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7-3 Maser Physics

Charles Townes helped develop the theory and application of the maser in the 1950s. A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through stimulated emission. The first maser was built in 1953 at Columbia University and used ammonia molecules energized to around 1 K to produce microwave amplification at 23.786 GHz. Townes shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. The document then discusses properties of the ammonia maser including its energy levels and how applying an electric field can cause a small energy splitting between the symmetric and antisymmetric states, enabling population inversion and microwave amplification.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
42 views43 pages

7-3 Maser Physics

Charles Townes helped develop the theory and application of the maser in the 1950s. A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through stimulated emission. The first maser was built in 1953 at Columbia University and used ammonia molecules energized to around 1 K to produce microwave amplification at 23.786 GHz. Townes shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. The document then discusses properties of the ammonia maser including its energy levels and how applying an electric field can cause a small energy splitting between the symmetric and antisymmetric states, enabling population inversion and microwave amplification.

Uploaded by

Mohammad Shahid
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Ammonia Maser

Masatsugu Sei Suzuki


Department of Physics, SUNY at Binghamton
(Date: November 08, 2020)

________________________________________________________________________
Charles Hard Townes (born July 28, 1915) is an American Nobel Prize-winning physicist and
educator. Townes is known for his work on the theory and application of the maser, on which he
got the fundamental patent, and other work in quantum electronics connected with both maser and
laser devices. He shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 with Nikolay Basov and Alexander
Prokhorov.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hard_Townes

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg

1. Introduction

MASER: Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

“The maser was originally conceived in 1951 by Townes, who noted his thoughts on the back of
an envelope during a period of contemplation on a bench in Franklin Park, Washington, DC. The
device was realized experimentally by Gordon, Zeiger, and Townes (1954).”

C.H. Townes, How the Laser Happened Adventures of a Scientist (Oxford University Press, 1999).

A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification due
to stimulated emission. Historically the term came from the acronym "microwave amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation", although modern masers emit over a broad portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This has led some to replace "microwave" with "molecular" in the
acronym, as suggested by Townes. When optical coherent oscillators were first developed, they
were called optical masers, but it has become more common to refer to these as lasers.

1
Theoretically, reflecting principles previously discussed by Joseph Weber at the June 1952
conference of the Institute of Radio Engineers, the principle of the maser was described by Nikolay
Basov and Alexander Prokhorov from Lebedev Institute of Physics at an All-Union Conference
on Radio-Spectroscopy held by USSR Academy of Sciences in May 1952. They subsequently
published their results in October 1954. Independently, Charles H. Townes, J. P. Gordon, and H.
J. Zeiger built the first maser at Columbia University in 1953. The device used stimulated emission
in a stream of energized ammonia molecules to produce amplification of microwaves at a
frequency of 23.786 GHz. Townes later worked with Arthur L. Schawlow to describe the principle
of the optical maser, or laser, which Theodore H. Maiman first demonstrated in 1960. For their
research in this field Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1964.

((Note))
Properties of NH3 maser

(i) The microwave frequency:

ℏ0  2 A
f0 = 23.786 GHz

(ii) The energy:

2 A  ℏ(2f 0 )  0.098371 meV

(iii) The equivalent temperature: T = 1.14155 K.


(iv) The wavelength:   1.26037 cm

2. The state of NH3 molecule

2
N

H : electric
H dipole
H moment 1 when the nitrogen is up.

 H
H
H

N 2 when the nitrogen is down.

We consider the parity operator ˆ , such that

ˆ 1  2 ˆ 2  1 .

Therefore the kets 1 and 2 are not the eigenkets of ˆ . Since

 0 1
ˆ     ˆ x ,
 1 0

ˆ is regarded as the Pauli matrix ̂ x . The eigenkets of ̂ x are  x .

ˆ x  x    x ,

with

1
 x  s  ( 1  2 ); symmetric state.
2

1
 x  a  (1  2 ); antisymmetric state
2

These two states are the eigenkets of ˆ . We now consider the Hamiltonain Ĥ . The symmetry of
two physical configuration suggests that

1 Hˆ 1  2 Hˆ 2  E0 .

3
What about the off-diagonal elements? The vanishing of 2 Hˆ 1 would mean that a molecule
initially in the state 1 would remain in that state. If 2 Hˆ 1  0 , there is a small amplitude for
the system to mix between the two states.

2 Hˆ 1   A ,

 E0  A 
Hˆ     E 0 1̂  Aˆ x .
  A E 0 

under the basis of 1 and 2 . This Hamiltonian commutates with the parity operator: [ Hˆ , ˆ ]  0̂
since

[ Hˆ , ˆ ]  [ E 0 1̂  Aˆ x , ˆ x ]  0 .

((Eigenvalue problem))

Hˆ  x  ( E01̂  Aˆ x )  x  ( E0 ∓ A  x ,

where

ˆ x  x    x .

»fa >
E a = E0 + A

»1>,»2>
E0 2A=Ñw0

E s= E 0 - A
»fs>

Fig. The splitting of the energy level due to the perturbation A.

3. Application of non-homogeneous static electric field

4
N 
H
H
 H
electric H
field H : electric
H dipole N
moment
energy =  energy = -

When the electric filed is applied along the x axis (the axis of the electric dipole moment), the
Hamiltonian is changed into

E0    A 
Hˆ  
 A   E01ˆ   
ˆ z  A
ˆx.
 E0   


under the basis of 1 and 2 . The new Hamiltonian Ĥ does not commutate with the parity
operator ˆ (=ˆ x ) ;

[ Hˆ , ˆ ]  [ Hˆ , ˆ x ]   0 [ˆ z , ˆ x ]  i  0ˆ y .

