person”) signifies
that what precedes @ is a syntactic category, and that what follows @ are
semantic features that apply to the expression belonging to that preceding
syntactic category.
Simplex Words
All classical Chinese monosyllabic words are taken to be nouns, verbs
or particles. The remaining categories are defined in terms of these basic
concepts:
n “monosyllabic noun” (negatable in principle by fēi 非 IS-NOT “is
not a” or, when not negatable, directly derived from a word negatable by fēi
非. For objects there are only few examples: hé shì fēi jūn 非君? HOW
SERVE NOT-BE RULER “How can one serve someone who is not one’s ru-
ler?”. The object pronoun zhī 之 is a marginal case and may perhaps be said to
count as an n (more specifically as an npro) because it substitutes for a noun.)
v “monosyllabic verb” (negatable in principle by bù 不 NOT “does
not”, or, when not negatable, directly derived in meaning from a word nega-
table by bù 不 )
p “monosyllabic grammatical particle” (in principle not negatable as
such, i. e. can never be the scope of a negation)
Note that not by no means all monosyllabic words are simplex words
without an internal semantic structure. For example, wáng 王 “king” is sim-
plex and has no known internal structure. On the contrary, wàng 王 “verbal:
rule over as king”, nominal: “ruling as king; royal rulership” is complex, in-
volving what is currently reconstructed by common consent by a suffix “-s”.
[NB: The reading wàng is commonly attested in the earliest phonetic glosses
for the deverbal nominalised use of the word, for example in the authorita-
tive Jīngdiǎnshìwén 經典 文 of the seventh century AD. The distinction
marked by the suffix is thus not at all that of marked noun versus unmarked
verb, but marked action versus unmarked agent. Needless to say, and as
the English word “action” conveniently demonstrates, the semantic feature
“ACTION” is by no means limited to verbs.]
Complex Expressions
All classical Chinese expressions are deemed to be either NPs, VPs or
sentences S. All complex expressions are also taken to be either nominal, or
verbal, or grammaticalised. When a constituent consists of more than one
character, the following labels are used:
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NP “complex nominal”, e. g. jūn zǐ 君子 RULER SON “gentle-
man” (negatable in principle by fēi 非 IS-NOT “is not a”)
VP “complex verbal”, e. g. hào xué 好學 ENJOY STUDY “be
fond of study” (negatable in principle by bù 不 NOT “does not”, or able to
take a direct object)
PP “complex particle”, e. g. wū hū 嗚 ONOMATOPOEIC
ONOMATO POEIC “alas” (in principle not negatable as such, i.e. can never
constitute the whole scope of a negation)
Note 1: The notion of a complex verbal (VP) and a complex nominal (NP)
is not the same as that of noun phrase and a verb phrase in modern linguistics.
This is because modern linguistics presupposes a universal notion of the word
which turns out to be not generally applicable to classical Chinese where the
distinction between an idiomatic phrase and multisyllabic word is very often
systematically opaque1. (Compare “no one” versus “everyone” in English to
illustrate that the problem is not absent in English either.)
Note 2: The convenient definition of the three basic syntactic categories
in terms of negation yields no results for those syntactic positions which in
classical Chinese cannot be negated. Thus, for example, an adverb like shèn
甚 BE-INTENSE as in shèn dà 甚大 BE-INTENSE BE-BIG “be very big”
cannot itself be the scope of negation. The decision to categorise shèn 甚 in
this construction as a verbal expression modifying a verbal one can thus not
be based on our definition which involves negation in this precise context.
But in general shèn 甚 is often negated by bù 不 “not”, and since shèn 甚 is
never negatable by fēi 非 “not be” in classical Chinese, it is certainly plausible
to take it to be a (de)verbal modifier v. It is not always possible to reach such
plausible conclusions, especially when a word is equally common as a noun
and as a verb, as in the case of rén 仁 “1) human-heartedness; 2) be human-
hearted”.
Similarly, in rén lì 立 MAN STAND-UP “stand up like a man” the
modifier rén MAN is naturally taken as a (de)nominal adverbial modi-
1
Jerome Packard, The Morphology of Chinese. A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 and PACKARD Jerome L. (ed). New
Approaches to Chinese Word Formation : Morphology, Phonology and the Lexicon
in Modern and Ancient Chinese. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. 386 p.
(Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs 105) give a useful survey of current
discussion. Packard 1998 does not address the issue of word boundaries for classical
Chinese and it does not solve that issue for modern Chinese either. See the review by
Viviane Alleton in Cahiers de linguistique — Asie orientale, vol. 29 n°1, 2000, pp.
125–142.
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fier nadV. (See the section on ad “precedes and modifies” in the section
Syntactic Relations below on the way this is handled in the present system.)
To the extent that both (de)verbal and (de)nominal construals of a modi-
fier are equally possible and equally natural it is plausible to call such a modi-
fier syntactically underdetermined in classical Chinese.
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Note that monomorphemic binomes (i. e. those binomes whose constitu-
ents cannot be assigned independent meaning by themselves) are represented
as follows:
vv “verbal monomorphemic binome” e. g. wěiyí 逶迤 “wriggle”
nn “nominal monomorphemic binome” e. g. pútáo 葡 “wine”
pp “grammaticalised monomorphemic binome” e. g. modern āiyā 哎呀
“oh!”
