Chapter 2

Fundamentals of C++ Programming

 What is a programming?
• Computer programs
• Sets of instructions that control a computer‟s processing of data
• the instructions that tells the computer what to do
• Computer programming
• is the process of writing, testing, debugging / troubleshooting, and maintaining the
source code of computer programs
• Computer programs (also know as source code) is often written by
professionals known as Computer Programmers
• A computer program usually consists of two elements:
• Data – characteristics
• Code – action
• Source code is written in one of programming languages
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 What’s a Program?
• Model of complex system
• model: simplified representation of salient features
of something, either tangible or abstract
• system: collection of components that work closely together
• Sequences of instructions expressed in specific programming
language:
• syntax: grammatical rules for forming instructions
• semantics: meaning/interpretation of instructions
• Instructions written (programmed/coded) by programmer
• coded in a specific programming language
• as a result, programs cannot be ambiguous
• all instructions together are called source code
• Executed by computer by carrying out individual instructions

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 What is programming language
• an artificial language that can be used to control the behavior of a
computer
• defined by
• Syntactic - describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a
syntactically correct program
• Semantic - The meaning given to a combination of symbols
• Every programming languages have syntax and semantics
• computers do exactly what they are told to do
• Available programming languages come in a variety of forms and
types
• Programming languages can be divided in to two major categories:
• low-level
• high-level languages
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 Programming Languages
• Machine language
• machine is short for computing machine (i.e., computer)
• computer‟s native language, sequence of zeroes and ones (binary)
• different computers understand different sequences
• hard for humans to understand: 01010001…
• Assembly language
• mnemonics for machine language
• low level: each instruction is minimal
• still hard for humans to understand:
ADD d0,d2
• High-level languages
• FORTRAN, Pascal, BASIC, C, C++, Java, etc.
• high level: each instruction composed of many low-level instructions
• closer to English easier to read and understand:
hypotenuse = Math.sqrt(opposite *
opposite + adjacent * adjacent);
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 Interpreting vs. Compiling Programs
• Each type of computer only “understands” its own machine
language (zeroes and ones)
• Thus we must translate from High-level language to machine
language
• a team of experts programs a translator, called a “compiler” which
translates entirety of a High-level language program to an executable file in
computer‟s native machine language.
• Running :
• compilation: Your program  executable
• execution: run executable
• machine executes your program by “running” each machine language instruction in the
executable file

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 Interpreting vs. Compiling Programs
• An alternative to compiling your program is to interpret your program
• each line of your program is translated into machine language and immediately
executed

• Like translating between natural languages

• Compiler: human translator translates book in its entirety and then translated book
is printed and read
• Interpreter: human interpreter translates each spoken statement in sequence as
speaker is speaking

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 Programs vs. Algorithms
• To make a computer do anything, you have to write a program
• To write a computer program, you have to tell the computer, step
by step, exactly what you want it to do.
• The computer then "executes" the program, following each step, to
accomplish the end goal.
• An algorithm is a finite, step-by-step sequence of instructions that
describe how the data is to be processed to produce the desired
outputs
• The algorithm is implemented by a program

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Control Structures
• programs could be written in terms of 3 structures:
• Sequence – which instruction should be done next?
• Selection – select between options
• Repetition – repeat an action while a given condition stays true

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 Algorithm
• An algorithm can be represented as
• Flowchart
• Pseudocode

Pseudocode
• is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop
algorithms
• allows the designer to focus on the logic of the algorithm without
being distracted by details of language syntax
• text-based" detail (algorithmic) design tool
• Pseudocode is not a rigorous notation, since it is read by other people,
not by the computer

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• Examples:
• Write a program that prints “passed” when the student garde is greater than 60 and
“failed” otherwise.
• If student's grade is greater than or equal to 60
• Print "passed"
• else
• Print "failed“
• Pseudo-code the task of computing the final price of an item after figuring in sales
tax. Note the three types of instructions: input (get), process/calculate (=) and output
(display)
1. get price of item
2. get sales tax rate
3. sales tax = price of time times sales tax rate
4. final prince = price of item plus sales tax
5. display final price
6. stop

• Variables: price of item, sales tax rate, sales tax, final price
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 Flow Chart
• A graphic representation of an algorithm, often used in
the design phase of programming to work out the logical
flow of a program