We have

A 
Hˆ  E01̂  (  ) 2  A2 (  ˆ x  ˆ z ) .
(  )  A
2 2
(  )2  A2

5
A 
n  ( , 0, ),
(  )2  A2 (  ) 2  A2

Hˆ  E01̂  (  ) 2  A2 ˆ  n ,

(ˆ  n)  n    n ,

where

 
 n  cos 1  sin 2 ,
2 2

and

 
 n   sin 1  cos 2 ,
2 2

where

A 
sin    cos  .
(  )  A 2 2
(  ) 2  A2

Thus, we have

Hˆ  n  ( E0  (  ) 2  A2 )  n ,

E0 + A2 + H meL2
»fa > E a = E0 + A

»1>, »2>
E0 2A=Ñ w0

»fs> Es = E 0 - A
E0 - A2 + H meL2

A HperturbationL e Helectric fieldL

In a weak electric field, using the Taylor expansion, we have

6
 2 2  2 2
Es  E0  A 1   E0  A   ...
A2 2A

 2 2  2 2
Ea  E0  A 1   E0  A   ...
A2 2A

x
s
NH3 2

a

Let us consider NH3 in a region where  is weak but where 2 has a strong gradient in the x-
direction (i.e., along the axis of molecules).

d 2
( )   .
dx

The molecules in the state s are subjected to a force parallel to the x axis:

dE s 1  2
Fs     .
dx 2 A

Similarly, the molecules in the state a are subjected to an opposite force:

dE a 1 2
Fa     .
dx 2 A

This is the basis of the method which is used in the ammonia maser to sort the molecules and
select those in the higher energy state.
We note that just before entering the maser cavity, the states are {  s , a } since there is no
non-homogeneous external electric field.

7
Maser cavity (frequency  0 )
s
all
2 electric field s
a
NH3

vT

Fig. Diagram of NH3 maser. Molecules produced by oven are collimated, screened into state
a (higher energy state) [focusing field], and passed through maser cavity. They give up
their energy to the electric field in accordance with the Rabi flopping formula. No pumping
is necessary, unlike lasers.

Fig. (C. Townes, Nobel lecture 1964). The ammonia (beam-type) maser. Molecules diffuse
from the source into a focuser where the excited molecules (open circles) are focused into
a cavity and molecules in the ground state (solid circles) are rejected. A sufficient number
of excited molecules will initiate an oscillating electromagnetic field in the cavity, which
is emitted as the output microwaves. Because of energy given to the field, some molecules
return to the ground state toward the end of their transit through the cavity.

((Charles H. Townes))
Charles H. Townes, How the Laser Happened: Adventures of a Scientist (Oxford,
1999).p.57

8
On that morning in Franklin Park, the goal of boosting energy gave me an incentive to think
more deeply about stimulated emission than I had before. How could one get such a
nonequilibrium set up? Answers were actually well known; they had been in front of me and the
physics community for decades. Rabi, right at Columbia, had been working with molecular and
atomic beams (streams of gases) that he manipulated by deflecting atoms in excited states from
those of lower energies. The result could be a beam enriched in excited atoms. At Harvard, Ed
Purcell and Norman Ramsey had proposed a conceptual name to describe systems with such
inverted populations; they had coined the term “negative temperature,” to contrast with the positive
temperatures, because these “negative” temperatures inverted the relative excess of lower-level
over upper-level states in equilibrated systems. It is perhaps a hackneyed device among dramatists
to have a scientist scribble his thinking on the back of an envelope, but that is what I did. I took an
envelope from my pocket to try to figure out how many molecules it would take to make an
oscillator able to produce and amplify millimeter or submillimeter waves. All the required numbers
about my friend, the ammonia molecule, were in my head. Ammonia appeared to be the most
favorable medium. I quickly showed that we still needed a resonator, but now we would not have
to pump electromagnetic energy into it. We could merely send a stream, or beam, of excited
molecules through it, which would do the work! Any resonator has losses, so we would need a
certain threshold number of molecules in the flow to keep the wave from dying out. Beyond that
threshold, a wave would not only sustain itself bouncing back and forth, but it would gain energy
with each pass. The power would be limited only by the rate at which molecules carried energy
into the cavity.

3. Change of basis
In the ammonia maser, the beam with molecules in the state a and with the higher energy
is sent through a resonant cavity. Here we note that

1  1 ˆ
s   x    U 1 , for (E0 - A)
2  1

1  1  ˆ
a   x    U 2 for (E0+ A)
2  1

where the unitary operator is defined by

1 1 1  1 1 1 
Û   , Uˆ   Uˆ 1   .
2  1  1 2 1  1

We now consider the system inside the maser cavity. The Hamiltonian Ĥ is given by

9
 E0   (t ) A 
Hˆ (t )    under the basis of 1 and 2 .
 A E0   (t ) 

in the presence of a time-dependent electric field (t) inside the maser cavity. We assume that

 (t )  c1 (t ) 1  c2 (t ) 2  ca (t ) a  cs (t ) s

where

ai  { s , a } , bi  { 1 , 2 } .

s  Uˆ 1 , for (E0 - A).

a  Uˆ 2 , for (E0+ A).