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Ellipsis of nominal and verbal expressions is recorded with brackets, and
is subdivided into two kinds: lexically retrievable versus contextually retrie-
vable. One might call omitted, understood, or implicit elements not syntactic
constituents but yǔyì chéngfèn 語義 “semantic constituents”.
x[0] x which has an implicit omitted subject retrievable from the
lexicon, as in vi[0], e. g. the tricky tuì WITHDRAW “[You] should go
away > go away!” [NB: Imperatives are taken to have second person sub-
jects, and it is found useful to record which verbs are currently used in the
imperative mode. In certain cases what exactly is or is not retrievable from an
(idealised) lexicon will remain controversial.]
x(0) x which has an implicit omitted subject retrievable from the
context, as in vi(0), e. g. rán 然 BE-SO “(This) is so.” [NB: It is in the context
that one finds out what is so. In certain cases the question what exactly is con-
textual and what belongs in an (idealised) lexicon will remain controversial.]
[x] x is implicit and omitted, but retrievable from the lexicon, as
in vt[oN], e. g. fā ISSUE “shoot off [an arrow]” [NB: “Shoot off an arrow”
is recognised in the lexicon as a meaning of fā . Compare the English “let
fly” where the lexically retrievable omitted object is “intensely felt words.]”
(x) x is implicit and omitted, but retrievable from context, as in
vt(oN), e. g. shì 侍 “was in attendance (serving a person identifiable (retrie-
vable) from the context)”
Curly brackets “{}” after a syntactic category, as in NP{PRED} “nominal
expression used predicatively”, are occasionally used to indicate a functional
syntactic annotation relating to the category immediately preceding it.
Syntactic Relations
Syntactic relations in TLS specify first the syntactic category in question
(n, NP, v, VP, p, PP etc) and specifies thereafter the relation into which this
constituent enters. TLS specifies the following syntactic relations between
constituents X and Y:
XadY “X precedes and modifies Y”, as in vadN “verb modifying
a noun”, e. g. bái “white” in bái mǎ 馬 WHITE HORSE “white horse”. In
this construction Y is regarded as the head and X is regarded as the modifier
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or non-head. [NB: the specific semantic relations between the head and the
non-head are as varied in classical Chinese as they are in English. Compare,
for example rén zhèng PERSON ADMINISTRATION “administration
by (the agent) persons” fǎ zhèng 法 LAW ADMINISTRATION “adminis-
tration by (the means of) the law”; guó zhèng 國 STATE ADMINISTRA-
TION “administration of (the object) the state”.
X(ad)Y “X precedes and non-restrictively modifies Y”, as in v(ad)N
“verb non-restrictively modifying a noun” yú mín 民 STUPID PEOPLE
“the people, who are (presupposed to be all) stupid”
X-Y “X precedes and is modified by Y” , as in vi-V, e. g. nù 怒 “be
angry” in nù shèn 怒甚 ANGRY INTENSE “be intensely angry”. (Compare
modern Chinese vi-V hǎo 好 which invites post-modification as in hǎojíle 好
極了 “be very good”. On the other hand bù xíng 不 “be not OK” does not
allow such post-modification and is therefore not a VP-V
XpostadY “X follows and modifies Y”, as in vpostadV “verb following
and modifying a verb”, e. g. shèn 甚 “intensely” in nù shèn 怒甚 ANGRY IN-
TENSE “be intensely angry” [NB: shèn 甚 “intensely”, unlike zuì 最 “most”,
can both precede and come after what it modifies and can thus belong to the
categories vadV as in shèn nù 甚怒 INTENSE ANGRY “be very angry” and
vpostadV.]
Xpost-Y “X follows after and is modified by Y”, as in npro.post-V
“pronoun following and modified by a V”, e. g. zhě 者 “he who” in shā rén
zhě 殺 者 KILL PERSON THE/SUBJECT/WHICH “he who kills oth-
ers” or npro.post-Npr Kǒngzǐ zhě 孔子者 CONFUCIUS THE/SUBJECT/
WHICH “He who is Confucius”, or npro.post-N shèng rén zhě 聖 者
SAGE PERSON THE/SUBJECT/WHICH “as for him who is a sage” [NB:
in Kǒngzǐ zhě 孔子者 “He who is Confucius” the preceding phrase Kǒngzǐ 孔
子 is nominal and predicative: “be Confucius”. Similarly, in shèng rén zhě
聖 者 the shèng rén 聖 is predicative: “be a sage”. So zhě 者 is every-
where glossable as “the subject which”, both when it is post-verbal (comes
after a verbal expression) and when it is post-nominal (comes after a nominal
expression).]
XoY “X is transitive and precedes Y as its object”, as in vtoN “tran-
sitive verb followed by its object”, e. g. shā 殺 “kill” in shā rén 殺 KILL
PERSON “have killed others”.
XpostoY “X is transitive and is preceded by its object”, as in vtpostoN
transitive verb preceded by its object”, e. g. yǒu “have > exist” in wèi zhī
yǒu 之 NEVER IT HAVE “it has never existed”. (I include this category
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in spite of the fact that one can probably do without it, because it illustrates
the logic of the present system.)
X=Y “X is in apposition to Y, i. e. X and Y have the same reference
(or in the verbal case: meanings) and are coordinated”, as in n=Npr, e. g. shī
Kuàng 師曠 MUSIC-MASTER KUANG “music master Kuàng”, and for
verbs we might say we have cases of v_1=v_2 whenever the distinction in
two conjoined verbs is neutralised, as probably in zūn guì zhī chén 貴之臣
HONOUR NOBLE GENITIVE/PART MINISTER “honoured and noble
ministers”. [NB: This relation is logically but not necessarily idiomatically
symmetrical: the order of the constituents may not in fact be free.]