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Sequence

1) Open the jar

2) Scoop out the peanut butter
3) Spread the peanut butter on the bread

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 Selection
True
• Single Selection (if) Won Raise
lottery? Hand
• If you‟ve won the lottery:
raise your hand False
• Double Selection (if-else)
• If you‟re happy:
smile
else:
cry False True
cry Happy? Smile

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Selection (continued)
• Multiple Selection (switch)
If the light is ... Light True
Red? Stop
red -> stop
False
green -> go True
Light
Green? Go
yellow -> slow down False
True
Light Slow
Yellow? Down
False

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Repetition
• While
True while it’s still clumpy
Mixture
Stir Stir the mixture
Clumpy?
False

• Do-while ask parents if must eat

Must I eat vegetables
Veggies? while parents say “Yes”

Parent say True

“Yes”?
False

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Repetition (continued)
• For
Teaching a baby to count
Counter = 1
from 1 to 10:
counter = 1
Add 1
to counter if counter <= 10:
increment counter
CounterTrue
Print print counter number
≤ 10?
counter
False

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 Variables
• Location in memory where value can be stored
• All variables have two important attributes
• A type - Once defined, the type of a C++ variable cannot be
changed
• A value - can be changed by assigning a new value

• E.g. int a = 5;
• Type integer
• Value 5

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 Variable Declaration
• defining (creating) a variable
• Two parts
• Variable name - unique name of the memory location
• Data type (or type) - defines what kind of values the variable
can hold
• Syntax
• <type> <Var-idf>;
• E.g.
• double varTime;
• int myAge;
• Can declare several variables of same type in one
declaration
• Comma-separated list
• int integer1, integer2, sum;
• Variables must be declared before used
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 Variable assignment
• Variable names
• Valid identifier
• Series of characters (letters, digits, underscores)
• Cannot begin with digit
• Case sensitive
• Assignment operator =
• Assigns value on left to variable on right
• Binary operator (two operands)
• Example:
• sum = variable1 + variable2;
• Add the values of variable1 and variable2
• Store result in sum

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 Variables and Memory Concept
• Variable names
• Correspond to actual locations in computer's memory
• Every variable has name, type, size and value
• When new value placed into variable, overwrites old value
• Writing to memory is destructive
• Reading variables from memory nondestructive
• Example
• int number1= 45;
• int number2= 72;
• int sum = 0;
• sum = number1 + number2;
• Value of sum is overwritten
• Values of number1 and number2 remain intact

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 Memory locations after calculating and
storing the sum of number1 and number2.

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 Data Types
• When you define a variable in C++, you must tell the compiler
what kind of variable it is
• Tell the data type

• Data Type: set of values together with a set of operations

• C++ data can be classified into three categories:

• Simple data type

• Structured data type

• Pointers

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Simple Data Types
• Three categories of simple data
• Integral: integers (numbers without a decimal)

• Floating-point: decimal numbers

• Enumeration type: user-defined data type

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 Type Size Values
unsigned short int 2 bytes 0 to 65,535

short int(signed short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

int)
unsigned long int 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

long int(signed long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

int)
int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned int 2 bytes 0 to 65,535

signed int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

char 1 byte 256 character values

float 4 bytes 3.4e-38 to 3.4e38

double 8 bytes 1.7e-308 to 1.7e308

long double 10 1.2e-4932 to 1.2e4932

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 Simple Data Types
• Type int
• represent integers or whole numbers
• Some rules to follow:
• Plus signs do not need to be written before the number
• Minus signs must be written when using negative #‟s
• Decimal points cannot be used
• Commas cannot be used
• Leading zeros should be avoided
• Signed - negative or positive
• Unsigned - positive
• Short
• Long
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 Simple Data Types
• Type double, float
• used to represent real numbers
• many programmers use type float
• avoid leading zeros, trailing zeros are ignored
• long double