(a) The matrix element (I):

ai    ai b j b j 
j

  bi Uˆ  b j b j 
j

 s   1  1 1   1  
    
 a   2  1 1  2  

or

 Cs (t )  1 1 1   C1 (t ) 
    
 Ca (t )  2 1 1 C2 (t ) 

(b) The matrix element (II):

bi    bi a j a j 
j

  bi Uˆ b j a j 
j

 1   1  1 1   s  
    
 2  2  1 1  a  

10
or

 C1 (t )  1 1 1   Cs (t ) 
    
 C2 (t )  2 1 1  Ca (t ) 

(c) Schrödinger equation

The Schrödinger equation is given by


iℏ  (t )  Hˆ  (t ) ,
t

or


iℏ ai  (t )  ai Hˆ  (t )
t
  a Hˆ ai j a j  (t )
j

or


iℏ bi  (t )  bi Hˆ  (t )
t
  b Hˆ b
i j b j  (t )
j

Note that

ai Hˆ a j  bi Uˆ  HU
ˆ ˆ b
j

and

ˆ ˆ b  1 1 1   E0   (t )
bi Uˆ  HU
A  1 1 1 

j 1 1 A E0   (t )  2 1 1
2 
 E  A  (t ) 
 0 
  (t ) E0  A 

Thus we have

  c1 (t )   E0   (t ) A   c1 (t ) 
iℏ    . under the basis bi  { 1 , 2 }
t  c2 (t )   A E0   (t )   c2 (t ) 

11
and

d  cs (t )   E0  A  (t )   cs (t ) 
iℏ     under the basis ai  { s , a }
dt  ca (t )    (t ) E0  A   ca (t ) 

Thanks to our choice of the basis ai  { s , a } , when  (t )  0 ,

d  cs (t )   E0  A 0   cs (t ) 
iℏ    
dt  ca (t )   0 E0  A   ca (t ) 

or
i ( E0  A ) t i ( E0  A ) t
 
cs (t )   s e ℏ
, ca (t )   a e ℏ
.

where  s and  a are constants.


________________________________________________________________________
((Mathematica))

1 1 1
Clear "Global` " ; U1 ; UR Inverse U1 ;
2 1 1
E0 A
H1 ; f1 UR.H1.U1 Simplify;
A E0
f1 MatrixForm

A E0
A E0

_________________________________________________________________________
When  (t )  0 , first we write

i ( E0  A)t

cs (t )   s (t )e ℏ
,

i ( E 0  A) t

ca (t )   a (t )e ℏ
,

We obtain a system of coupled differential equations, showing that the electric field (actually
polarization vector associated with induced photon) induces transition between the states
{ s , a } .

12
d s (t )
iℏ   (t )e i0t  a (t ) ,
dt

d a (t)
iℏ   (t)e i0 t  s (t),
dt

where

Ea  E s  ℏ0  2 A ,

with

Ea  E0  A , Es  E0  A ,

»fa >
E a = E0 + A

»1>,»2>
E0 2A=Ñw0

E s= E 0 - A
»fs>

We consider the case:

 (t)  2 0 cos t   0 (eit  e it ).

Then we have

d s (t)
iℏ   0[e i(   0 ) t  e i(   0 ) t ] a (t) ,
dt

d a (t)
iℏ   0[e i(   0 )t  e  i(   0 )t ] s (t) .
dt

4. Rotating wave approximation


The terms with ( + 0) oscillate very rapidly about an average value of zero and, therefore
do not contribute very much on the average to the rate of change of .

d s (t)
iℏ   0 ei ( 0 )t a (t),
dt

13
d a (t)
iℏ   0e i(   0 ) t s (t) .
dt

5. Rabi angular frequency


5.1 Derivation
The molecules enter the cavity, the cavity field-oscillating at exactly the right frequency-
induces transition from the upper to the lower states, and the energy released is fed into the
oscillatory field. The molecular energy is converted into the energy of an external electromagnetic
field. We define that

 0
    0 , 0  ,

and

2
R    02 , (Rabi angular frequency)
4

(we follow the definition of the Rabi angular frequency based on the book of Sakurai and
Napolitano), with

ℏ0  2 A .

For convenience, here we use  instead of  R

  2 R   2  402

For the following calculations. Then, we get

d s (t )  0 it
i  e  a (t )  0eit  a (t ) ,
dt ℏ

d a (t )  0  it
i  e  s (t )  0e it  s (t ) ,
dt ℏ

with the initial condition

 a (0)  1 ,  s (0)  0 .

The solution is as follows, using the Mathematica (which will be shown later)

14
it 
1 it 
2ie 2  0 sin( t )
2 ie 2
 0 sin( R t )
 s (t )    ,
 R

it (  )

e 2
[     eit (   )]
 a (t )  .
2

The probabilities are given by

Ps (t )   s (t )*  s (t )
t
40 sin 2 ( 40  2 )
2 2

 2
40  2
2

20 [1  cos(t 40  2 ]


2 2


40  2
2

2 2 2
20  2  20 cos(t 40  2 )
Pa (t )   a (t )  a (t ) 
*
2
.
40  2

Note that

Ps (t )  Pa (t )  1 .

We make a plot of Ps(t) and Pa(t) as a function of t, where 0 = 10 and  is changed as a


parameter in the vicinity of   10 .
Ps
1.0 w=10 w0= 10
w=9.8
w=9.6
0.8
w=9.4
0.6 w=9.2
w=9.0
0.4

0.2

t
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

15
Fig. Probability of finding the NH3 atoms in the ground state. 0 = 10.  is changed as a

parameter between  = 9.0 and 10.0. 0 = 0.5. Ps has a maximum at 0t  when  = 0.
2

Pa
1.0 w0=10

0.8

0.6 w=9.0

w=9.2
0.4

w=9.4
0.2
w=9.6
w=9.8
w=10 t
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Fig. Probability of finding the NH3 atoms in the excited state. 0 = 10.  is changed as a

parameter between  = 9.0 and 10.0. 0 = 0.5. Note that Pa has a minimum at 0t  for
2
 = 0 (   0 ).

5.2. Mathematica
Here we show how to solve the differential equations (time-dependent Schrödinger equations
whose Hamiltonian is time dependent) by using the Mathematica.