Xpost=Y “X is in apposition with a preceding Y”, as in NPpost=npro,
e. g. yú yī rén 余一 I ONE PERSON “I, the one person > I, the emperor”.
X | Y “X is in alternative construction with a Y which it precedes”,
as in v_1 | v_2 shàn 善 in sī lǜ shàn fǒu 思慮善否 THINK PLAN GOOD
NOT “think about whether it is good or not”. [NB: This relation is logically
but not necessarily idiomatically symmetrical: the order of the constituents is
often not in fact free.]
Xpost | Y “X is in alternative construction with a Y which precedes it”,
as in v_1 post | v_2 fǒu 否 in in sī lǜ shàn fǒu 思慮善否 THINK PLAN
GOOD NOT “think about whether it is good or not”.
X&Y “X in addition to Y”, as in n_1&n_2, e. g. yīn yáng 陰陽 YIN
YANG “Yin and Yang”. [NB: This relation is logically but not necessarily idi-
omatically symmetrical: the order of the constituents is often not in fact free.]
Xpost&Y “X in addition to the preceding Y”, as in n_1post&n_2, e. g.
yīn yáng 陰陽 YIN YANG “Yin and Yang”.
Grammatical relations that belong to none of these standard categories are
designated as follows:
X+Y “X precedes and is in construction with Y”, as in vt+N “tran-
sitive verb in construction with a nominal (object)”, as in vt+N.+V wéi 唯
“only” in wéi shèng rén 唯聖 ONLY/SAGE PERSON “only a sage”. [NB:
This is not treated as a verb object relation because shèng rén 聖 SAGE
HUMAN “sage” does not function like an object replaceable by the object
pronoun zhī HER/IT/HIM 之.]
XpostY “X follows and is in construction with Y”, as in vpostV “verb
that follows and is in construction with a V”, e. g. sǐ 死 “die” in shā sǐ 殺死
KILL DIE “kill”. [NB: 1. This construction shā sǐ 殺死 KILL DIE “kill” is
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first attested in late classical Chinese, although it is current in modern Manda-
rin. 2. Furthermore: the precise relation between KILL and DIE is not speci-
fied — so far — in the system. In principle, the question of how many rela-
tions one designates by specific symbols is a matter of convenience, not of
theory. So far I have found it convenient to restrict the number of symbols as
much as possible.]
X@Y “X is a syntactic category to which the semantic category Y
applies”, as in vadN@fig, e. g. shēn zhǐ “profound meaning”, where
the literal meaning “deep” is taken in a derived figurative sense “deep > pro-
found” and this use of the word is classified as vadN@fig. Figurative usages
are then retrievable in the database by searching for the semantic category fig.
Numbering of constituents
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vadV (deverbal), e. g. shèn shàn 甚善 INTENSE GOOD “very good”
(cf. shèn 甚 “be intense”)
vpostadV (deverbal, postposed), e. g. nù shèn 怒甚 ANGRY INTENSE
“got very angry”
nadV (denominal), e. g. zhū rén lì 立 PIG HUMAN>LIKE/A/
HUMAN STAND “the pig stood upright like a human”
ppostadV (grammaticalised postposed), e. g. shàn zāi 善哉 GOOG
MODAL/PART “good!"
Thus TLS explicates what exactly it is for an expression to be adverbial:
it is to have the relation ad to a verbal expression.
Thus what traditional grammar regards as adverbs is systematically sub-
classified in TLS. TLS tries to make explicit make explicit what exactly it is
for an expression to function adverbially in any given context: it is have the
relation ad to a verbal expression.
What exactly the relation ad covers, semantically, will have to be ex-
plained in detail.
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Thus the category of numerals turns out to be no word class or syntactic
category at all. Number words may function variously as verbal, nominal,
“adnominal”, “adverbial” and so on. It is as absurd to speak of a word class
of numerals as it would be to speak of a word class of plants. (Try to make
a list of the syntactic functions of the English words “two, three, four, five”.
Comment on the contrasts between English and Chinese number!)
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retrievable implicit subjects. This solution is clearly wide open to debate and
is proposed here for discussion only.
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The label S, then, refers to verbal expressions (and occasionally expres-
sions with a predicative nominal head or grammaticalised exclamations)
which contain an explicit or an implicit subject, or which are feature-pla-
cing and therefore logically subjectless. So far I have found that whereas
many sentences in general are nominal, embedded sentences have a strong
tendency to be verbal so that wherever our formulae say S it would probab-
ly be strictly correct to replace this by VS for “verbal expression with an
explicit or implicit subject”). This area, like everything else, needs much
further study.
Reconstructed suffixes within syllables are analysed separately within the
context of the reconstruction systematic historical phonology.
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V(0)-p (marked verbal sentence with an implicit contextually retrie-
vable subject), e. g. zhōng yǐ 忠矣 LOYAL FINAL/PART “(He) put in a loyal
effort.”
V[0] (verbal sentence with a lexically retrievable implicit sub-
ject), e. g. nuò 諾 AGREE “[I] agree (to what is under discussion as pro-
posed) > Yes!” [NB: From a strictly analytic point of view all of the above
expressions have verbal heads and must therefore, strictly speaking, count as
VPs. They must count as VPs that function as sentences].
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other traditional and modern theoretical syntactic categories are analysed and
defined as subcategories of these three. (See Appendix to this paper.)