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 Simple Data Types
• Type char
• used to represent character data
• a single character which includes a space
• 1 byte, enough to hold 256 values
• must be enclosed in single quotes eg. „d‟
• Escape sequences treated as single char
• „\n‟ newline
• „\‟‟ apostrophe
• „\”‟ double quote
• „\t‟ tab
• (0-255) or as a member of the ASCII set
• E.g. the lowercase letter "a" is assigned the value 97
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 Simple Data Types
• Strings
• used to represent textual information
• string constants must be enclosed in double quotation marks eg.
“Hello world!”
• empty string “”
• new line char or string “\n”
• “the word \”hello\”” (puts quotes around “hello” )
• String variables use:
#include “apstring.cpp”
• use quotes for user supplied libraries

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 Operator
• symbols that take one or more arguments (operands) and
operates on them to produce a result
• A unary operator requires one operand.
• A binary operator requires two operands.
• A tertiary operator requires three operands.
• 5 Operators
• Arithmetic operators
• Assignment operator
• Increment/Decrement operators
• Relational operators
• Logical operators
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Arithmetic Operators
• Common
• Addition +
• Subtraction -
• Multiplication *
• Division /
• Mod %
• Note
• No exponentiation operator
• Single division operator
• Operators are overloaded to work with more than one type of object

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Integer Division
• Integer division produces an integer result
• Truncates the result

• Examples
• 3 / 2 evaluates to 1
• 4 / 6 evaluates to 0
• 10 / 3 evaluates to 3

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Mod
• Produces the remainder of the division

• Examples
• 5 % 2 evaluates to 1
• 12 % 4 evaluates to 0
• 4 % 5 evaluates to 4

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 Arithmetic Operators and Precedence
• Consider m*x + b which of the following is it equivalent
to
• (m * x) + b
• m * (x + b)
• Operator precedence tells how to evaluate expressions

• Standard precedence order

• () Evaluate first, if nested innermost
done first
• */% Evaluate second. If there are several,
then evaluate from left-to-right
 +- Evaluate third. If there are several,
then evaluate from left-to-right
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 Arithmetic Operator Precedence

• Examples
20 - 4 / 5 * 2 + 3 * 5 % 4

(4 / 5)
((4 / 5) * 2)
((4 / 5) * 2) (3 * 5)
((4 / 5) * 2) ((3 * 5) % 4)
(20 -((4 / 5) * 2)) ((3 * 5) % 4)
(20 -((4 / 5) * 2)) + ((3 * 5) % 4)

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 Increment & Decrement Operators
• Increment operator: increment variable by 1
• Decrement operator: decrement variable by 1
• Pre-increment: ++variable
• Post-increment: variable++
• Pre-decrement: --variable
• Post-decrement: variable--

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 Increment & Decrement Operators
(continued)
• ++count; or count++; increments the value of count by 1
• --count; or count--; decrements the value of count by 1
• If x = 5; and y = ++x;
• After the second statement both x and y are 6
• If x = 5; and y = x++;
• After the second statement y is 5 and x is 6

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 Assignment Operator
• Assignment operator =
• Assigns value on left to variable on right
• Binary operator (two operands)
• Example:
• int a= 5;
• float b= 9.66;
• char ch=„d‟;
• int m, n, p;
• m = n = p = 100;

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 Relational Operators
Operator Name Example
== Equality 5 == 5 // gives 1
!= Inequality 5 != 5 // gives 0
< Less Than 5 < 5.5 // gives 1
<= Less Than or 5 <= 5 // gives 1
Equal
> Greater Than 5 > 5.5 // gives 0
>=
Greater Than 6.3 >= 5 // gives 1
or Equal
Relational operators
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 Logical Operators
• Like the relational operators, logical operators
evaluate to 1 or 0.

Operator Name Example

! Logical Negation !(5 == 5) // gives 0

&& Logical And 5 < 6 && 6 < 6 // gives 1

|| Logical Or 5 < 6 || 6 < 5 // gives 1

Logical operators
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 Basic Input/Output
cin standard input stream
cout standard output stream

Standard output(cout):Format Standard input(cin):Format

Cout<<“output sentence”; int age;
Cout<<45; Cin >>age;
<< is called insertion operator >>is called extraction operator

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First Program in C++
1. #include <iostream.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. cout << "Hello World!\n";
5. return 0;
6. }