16
Clear "Global` " ; SuperStar;
expr : expr . Complex a , b Complex a, b ;

0, 4 02 2 2 0
= - 2 , 0

eq1 D a t ,t 0 Exp t s t ;

eq2 D s t ,t 0 Exp t a t ;

s11 DSolve eq1, eq2, a 0 1, s 0 0 , a t , s t ,


t Simplify , 0, 0 0 &;
1 1
s12 s11 . 4 02 2
, Simplify;
4 02 2

a t a t . s12 1 ComplexExpand FullSimplify


1 t
2 t

s t s t . s12 1 ComplexExpand FullSimplify


t
t
2 2 0 Sin
2

6. Resonance condition

 0
When   0 and   0  ,

we have

 a (t )  cos(0t ) , Pa (t )  cos 2 (0t ) ,

and

 s (t )  i sin(0t ) , Ps (t )  sin 2 ( 0t ) ,

17
1.0

0.8
Pa

0.6
D=0
0.4

0.2
Ps
G0 t
p p 3p
0 p
4 2 4

Fig. Probabilities for the two states [Pa(t) and Ps(t)] of the ammonia molecules in a sinusoidal

electric field.     0  0 . When 0t  , Ps = 1 and Pa = 0.
2

7. Physical meaning
((Feynman, vol.3. 9-12))
Let us suppose that it takes the time t = T to go through the cavity. If we make the cavity just
long enough so that

0T   0T / ℏ   / 2 ,

then a molecule which enters in the upper state a will certainly leave it in the lower state  s .

a s

cavity

In other words, its energy is decreased, and the loss of energy cannot go anywhere else but into
the machinery which generates the field. By energy conservation the molecules deliver energy to
the electromagnetic field. This process is called stimulated emission. If the molecules are initially
in the state s , they will absorb energy from the electromagnetic field in going to the state a ,
a process called stimulated absorption. When the size of the resonant cavity is L, L should be on
the same order as L  vT , where v is the average velocity of the molecules. Note that the velocity
is not the same. They obey the Maxwell distribution.

8. Alternative method for solving the differential equation


8-1 Formulation

18
Here we use the same technique which is used in the discussion of the magnetic resonance in
order to obtain the probability of finding the system in the a and s states. We start with the
eqs.,

d s (t )
iℏ   0 ei ( 0 )t a ( t ),
dt

d a (t )
iℏ   0e i(   0 ) t s (t ) .
dt

We assume that

 0
    0 , 0  ,

2
R   02 . (Rabbi angular frequency)
4

We also use the notation

  2 R   2  402 .

For convenience, we put

 s (t )  eit / 2  s (t ) ,

 a (t )  e it / 2  a (t )

This is related to the relation between the rotating reference frame and the laboratory frame in
the case of nuclear magnetic resonance. Substituting these expressions in the above differential
equations, we get

 it / 2
iℏ (eit / 2 ɺ s  i e  s )  ℏ0eit e  it / 2  a ,
2

  it / 2
iℏ (e  it / 2 ɺ a  i e  a )  ℏ0e  it eit / 2  s ,
2

or

1
iℏ ( ɺ s  i  s )  ℏ0  a ,
2

19
1
iℏ( ɺ a  i  a )  ℏ0  s ,
2

or

1
iℏɺ s  ℏ(  s  0  a ) ,
2

1
iℏɺ a  ℏ (  a  0  s ) .
2

These equations can be rewritten in the form of the Schrödinger equation for  ' (t ) ,


iℏ  ' (t )  Hˆ '  ' (t ) ,
t

where

  (t ) 
 ' (t )   s  ,
  a (t ) 

under the basis of

a   z , s   z .

(we use this notation for the simplicity, from the analogy from the spin 1/2 case). The new
Hamiltonian Ĥ ' is independent of time t and be expressed by

1 
  0 
Hˆ '  ℏ 2 
   1  
 2 
0

1
 ℏ ( ˆ z  0ˆ x )
2
ℏ  20
 40  2 (
2
ˆ z  ˆ x )
2 40  2
2
40  2
2

or


Hˆ '  40  2 (σˆ  n) ,
2

20
where n is the unit vector in the x-z plane. The angle between the z axis and n is .

20 
n( ,0, )  (sin  ,0, cos ) .
40  
2
40  2
2 2

The ket vector  n is the eigenvector of (σˆ  n) with the eigenvalues  1 ,

(σˆ  n)  n    n .

Thus  n is the eigenket of Hˆ ' with the eigenvalues  E with

ℏ ℏ
Hˆ '  n  40  2 (σˆ  n)  n   40  2  n   E  n ,
2 2

2 2

where

ℏ
E ,
2

with

  40  2 .
2

We note that

   
 n  cos s  sin a  cos  z  sin z ,
2 2 2 2

and

   
 n   sin s  cos a   sin  z  cos z ,
2 2 2 2

where

 20
cos   , sin   .
40  2
2
40  2
2

The new state vector  ' (t ) is related to the original state vector  (t ) by

 (t )  eit / 2e  ( E 0  A) t / ℏ
 s (t )  z  e  it / 2e  ( E 0  A) t / ℏ
 a (t )  z ,

21
 ' (t )   s (t )  z   a (t )  z .

8-2. Rabi’s formula


We assume that the initial condition is given by

 ' (t  0)   (t  0)  a   z , (initial condition)

which means that

 a (t  0)  1 ,  s (t  0)  1 .