The syntactic categories of classical Chinese will be presented as a fairly
well-defined hierarchical conceptual taxonomy of which a basic preliminary
outline might look like this:
1. NOMINALS N
1.1 COUNT NOUNS nc
1.2 MASS NOUNS nm, nm@collective, etc.
1.3 ABSTRACT NOUNS nab
1.4 PRONOUNS npro
1.5 DE-NOMINAL ADJECTIVES nadN
1.6 DE-NOMINAL ADVERBS nadV
1.7 COMPLEX NOMINALS NP NPc, NPm, NPab, NPpro,
NPadN, NPadV, etc.
2. VERBALS V
2.1 INTRANSITIVE VERBS vi
2.2 TRANSITIVE VERBS vt
2.3 DITRANSITIVE VERBS vtt
2.4 SUBJECTLESS VERBS vi0, vi(0), vi[0], vt0, vt(0), vt[0],
vtt0, vtt(0), vtt[0] etc.
2.5 DE-VERBAL ADJECTIVES vadN
2.6 DE-VERBAL ADVERBS vadV
2.7 POST-VERBAL VERBALS vpostV
2.8 COMPLEX VERBALS VPi, VPi(0), VPi[0], VPt0, VPt(0),
VPvt[0], VPtt0, VPtt(0), VPtt[0] etc.
3. PARTICLES P
3.1 ADNOMINAL PARTICLES padN
3.2 ADSENTENTIAL PARTICLES padS
3.3 ADVERBIAL PARTICLES padV
3.4 POST-NOMINAL PARTICLES ppostN
3.5 POST-SENTENTIAL PARTICLES ppostS
3.6 POST-VERBAL PARTICLES ppostV
3.7 COMPLEX PARTICLE PHRASES PP, PPadN, PPadS, PPadV,
PPpostN, PPpostS, PPpostV
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Clavis syntactica
1. {Constituent} “functional unit in an expression”
NOTE 1: In tiān xià rén HEAVEN BELOW PERSON “the
people of the world”, for example, xià rén BELOW PERSON is not
taken to be a constituent and is not assigned any syntactic category.
Note 2: Intra-syllabic constituents such as what is currently recon-
structed as an old Chinese final -s in wàng 王 “rule as king/ruling as a king”
versus wáng 王 “king” are not considered as syntactic but as part of the mor-
phology of the language.
1.1. N Nominal constituent of any kind or complexity yì 義 “righteousness”
(more specifically: nab), Yáo 堯 “(Emperor) Yáo” (more specifically npr), gǔ
dài “antiquity” (more specifically NP), gǔ dài shèng rén 聖 “sages
of antiquity” (also an NP), shí Yáo 十堯 “ten (emperors) Yáo” (another NP) etc.
1.1.1. Monosyllabic nominal constituent n rén “person” which is
taken as a count noun (nc). Shuǐ 水 “water” is taken as a mass noun (nm), as
will be seen below. Be patient!
1.1.1.1. Predicative noun n{PRED} suī lín bù dú yě 雖鄰不 也
EVEN IF NEIGHBOUR NOT VISIT MODAL/PARTye “Even if they were
neighbours he would not visit them”.
1.1.1.2. Count noun nc (short: n) yǒu rén EXIST PERSON
“There was a person...” [NB: sān rén is “three persons” and not “three
kinds of persons”, whereas sì mín 四民 FOUR PEOPLE would be “four
kinds of people”].
1.1.1.2.1. nc.post-V{NUM} sān rén THREE PERSON “three per-
sons” *preceded and in construction with a number verbal* [NB: Note that
numbers are taken to be verbal, as shown in our systematic account of nume-
rals. The syntactic category of count nouns nc that are not only countable but
actually found to be actually counted may not seem to be an interesting one.
However, it is found convenient as a place to register the ethnography of actual
counting practice in ancient China. What determines the introduction of this
category is not its intrinsic grammatical importance, but rather our philological
interest in understanding and — for this purpose — our interest in systemati-
cally registering ancient Chinese counting practice. It is important to keep in
mind that some of the categories below are established for reasons other than
purely grammatical or even purely linguistic. The kind of linguistics presented
here aims to serve philology in a broader than purely linguistic sense.]
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individual items. Our categories are not taken to apply to words as such.
They apply to the words under given interpretations.]
1.1.1.3.1. nm{PRED} predicative mass noun xiǎo rén zhī dé cǎo 小
之德 SMALL PERSON ‘S VIRTUE GRASS “The virtue of the small man
is (like) grass.” (LY)
1.1.1.3.2. nm.post-V{NUM} shì nóng gōng shāng sì mín 士農 商四
民者 OFFICIAL PEASANT CRAFTSMAN TRADER FOUR PEOPLE
“officials, peasants, craftsmen, and tradesmen, these four kinds of people/
citizens”, sān jiǔ 酒 THREE WINE “three kinds of wine” (周禮) *in con-
struction with preceding number verbal* [NB: mín 民 “people” is almost al-
ways what we call a collective mass noun in TLS, unlike jiǔ 酒 “wine” which
is always what might be called a “stuff mass noun”. But this subclassification
has not so far been implemented in any systematic way. This category allows
us to register counted mass nouns.]
1.1.1.3.3. nmadN jīn rén 金 METAL PERSON “human figure made
of metal > metal statue” *modifying a nominal* [NB incidentally: Those
metal statues exhibited by the first emperor of China were said to have
weighed between 61 and 87 tons, were said to have stood 16.5 meters high,
the feet being 1,98 meters long...]
1.1.1.3.4. nmadV shuǐ xíng 水 WATER TRAVEL “travel on water”.
Compare also the structurally similar but semantically different shuǐ liú ér bù
zhǐ 水流而不 WATER FLOW AND NOT STOP “(The Way) flows like
water and does not stop.” *modifying a verbal* [NB: shuǐ liú 水流 WATER
FLOW would, of course, often mean “the water flows”, but not in the context
of this quotation where the subject is clearly and explicitly the Way. We note
in passing that the interpretation of shuǐ xíng 水 as “travel by river” would
count simply as nadV.]
1.1.1.3.5. nm.post-V huáng jīn 金 BRELLOW METAL “brellow
metal > gold”. [NB: The word huáng means neither yellow nor brown. It re-
fers to what yellow and brown have in common. Hence the unusual translation
BRELLOW which tries to alert the reader to this fact.] *subclassified stuff*
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1.1.1.10. Postnominal noun npostN
1.1.1.10.1. npost-N táng shàng 堂 HALL ABOVE “in the hall”
*modified by preceding nominal*
1.1.1.10.1.1. n(post-N) zài qián 在前 BE/IN FRONT “be in front (of it)”
*modifying implicit noun contextually retrievable because only the context
will tell us what this is in front of* [NB: One must note that qián 前 “front” is
always understood as the front of something understood from context, never
from the dictionary as such.]
1.1.1.10.1.2. n[post-N] shāng shēn 傷 HARM BODY “injure
[self’s > one’s own] person> get oneself injured’ *implicit modifying noun
(i.e. SELF) for shēn lexically retrievable*
1.1.1.10.1.3. npostadN máo ér 貓兒 CAT SUFF “cat (NOT: kitten)”, tú
ér 屠兒 BUTCHER SUFF “butcher” *modifying a preceding noun (in this
case a pronoun)* [NB: Almost all such “suffixes” seem to be post-Bud-
dhist in origin.]
1.1.1.10.1.4. npost=Npr Huán gōng 桓 HUAN DUKE “Duke Huán”
(who was NOT a Duke, actually...) *in “apposition”-coordination with a
noun that precedes*
1.1.1.10.2. n[post=npro] sǒu 叟 OLD/MAN “[You,] venerable old man”
1.1.1.10.2.1. n[post-npro_1.][post=npro_2] jūn 君 RULER “[You,]
[my] ruler > your highness, you”
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pronouns accessibility to or limitation to subject versus object position may
be worth registering. If one wants to register the object position, this is how
it would be done.]
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1.1.2.12. Postverbal NPs NPpostV
1.1.2.12.1. NPpostVt tiān gōu-hè 填溝壑 FILL CANAL-STREAM “fill
the canals and ditches” *specialised on object position after transitive verb*
1.1.2.12.1.1. NPpostVtt.+V[0] shǐ xià-chén gào jí 使 臣告急 SEND
LOW-MINISTER > ME REPORT URGENT>DISTRESS “sent my hum-
ble self to report the distress” *specialised on “pivotal” position* [NB: The
Np xià chén 臣 is an NP@pro and the present subcategory is going to be
categorised as NPpostVtt.+V[0]@pro in TLS, because the function of the
expression is pronominal also in pivotal position. This pivotal category is
interesting only if one is concerned with the question which nominal expres-
sions can be found to function as pivots.]
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1.1.2.13. NPs in apposition with preceding implicit nominals in ap-
position NP[post=N]
1.1.2.13.1. NP[post=npro_2] gōng zǐ 子 DUKE-SON “[You,]
a duke’s son > you, the prince, your princely highness” *the apposition be-
ing with an implicit lexically determined second person pronoun*
1.1.2.13.1.1. NP[post-npro_1.][post=npro_2] dà jūn 大君 GREAT
RULER “[You,][my] great lord > Your Great Highness” *the NP being
modified by an implicit lexically determined second person pronoun*
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you, mother” *the relation to the preceding N being one of postmodification*
[NB: one might read this as “the money I have received from you, mother, is
a lot” in which case MUCH is simply vi.]
1.2.1.4.2.1. vpost-V.postadN dé bìng jí zhòng 病極 GET DIS-
EASE EXTREME HEAVY “got a disease which was extremely serious”
*the postmodifying v being itself adverbially modified* [NB: Note the con-
trast with pivotal constructions. What we have here is one of the many cases
of unmarked postposed relative clauses in Chinese.]
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1.2.1.8.3. transitive verbs with unpronominalisable complement ob-
jects vt+N jūn zhī suǒ wèi cháng shí wéi rén ròu ér 君之所 嘗 唯 肉
耳 RULER > YOU GENITIVE/PART THE/OBJECT/WHICH/PRO NOT/
YET TRY EAT BE/ONLY PERSON FLESH MODAL/PART “As for what
you have never eaten, that is only human flesh> The only thing you have
never eaten is human flesh.” [NB: Wéi 唯 is treated as a copula here, and
the copula in turn is interpreted as a transitive verb with an unpronominali-
sable “predicative” object. (We cannot say wéi zhī 唯之 “be only it”.) The
relation + after a transitive verb remains problematic, but it conveniently
assembles “fishy” objects that do not seem to invite pronominalisation with
zhī 之.]
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TIVE; NOT ABLE ALSO ATTRACTIVE “The gentleman is attractive when
he can (do things), and he is also attractive when he cannot do things.” *the
implicit verbal objects being lexically retrievable* [NB: Hǎo 好 never means
“good” in classical Chinese.]