Then we get

iHˆ ' t iHˆ ' t


exp( )  exp( )(  n  n   n  n )
ℏ ℏ
iHˆ ' t iHˆ ' t
 exp(  n  n  exp( )n n
ℏ ℏ
it it
 exp( )  n  n  exp( )n n
2 2

iHˆ ' t
 ' (t )  exp( )z

i t i t
 exp( )  n  n  z  exp( )n n z
2 2
   
 exp(i t ) sin( )  n  cos( ) exp(i t )  n
2 2 2 2

Using these relations, we have the matrix elements as

   
 z  ' (t )  exp(i t ) sin( )  z  n  cos( ) exp(i t )  z  n
2 2 2 2
   
 sin 2 ( ) exp(i t )  cos 2 ( ) exp(i t )]
2 2 2 2
1  1 
 (1  cos ) exp(i t )  (1  cos ) exp(i t )
2 2 2 2
 
 cos( t )  i cos sin( t )
2 2

22
   
 z  ' (t )  exp(i t ) sin( )  z  n  cos( ) exp(i t )  z  n
2 2 2 2
     
 sin( ) cos( ) exp(i t )  sin( ) cos( ) exp(i t )]
2 2 2 2 2 2
   
  sin( ) cos( )[exp(i t )  exp(i t )]
2 2 2 2
  
 2i sin( ) cos( ) sin( t )
2 2 2

 i sin( ) sin( t )
2

Pa(t) is the probability for finding the spin in the state  z  a ,

2
Pa (t )   z  (t )
2
  z  ' (t )
 
 cos2 ( t )  cos2  sin 2 ( t )]
2 2
t
 1  sin 2  sin 2 (    12 )
2

2
4
2
t
 1  2 0 2 sin 2 ( 40  2 )
2

  40 2

Note that Pa (t  0)  1 . Ps(t) is the probability for finding the spin in the state  z  s .

2
Ps (t )   z  (t )
2
  z  ' (t )
t
 sin 2  sin 2 ( )
2
t
 sin 2  sin 2 (    12 )
2

2
4
2
t
 2 0 2 sin 2 ( 40  2 )
2

  40 2

((Alternative method))
We use the formula for the spin 1/2.

i  
exp[  (σˆ  n)]  1̂cos( )  i sin( )(σˆ  n) .
2 2 2

23
The Hamiltonian is given by

ℏ ℏ
Hˆ '  40  2 (σˆ  n)  (σˆ  n) .
2

2 2

Then the time evolution is obtained as

iHˆ ' t t t t
exp( )  exp[i (σˆ  n)]  1̂cos( )  i sin( )(σˆ  n) ,
ℏ 2 2 2

using the above formula. Then we get

iHˆ ' t
 ' (t )  exp(  )z

t t
 [1̂cos( )  i sin( )(σˆ  n)]  z
2 2
t t
 [1̂cos( )  i sin( )( z cos   x sin  )]  z
2 2
 t t t 
 cos( )  i sin( ) cos  i sin( ) sin   0 
 2 2 2  
 t t t
 i sin( ) sin  cos( )  i sin( ) cos  1 
 2 2 2 
 t 
  i sin( ) sin  
 2 
 cos( t )  i sin( t ) cos 
 2 2 

2
Pa (t )   z  ' (t )
t t
| cos( )  i sin( ) cos |2
2 2
 
 cos2 ( t )  cos2  sin 2 ( t )]
2 2
t
 1  sin 2  sin 2 (    12 )
2

2
4
2
t
 1  2 0 2 sin 2 ( 40  2 )
2

  40 2

8-3 The use of Mathematica


We obtain the time dependence of the Schrödinger equation with the time-independent
Hamiltonian;

24
1 
  0 
Hˆ '  ℏ 2 .
   1  
 2 
0

We calculate the time dependence of the wave function given by

i
exp( Hˆ ' t )  (0) ,

using the Mathematica.

((Matheamtica))

Clear "Global` " ;


exp : exp . Complex re , im Complex re, im ;
2 0
H1 ; M1 MatrixExp H1 t FullSimplify;
2 2 0
2 1
rule1 4 02 , ;
2
4 02
M2 M1 . rule1 Simplify;

P11: Probabilityof finding in the excited state | a >


P21: Probability of finding in the ground state | s >
with

2 4 02

P1 0, 1 .M2. 0, 1 Simplify;
P11 P1 P1 Simplify
2 t 2
t 2 Sin
2
Cos 2
2

P2 1, 0 .M2. 0, 1 Simplify;
P21 P2 P2 Simplify
t 2
4 02 Sin
2
2

25
Clear@"Global`∗"D; SuperStar;
expr_∗ := expr ê. Complex@a_, b_D Complex@a, − b D;

4 ∂02 µ2 m ¶0
D=w - w0, + ∆2 = Ω, G0 =
—2 Ñ

eq1 = D@ γ a@ tD , tD Γ0 Exp@− ∆ tD γs@tD;

eq2 = D@ γ s@ tD , tD Γ0 Exp@ ∆ tD γa@tD;

s11 = DSolve@8eq1, eq2, γa@0D 1, γs@0D 0<, 8γa@tD, γs@tD<, tD êê


Simplify@ , 8∆ > 0, Γ0 > 0<D &;
1 1
s12 = s11 ê. : 4 Γ 02 + ∆ 2 → Ω , → > êê Simplify;

4 Γ 02 + ∆2

γa@t_D = γa@tD ê. s12@@1DD êê ComplexExpand êê FullSimplify


−1 t H∆+ΩL t Ω H∆ + ΩLM
2 I−∆ + Ω +
2Ω

γs@t_D = γs@tD ê. s12@@1DD êê ComplexExpand êê FullSimplify


t∆
2 2 Γ0 SinA t Ω E
− 2

10. Transition of resonance ((Feynman))


We consider the case that the electric field is small, and, also the period of time T is small. So
that

 0
0T  T,

is much less than 1. The probability Ps(t) is still small at t = T. Note that Ps(T) is the probability
which is related to the absorption of energy from the high energy state of NH3 molecules into the
system (cavity) at time t = T.

T T
40 sin 2 ( 40  2 )
2 2
sin 2 ( )
Ps (T )  2  0 T 2
2 2 ,
40  
2 2

2
 
T
 
 2 

or

26
T
sin 2 (
)
Ps (T ) 2 sin 2 ( x)
y 2 2   ,
0 T
2
 T  x2
 
 2 

T T
We make a plot of y as a function of x   (  0 ) .
2 2

y
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
x=T Dê2
5p 3p 3p 5p
-3 p - -2 p - -p -p 0
p
p 2p 3p
2 2 2 2 2 2

Ps (T ) T
Fig. Plot of y  as a function of x  . Note that T is a fixed time, not a temperature.
0 T
2 2
2

The curve falls rather abruptly to zero for x  (T) / 2   and never regains significant size for
larger frequency derivations. In fact, by far the greatest part of the area under the curve lies
within the range   / 2 . We note that


sin 2 x
 x 2 dx   .

Thus the area under the curve is  and is equal to the area of the rectangle enclosed by the blue

lines ( x  and 0  y  1 ). In other words, y is described by a Dirac delta function which has a
2
peak at   0 . The value of y is equal to 1 for

27

  0  ,
T

and zero for


  0  .
T

((Example))
In the NH3 maser,

  0 f  f0  1
   .
0 f0 T0 2 f 0T

Suppose that we assume T = 1ms. Since f0 = 23.786 GHz, we have

f  f0 1
 = 2.1 x 10-8.
f0 2 f 0T

f0
leading to the quality factor Q   4.8  107 (we will discuss later). The frequency must be
f
very close to f 0 , in order to get a significant transition probability.

11. Stimulated emission of light


We have discussed the behavior of a NH3 molecule under the influence of an electric
field, whether the electric field is confined in a cavity or not. So, we could be simply shining
a beam of light at the microwave frequencies at the molecule. Here we calculate the
transition probability of the stimulate emission, where the light shining on such a system
is not exactly monochromatic. The light has the intensity I ()d between  and   d ,
covering a broad range including   0 . To this end, we start with the probability given
by

T
2 sin 2 ( )
   2 ,
Ps (T )   0  T 2 2
 ℏ   T 
 
 2 

where

 0
0T  T,     0 .

28
From the APPENDIX described below, we have the expression for the time-average of the
energy density u and the magnitude of the Poynting vector  S  ,

 1 2
u   0 (erg/cm3 )
 8
  s 
 S  c u  erg 3   I ( )d
  cm 

where
~
 0  E0 (the maximum of the electric field),

and

 erg  s cm   1 
I ( )   3
   erg 2  .
 cm s   cm 

Then we have

1 2 1
 0  I ( )d .
8 c

The probability transition now becomes

T (  0
 sin 2 [ ]
 2T 2 2
Ps (T )  8 2  I ( )d .
ℏc 0 T (  0 2
[ ]
2

Here we note that I ( ) will vary much more slowly with  that the sharp resonance term
(which forms such a Dirac delta function). In such a case, we can replace I ( ) by its value
I (0 ) at the center of the sharp resonance curve and take it outside of the integral,

T (  0
 sin 2 [ ]
 2T 2 2
Ps (T )  8 2 I (0 )  d .
ℏc T (  0 2
0 [ ]
2

Noting that

29
T (  0
 sin 2 [ ] 
2 2 sin 2 x 2
0 d
T (  0 2

T 
 x 2  T ,
dx
[ ]
2

we get the result that

2
Ps (T )  16 2 I 0 T .
ℏ2c

This is the expression of the stimulated emission (or absorption) of light by molecular or atomic
system. First, this probability is proportional to T. In other words, there is a constant probability
per unit time that transitions will occur. Second, it is proportional the intensity of light on the
system. Third, it is proportional to 2.

((Note)) The spontaneous emission and the stimulated emission in maser


In maser, the rate of the spontaneous emission A21 is much smaller than the rate of the
stimulated emission B21;

A21 8 hf 0 3
 3
 0 3  1
B21 c

since f 0  23.786 GHz is much lower than frequencies of visible light (600 THz for   500
nm). So that, the effect of the spontaneous emission can be neglected.

12. Polarization vector


Here we note the property of electric field in the cavity. There is a photon inside the cavity.
The electric field (the polarization vector) is expressed by the plane wave with the angular
2A
frequency   . The electric dipole moment has a perturbation energy which is given by

Hˆ '   μ.ε

where

  2 0 cos  t   0 (eit  e  it )

30
Fig. A physical model of two base states for the ammonia molecule. These states have the
electric dipole moments μ . (R.P. Feynman, Lectures on Physics III).

Cavity

31
Fig. The cavity. The polarization vector (the direction of the electric field) is along the z axis.
The direction of the wave vector for the plane wave is perpendicular to the polarization
vector. A possible electric field (polarization vector) of one photon due to the spontaneous
emission may give rise to a subsequent chain reactions of stimulated emission of many
photons in the cavity.

Using the above figure, we have

Hˆ ' 1   1 , Hˆ ' 2    2

2A
Inside the cavity consisting of two parallel mirrors, when photons with   interacts with the

ammonia atoms with excited state (inversion population), leading to the stimulated emission. One
at a time there are two photons, one is the incident photon and the other is from the stimulated
emission. When these events are repeated many times, the photon becomes perfectly coherent
2A
wave with the angular frequency with   .