1.2.1.10. Ditransitive verbs, i. e. verbs with two objects vttoN1.+N2
cì zhī mǎ 賜之馬 GIVE OBJECT/PRO HORSE “gave him a horse”
1.2.1.10.1. vtt(oN1.)-vtoN2 ràng yǐ tiān xià YIELD USE
HEAVEN UNDER “yield the empire (to him)” *implicit contextually retrie-
vable second object, and direct object given introduced by coverbal phrase*
1.2.1.10.1.1. vtt(oN1.)postvt(oN2{OBJ}) yǐ gào 告 USE TELL
“tell (him) about (it)” *object in the coverbal phrase also implicit and retrie-
vable from context*
1.2.1.10.2. vtt(oN1).oN2 sòng mǎ 馬 SEND HORSE “send (him)
a horse” *contextually retrievable implicit indirect object*
1.2.1.10.2.0.1. vtt(oN1).+N2:-V[0] jiè rén chéng zhī 借 乘之LEND
PERSON > OTHERS RIDE OBJECT/PRO “lend (it) out to others to ride”
1.2.1.10.2.0.2. vtt(oN1.)(+N2) sòng GIVE “give (it) (to the contextu-
ally determinate person)” *also contextually retrievable indirect object*
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1.2.1.13. Bisyllabic-morpheme verbs (the constituent parts having no
independent meaning as used on their own) vvi kǒng què dōng nán fēi wǔ lǐ
yī pái-huái 孔雀東南飛五 一 PEACOCK EAST SOUTH FLY, FIVE
LEAGUE ONE>ONCE HESITATE-HESITATE' “South-east fly the pea-
cocks, every five leagues they waver.”
1.2.2. {VP...} Plurisyllabic verbal constituent
1.2.2.1. Adnominal VPs VPadN bù-gū rén 不辜 NOT GUILTY
PERSON “innocent person”
1.2.2.1.1. VP[adN] xián-liáng suì jìn ér jiān-xié bìng tuì 良遂進
而姦邪并 TALENTED EXCELLENT THEN PROCEED AND WICKED
EVIL TOGETHER WITHDRAW “the talented and excellent will then go
forwards and the wicked and evil will withdraw” *Omitted head of the VP
retrievable from lexicon*
1.2.2.1.1.1. VP[adN.]postVt shā bù-gū 殺不辜 KILL NOT-GUILTY
“kill innocent [people]” *specialised on object position after a transitive verb*
[NB: it seems hard to find this expression used in subject position. 待考].
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1.2.2.5. Transitive VPs {VPt...}
1.2.2.5.1. VPtoN shā-sǐ rén 殺死 KILL DEAD PERSON “kill
others” *with explicit nominal object* [NB: This is a late colloquial exam-
ple! But we have passive cases in classical Chinese: 世殺死 TWO EM-
PEROR KILL-DIE “The second emperor was killed.”]
1.2.2.5.1.1. VPt[0]oN qǐng-wèn kè 請問 BEG ASK STRANGER
“May [I] ask about the stranger?” *VPt has an implicit lexically retrievable
subject*
1.2.2.5.1.1.1. VPt[0]oNab gǎn wèn qí fāng 問 方 BEG ASK
PRO/GENETIVE > THE METHOD "[I] venture to ask about the method."
*the object N is abstract* [NB: The only reason why we introduce this is that
we happen to have a cognitive interest in abstract questions and problemati-
sation in general. Obviously, questions can also be asked in classical Chinese
concerning concrete objects.]
1.2.2.5.1.1.2. VPt[0](oN) jìng-nuò 敬諾 RESPECT-AGREE “[I] re-
spectfully agree (with the contextually determinate point made).” *the im-
plicit object is contextually retrievable* [NB: Contrast the much more com-
mon VPt[0](oV) use of this expression in the sense of “[I] hereby agree
respectfully (to do what is suggested in the context)”. What is so striking
about this example is that the omission of the object is actually obligatory,
although semantically the retrieval of these objects is essential to an under-
standing of what is being said.]
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1.2.2.5.3. Complex transitive verbs with verbal object-complements
VPt+V_1.adV_2 fēi-tú wēi jǐ yě, yòu qiě wēi fù yě 非徒危 也,又且危
父也 NOT/BE ONLY DANGER>ENDANGER SELF AGAIN-MORE-
OVER ENDANGER FATHER “You not only endanger yourself, you also
endanger your father.” *Note that fēi 非, construed as the main constituent in
fēi tú 非徒, must count as a verb, and that yòu-qiě 又且 MOREOVER would
be PPadV_1.postadV_2*
1.2.2.5.3.1. VPt+V[0] kě-yǐ shí CAN-SO/AS EAT “can eat”;
also, involving idiomatic neg-raising: bù-yù zhàn 不欲戰 NOT WISH BAT-
TLE “be disinclined to (= 欲不) give battle” *with a verbal object in the form
of a verbal expression with a lexically retrievable implicit subject*
1.2.2.5.3.1.1. VPt0+V[0] zhǔ rén bù-yòng cōng cōng qù 主 不用匆
匆去 RULER PERSON NOT USE > USEFUL HURRY HURRY LEAVE
“There is no need for you, the host, to leave in such a hurry!” [NB: The
“user” here does not seem to be the host, except if we were to read 用 as
“have no use for V-ing”, which does not quite sound right. But the construc-
tion remains open for discussion. The present formula is not any argument:
it just explicates one particular reading of the construction, thus opening this
reading up to critical examination.]
1.2.2.5.3.1.1.1. VPt[0]+V[0] bù-rú wú shì 不如無 NOT RESEME-
BLE > EQUAL LACK TASK “[One] should preferably [omitted subject
identical with the subject of the main verb] be inactive.” *VPt has a lexically
retrievable implicit subject*
1.2.2.5.3.1.1.1.1. VPt[0](+V[0]) jìng nuò 敬諾 RESPECT AGREE
“[I] respectfully promise (to V, as suggested in the context)” *with a con-
textually retrievable verbal complement with its lexically retrievable implicit
subject* [NB: Here as often, the formula is more readable than its explana-
tion]
1.2.2.5.3.1.1.1.2. VPt[0]+V[0'] wéi yuàn shuō zhī 願說之 ONLY-
HOPE EXPLAIN OBJECT/PRO “[We] very much hope that [you] will
expound it.” *the two lexically retrievable subjects not identical* [Note that
in this case we seem to have two lexicalised typical possibilities, distinct but
close.]
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1.2.2.6.4. Ditransitive complex verbal expressions with one preposi-
tional object VPttoN1.+prep+N2 xuān-yán zhī yú cháo tíng 言之於朝
廷 PUBLISH-SPEAK OBJECT/PRO IN-RELATION-TO COURT-HALL
“spread word about it to the court”
1.2.2.6.4.1. VPtt+prep+N1.postVtoN2 yòng shì xiǎo dēng gōng-yǎng
yú fó 用是小燈供養於 USE THIS SMALL LAMP OFFER-NOURISH
IN-RELATION-TO BUDDHA “offer this small lamp in worship to the Bud-
dha” *N2 object introduced as object of subordinate transitive verb*
1.2.2.6.4.2. VPtt(oN1.)+prep+N2 fèng-shàng yú wáng 奉 于王
HAND/UP-UPSIDE IN-RELATION-TO KING “handed (it) up to the
king” *contextually retrievable implicit object N1*
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1.3.1.5. Postsentential particles ppostS
1.3.1.5.1. ppostadS mǎ bù jìn yě 馬不進也 HORSE NOT PROCEED
MODAL/PART “It was that the horse would not proceed.”
1.3.1.5.1.1. ppostadS1.adS2 wén yú zhū hóu yě zé... 聞於諸侯也
則… HEAR FROM VARIOUS FEUDAL/LORD MODAL/PART THEN...
“When this comes to the attention of the feudal lords, then..."
1.3.1.6. Postverbal particles ppostV
1.3.1.6.1. ppostadV Guǎn Zhòng zhī qì xiǎo zāi 管仲之器小哉
GUANZHONG GENITIVE/PART INSTRUMENT > QUALIFICATIONS
SMALL EMPHATIC/PART “Guǎnzhòng's format/professional compe-
tence is so small!”
1.3.1.6.1.1. ppostadV(0) shàn zāi 善哉 GOOD EMPHATIC/PART
“Good!”
1.3.1.6.1.2. ppostadV.+N{SUBJ} shàn zāi wèn hū 善哉問乎 GOOD
EMPHATIC/PART ASK EXCLAMATORY/PART “It is good, this question!”
1.3.1.6.1.2.1. ppostadV_1.adV_2 yǔ qí shē yě nìng jiǎn 奢也 儉
WITH > INSTEAD/OF GENITIVE/PART EXTRAVAGANT MODAL/PART
RATHER FRUGAL “rather than being extravagant it is better to be frugal”
1.3.1.6.1.3. ppostadV.adN chī cǎo di hàn 底漢 EAT GRASS GEN-
ITIVE/PART FELLOW “a grass-eating fellow” [First attested in Middle Chi-
nese. Contrast similar but categorially different npropostadV.adN zhī 之]
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1.3.1.7. Complex Particles {PP...}
1.3.1.7.1. PP{PRED} wū-hū 嗚 “Alas!”
1.3.1.8. Adnominal PPs PPadN
1.3.1.8.1. PPadN.adV suī-wēi Chǔ guó zhū hóu mò bù yù 雖 楚
國諸侯莫不譽 EVEN/IF LACK CHU STATE THE/VARIOUS FEUDAL/
LORDS NONE NOT PRAISE “Even without Chǔ the feudal lords every-
one would praise (him).”
1.3.1.8.2. PPadN.postS ...kuàng-fù yú shì ...況復餘 HOW/MUCH/
MORE AGAIN SURPLUS MATTER “…, how much less the other tasks?”
1.3.1.9. Adsentential PPs PPadS yóu shàng yǒu Guǎn shū Cài shū zhī
shì 猶尚 管叔 蔡叔之 STILL-NONETHELESS EXIST GUANSHU
CAISHU GENITIVE/PRO MATTER “Nonetheless there is the matter of Guǎn
shū and of Cài shū” [NB: The case of Yóu shàng 猶尚 “Nonetheless” which
can be taken to open a new sentence contrasting to a preceding sentence differs
significantly from rán hòu 然 “only then” and ruò gǒu 苟 “if really” which
in each case must be taken to form part of one single complex sentence.]
1.3.1.9.1. PPadS1.adS2 ruò-gǒu xián zhě bù zhì … 苟 者不至…
IF-IF/REALLY TALENT SUBJECT/WHICH/PRO NOT ARRIVE … “If
the men of talent do not arrive ...”
1.3.1.9.2. PPadS1.post-S2 Jì Wénzǐ sān sī ér hòu xíng 季文子
思而 JI WENZI THREE REFLECT AND AFTERWARDS ACT “Jì
Wénzǐ reflected three times on things and only then (he) acted.”, nán nǚ wú
bié, fǎn yú qín shòu, rán-zé lǐ yì lián chǐ bù lì 男女無 ,反於 獸,然
則禮義廉 不立 MALE FEMALE LACK DIFFER RETURN IN-RELA-
TION-TO BIRDS BEASTS BE/SO-THEN RITUAL RECTITUDE PROBI-
TY SHAME NOT ESTABLISH “Men and women were not kept apart, they
returned to the state of brutes, and thus propriety, rectitude, purity and the
sense of shame were not established.”