Stimulated emission
Ea

2A 0

Es

13. Feynman’s discussion


Excellent discussion on the ammonia maser is obtained by Feynman (The Feynman Lectures
on Physics, Feynman, Leighton, Sands, volume III 9-1).

32
The molecule enters the cavity, the cavity field – oscillating at exactly the right frequency – induces
transitions from the upper to the lower state, and that the energy released is fed into the oscillating
field. In an operating maser the molecules deliver enough energy to maintain the cavity oscillations
– not only providing enough power to make up for the cavity losses but even providing small
amounts of excess power that can be drawn from the cavity. Thus, the molecular energy is
converted into the energy of an external electromagnetic field.

14. Evaluation for the Q factor and number density n

(a) Velocity of NH3 molecules inside the cavity


Here we discuss the velocity of NH3 running inside the cavity. Suppose that the gas of NH#
molecules in the oven obey the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution in the velocity. The temperature
oven is Ts (K). The most probable velocity of NH3 molecules (leading to the peak value of the
probability), is

2k BTs
vmp  .
mNH 3

Where kB is the Boltzmann constant. Using the mass of NH3 as 17.031 g/mol, the most probable
velocity is

vmp  31.3473 Ts (m/s).

When Ts  300 K, vmp  0.5421 km/s, and for Ts  500 K, vmp  0.69871 km/s. When the length
of the cavity is 1m, the time t0 for the NH3 molecules to stay in the cavity is

33
L
t0   1.42 ms,
vmp

at Ts = 500 K.

(b) The electric dipole moment of NH3 molecule


The electric dipole moment of NH3 molecule is 1.47 D, where D is the Debye unit and is

1D = 1 x 10-18 esu-cm, 1D = 3.34 x 10-30 Cm

In cgs units,   1.47 1018 esu-cm. In S.I. units,   4.9098 1030 Cm.

(c) Evaluation of electric field


We use a rough estimation for the maximum electric field as follows.

 0t0 
t0  
ℏ 2

or

ℏ L
t0  
2  0 v

Using v  vmp , we have

 ℏvmp
0   7.87  107 statvolt/cm (in c.g.s. units).
2 L

or

 ℏvmp
0   2.36  102 V/m (in SI units).
2 L

(d) Quality factor ((Sargent, Scully, and Lamb))

Reference: M. Sargent III, M.O. Scully, and W.E. Lamb, Jr. Laser Physics (Addison-Wesley,
1974).

Here we discuss the quality factor Q (c.g.s. units). Note that the related discussion based on the SI
units is made in the above Reference. Only difference is the use of the averaged electromagnetic
energy.

34
The condition for oscillation is that the energy lost in the cavity per time (loss) is equal to the
energy gained per unit time (saturated gain) from the NH3 molecules, that is,

Loss = saturated gain.

We write the loss in terms of an important ratio Q called the cavity factor and defined by

energy stored in field energy stored in field


Q  2  0 .
energy dissipsted per cycle energylost/second

The energy stored in the field is given by

V V V 2
E 2  B2  E2  0 (in c.g.s. units)
8 time 4 time 8

where V is the volume of the maser cavity and  0 is the maximum of the electric field. Thus, we
have the energy lost per second:

1 0 2
Loss  0 V .
8 Q

The enery gained per second is

v
Saturated gain = N Ps (t )ℏ0 .
L

v
Here N is the number of molecules in the cavity. N is the number of molecules leaving the
L
cavity per sec. The frequency  of the electric field is close to the cavity frequency (for central
tuning), although a quantitative relationship cannot be determined from our present, simple
analysis. Since

1 0 2 Nv
0 V  Ps (t )ℏ0
8 Q L

with

4 0 2 t  L
Ps (t )  sin 2  0  2  4 0 2  with t0  ,
  4 0
2 2
2  v

35
where

 0
    0 , 0  .

Them the quality factor Q can be obtained as

1 0 2 Nv 4 0 2 t 
 0 V  ℏ0 sin 2  0  2  4 0 2  ,
8 Q L   4 0
2 2
2 

or

1 32 2 nv 1  L 
 sin 2   2  4 0 2  ,
Q ℏ L   4 0
2 2
 2v 

N ℏ
where n  (density) and  0  0 . When   0 (in resonance), we get
V 

 L
sin 2  0 
1 8 nL 2
 v .

Q ℏ v  0 L 2
 v 
 

0 L
In the limit of  0,
v

1 8 2 nL
 .
Q ℏ v

We use   1.47 1018 esu-cm., L = 100 cm, v  vmp  0.69871 km/s. Thus, we get

1.357  1010 1.357  1010


Q or n .
n Q

If Q is required to be 36000 (for example), the number density should be on the order of
n  3.77  105 cm-3. From the expression for Q given by Q  f 0 / f , the uncertainty in frequency
f is 660 kHz. The number density of photon is surprisingly small, possibly because of the use
of gaseous state of NH3 molecules.

36
If we use n = 1.5651 x 106 cm-3, which is evaluated in the APPENDIX C, the quality factor Q
can be evaluated as

Q  8.67  103 .

15. Summary
In the ammonium (NH3) masers, the transition on which laser action occurs is related to a two-
level system. In these devices a molecular beam is prepared in the excited state by a Stern–Gerlach
type method, allowing selection of the excited molecules only. This beam of totally inverted
molecules then traverses a resonant cavity which performs a role analogous to that of the optical
cavity of a laser. A significant fraction of the molecules is then transferred to the ground state by
stimulated emission. The molecules then leave the cavity. The ground state molecules are in this
way physically removed from the cavity, thus ensuring that the population inversion is maintained.

((Stimulated emission))

Ea

Stimulated emission 2A=Ñw0

Ñw

Ñw

Es

((Light amplification))

37
________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
1. John S. Townsend, A Modern Approach to Quantum Mechanics, second edition
(University Science Books, 2012).
2. J.J. Sakurai and J. Napolitano, Modern Quantum Mechanics, second edition (Addison-
Wesley, New York, 2011).
3. R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, and M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics
(Addison-Wesley, 1964).
4. M. Sargent III, M.O. Scully, and W.E. Lamb, Jr. (Addison-Wesley, 1977).
5. A.B. Pippard, The Physics of vibration (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
6. M. Le Bellac, Quantum Physics (Cambridge, 2006).
7. C.H. Townes, How the Laser Happened Adventures of a Scientist (Oxford University
Press, 1999).
8. A. Goswami, Quantum Mechanics, 2nd edition (WCB, 1997).
9. R. Loudon, The Quantum Theory of Light, 3rd edition (Oxford, 2000).
_______________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX-A
A.1 Plane wave representation of the energy density and the Poynting vector
We use the Maxwell's equation in the units of c.g.s. which is described by the plane wave
representation. Here we suppose that
~ ~*
~ i ( kr t ) ~ i E 0 e i  E 0 e i
E  Re[ E 0 e ]  Re[ E 0e ]  ,
2
~ ~*
~ i ( k r t ) ~ i B0ei  B0 e i
B  Re[ B0e ]  Re[ B0e ]  ,
2

where

  k  r  t .

From

38
 E  0 , and B  0 .

we have
~ ~
k  E0  0 , and k  B0  0 .

From

1 B
 E   .
c t

we have

~ i ~
i (k  E 0 )  B0 ,
c
or
~ ~
( k  E 0 )  B0 ,

or
~ ~
B0  kˆ  E0 .

where k̂ is the unit vector along the wave vector k.

((Note)) Dispersion relation


From
1 2 1 2
2 E  E  E,
c 2 t 2 c 2 t 2

we have a dispersion relation

  ck  c k .

______________________________________________________________________
The energy density is defined by

1
u (E 2  B2 ) .
8

The Poynting vector is defined by

39
c
S ( E  B) .
4

Calculation of E 2

E~ i ~ * i 2
 1 ~ 2 2i ~ *2  2i
e  E0 e ~ ~*
E   0
2
  ( E0 e  E0 e
 4  2 E0  E0 ) ,
 2 

T
1 1 ~ ~* 1 ~ 2
E2 
T0 E 2 dt  E0  E0  E 0 .
2 2

2 T
1  2i
T 0
where T  and e dt  0 . Similarly, we have

T
1 1~ ~* 1 ~ 2
B2  
T 0
B 2 dt  B0  B0  B0 .
2 2

The time-average of the energy density is given by

1 1 ~ 2 ~ 2
u  ( E 2  B2 )  ( E0  B0 ) .
8 16

Here we note

~ 2 ~ ~* ~ ~* ~ ~* ~ 2
B0  (kˆ  E0 )  (kˆ  E0 )  [ E0  E0  (kˆ  E0 )(kˆ  E0 )]  E0 .

Then we have

1 ~ 2 1 ~ 2
u  E0  B0 .
8 8

Calculation of Poynting vector S


~ ~* ~ ~*
c c E0ei  E0 e i B0ei  B0 e  i
S ( E  B)  ( )( ),
4 4 2 2

c ~ ~* ~* ~ c ~ ~*
S  ( E0  B0  E0  B0 )  Re[ E0  B0 ] .
16 8

Note that

40
~ ~* ~ ~* ~ 2
E0  B0  E0  (kˆ  E0 )  kˆ E0 .

Then we have

c ~ ~*
S  Re[ E 0  B0 ]
8
c ~ 2
 Re[ kˆ E 0 ]
8
c ~ 2
 kˆ E 0
8

or

S  ckˆ u .

A.2 Physical meaning of the Poynting vector

ct

photons
ℏ

area 1

S is the energy flux (energy per unit area per unit time). We define the intensity I given by

c ~ 2
I  S c u  E0 .
8

We now consider the photon (the velocity is c) flows. During the time t , the total energy
passing through the area A is

E  ctA u  At S .

or

E
 S .
At

where the volume is ctA and the energy density is u .

41
___________________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX B.
Key words in maser physics

Maser (Microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)


Stimulated emission
Negative temperature
Population inversion
Resonant cavity
Rabi frequency
Rabi formula
Rotating wave approximation
Coherent radiation

((Hydrogen maser))
A hydrogen maser, also known as hydrogen frequency standard, is a specific type of maser
that uses the intrinsic properties of the hydrogen atom to serve as a precision frequency reference.

Both the proton and electron of a hydrogen atom have spins. The atom has a higher energy if both
are spinning in the same direction, and a lower energy if they spin in opposite directions. The
amount of energy needed to reverse the spin of the electron is equivalent to a photon at the
frequency of 1.420,405,751.786 GHz, which corresponds to the 21cm line in hydrogen spectrum.
See LN hydrogen 21 cm line (hyperfine structure).

APPENDIX-C
Rough evaluation of number density of photon

We start with the expression

V
N ℏ 0  Emax 2
8

where V is the volume of the system (cavity), Emax is the maximum value of the electric field, and
N is the number of photon with 0 . Thus, we have

Emax  8 nℏ0

Where n is the number density of photons having the same 0 . Suppose that

 ℏ L
t0   
2 0 2  Emax v

42
in order to avoid the absorption process. Using this condition, we can evaluate

 ℏv 2
n  1.565  106 / cm3 .
32 0 L
2 2

where we use

v  0.69871 km/s, L  1 m = 100 cm,


  1.47 D  1.47 1018 statC.m, 0  2 f 0 , with f 0  23.786 GHz

43

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