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1.3.1.11. Postnominal PPs PPpostN
1.3.1.11.1. PPpost-N.+S wù yě-zhě suǒ yǐ yǎng xìng yě 物也者所
養性也 THING MODAL/PART SUBJECT/WHICH/PRO OBJECT/OF/
FOLLOWING/VT/WHICH/PRO USE NOURISH NATURE “As for things
in general they are that with which one nurtures one’s nature.”
1.3.1.11.1.1. PPpost-Npr.+S Tāng Wǔ yě-zhě 湯武也者 … TANG WU
MODAL/PART SUBJECT/WHICH/PRO ...“As for T ng and Wǔ, ...”
[NB: this is one of the cases where the PP is probably not even a constituent.
待考]
1.3.1.11.1.2. PPpost-Nab{NOMINALISED TOPIC}.+S bù shòu yě-
zhě shì yì ... 不 也者是亦... NOT ACCEPT MODAL/PART SUBJECT/
WHICH/PRO “As for the fact that he did not accept it, this was surely...”
1.3.1.12. Postsentential PPs PPpostS
1.3.1.12.1. PPpostadS jì zhě jiào zhī běn yě-yǐ 祭者教之 也
SACRIFICE SUBJECT/WHICH/PRO TREACH GENITIVE/PRO BASIS
MODAL/PART STOP>MODAL PARTICLE “Sacrifice is definitely the
basis of instruction.” [NB: The case of the final particle yǐ is notoriously
difficult because there is no doubt that its function as non-negatable particle
is deverbal, the modal meaning “definitely” of the final particle yǐ clearly
deriving from the verbal meaning “to finish”. In the common formula ér yǐ
而 “and that finishes it” yǐ does not count as a particle at all: yǐ “fin-
ishes it” is verbal and negatable.]
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By limiting the analysis to these categories, syntactic features and syn-
tactic relations, the CLAVIS presents basic features of grammatical analysis,
but it omits the crucial area of co-reference and anaphora between often non-
adjacent and non-explicit (understood) constituents as well as important mat-
ters of scope. The present appendix presents basic patterns of co-reference
and of what I call “scope” in classical Chinese syntactic structure. Such pat-
terns must be understood if one is to construe the semantics of classical Chi-
nese sentences correctly. The underlying principles of anaphora and of scope
are a central part of classical Chinese grammar.
Cataphoric co-reference will be written with subscript “>i, >x, >s” wú wén
zhī yuē. 吾聞之>s曰:[...]-s i hear it say: ... “I have heard it said: “...” Buddhist
Chinese: rú shì wú wén 如是>s吾聞 like this i hear “I have learns as follows...”
Incorporated anaphora will be written out with bracketing of the index
“-(n), -(m)”. cì zhū rén 賜諸-(n) give it-to other “gave it to someone else”
Verb-reflexivising double subject-object-anaphora is written with sub-
scripts “-nn, -mm” fú zǐ zì dào yě [ 子] -n自-nn 也 master self speak judge/ye
“You Master, yourself-n speak-of yourself-n” SJ 30.98
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Co-referent X-n versus X-[n’], or X-sversus scope X-[s’]
For a word like yì 亦-(n) “(like-this)-wise > also” which has incorporated
reference to an X-n one must distinguish between the co-referent to which yì
亦-(n) makes anaphoric co-reference X-n and the scope which yì 亦-(n) governs
or refers back to, which is written as X-[n’]. An example will make clear how
this is supposed to work:
舜-n 也, -[n’]亦-(n) 也
Shùn rén yě, wǒ yì rén yě
shun man judge/ye ego like-this-wise man judge/ye
Shùn-n is a person. (But) I-[n’] am also-(n) a person.”
Shùn is the point of comparison yì 亦 “also” refers back to, and wǒ is
what is being compared or contrasted to that point of comparison.
Scope relations can coexist with anaphoric relations:
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Here is a tricky case of anaphoric relations across various predicative
expressions:
Occasionally one wants to say that anaphoric correlations obtain between
omitted constituents and between constituents of different syntactic types.
We must take rén “is a man” predicatively like 不能言 “is incapable
of speaking”.
NOTE:
Implicit lexicalised deictic/indexical reference may be marked with
square brackets in the subscript
“X-[i]”, as in lái 來-[i] ARRIVE “arrive [at this place]”, qù 去-[i] LEAVE
“leave [this place]”.
In the standard syntactic notation of TLS these verbs would be interpreted
as transitive verbs with a lexically determinate implicit object, i. e. vt[oN].
But the important point is that the lexicalised reference is deictic and not
anaphoric.
A detailed grasp of the grammatical conventions of anaphora, co-refer-
ence, and scope in classical Chinese are essential for the interpretation of the
texts. Since they are not covered by any analysis of syntactic categories with
their adjacent relations they need detailed separate treatment.
Further Reading:
梅 , 漢語語法, 民,2015.
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Сергей вгеньевич Яхонтов
Saint petersburg State university
Problems in Chinese
and General linGuistiCs
Saint petersburg
2016
-
Пр ы т С г
щ г Я ы Я
К 90-летию С. Е. Яхонтова
-
2016
81(5 )
811.581
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ISBN 978-5-901724-27-9 © , 2016