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 First Program in C++: Printing a Line
of Text (Cont.)
• Preprocessor directives
• Processed by preprocessor before compiling
• Begin with #
• Example
• #include <iostream>
• Tells preprocessor to include the input/output stream header
file <iostream>
• White space
• Blank lines, space characters and tabs
• Used to make programs easier to read
• Ignored by the compiler
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 First Program in C++: Printing a Line of Text
(Cont.)
• Function main
• A part of every C++ program
• Exactly one function in a program must be main
• what will be executed when you run your program
• “main” is function where execution starts
• Can “return” a value
• Example
• int main()
• This main function returns an integer (whole number)
• Body is delimited by braces ({})
• Statements
• Instruct the program to perform an action
• All statements end with a semicolon (;)
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 First Program in C++: Printing a Line of Text
(Cont.)
• Stream insertion operator <<
• Value to right (right operand) inserted into left operand
• Example
• cout << "Hello World!\n";
• Inserts the string " "Hello World!” " into the standard output
• Displays to the screen
• Escape characters
• A character preceded by "\"
• Indicates “special” character output
• Example
• "\n"
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• Cursor moves to beginning of next line on the screen
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 First Program in C++: Printing a Line of Text
(Cont.)
• return statement
• One of several means to exit a function
• When used at the end of main
• The value 0 indicates the program terminated successfully
• Example
• return 0;

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 Basic Elements
• Five kind of tokens in C++
• Comments
• Keywords (reserved words)
• Identifiers
• Literals
• Operators

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 Comments
• Remark about programs
• Explain programs to other programmers
• Improve program readability
• Ignored by compiler
• Two types
• Single-line comment
• Begin with //
• Example
• // This is a text-printing program.
• Multi-line comment
• Start with /*
• End with */
• Typical uses
• Identify program and who wrote it
• Record when program was written
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 Keywords (reserved words)
• Words with special meaning to the compiler
• Have a predefined meaning that can‟t be changed
• All reserved words are in lower-case letters
• Must not be used for any other purposes
• Example
• and , auto, bool, break, char, const, default, delete ,do,
double, else, for, friend, new

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 Identifiers
• Programmer given names
• Identify classes, variables, functions, etc.
• Consist of letters, digits, and the underscore character (_)
• Must begin with a letter or underscore
• Not be a reserved word
• C++ is case sensitive
• Some predefined identifiers are cout and cin
• Unlike reserved words, predefined identifiers may be redefined, but it is
not a good idea
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Legal and Illegal Identifiers
• The following are legal identifiers in C++:
• first
• conversion
• payRate

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 if-else Statement Syntax
• Formal syntax:
if (<boolean_expression>)
<yes_statement>
else
<no_statement>
• Note each alternative is only
ONE statement!
• To have multiple statements execute in
either branch  use compound statement

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 Compound Statement in Action
• Note indenting in this example:
if (myScore > yourScore)
{
cout << "I win!\n";
wager = wager + 100;
}
else
{
cout << "I wish these were golf scores.\n";
wager = 0;
}

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 The Optional else
• else clause is optional
• If, in the false branch (else), you want "nothing" to happen, leave it out
• Example:
if (sales >= minimum)
salary = salary + bonus;
cout << "Salary = %" << salary;
• Note: nothing to do for false condition, so there is no else clause!
• Execution continues with cout statement

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 Nested Statements
• if-else statements contain smaller statements
• Compound or simple statements (we‟ve seen)
• Can also contain any statement at all, including another if-else stmt!
• Example:
if (speed > 55)
if (speed > 80)
cout << "You‟re really speeding!";
else
cout << "You‟re speeding.";
• Note proper indenting!
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 Multiway if-else: Display
• Not new, just different indenting
• Avoids "excessive" indenting
• Syntax:

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Multiway if-else Example: Display

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 The switch Statement
• A new statement for controlling
multiple branches
• Uses controlling expression which returns bool data type (true or
false)
• Syntax:
• next slide

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 switch Statement Syntax

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 The switch Statement in Action

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 The switch: multiple case labels
• Execution "falls thru" until break
• switch provides a "point of entry"
• Example:
case "A":
case "a":
cout << "Excellent: you got an "A"!\n";
break;
case "B":
case "b":
cout << "Good: you got a "B"!\n";
break;
• Note multiple labels provide same "entry"
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 switch Menu Example
• Switch statement "perfect" for menus:
switch (response)
{
case "1":
// Execute menu option 1
break;
case "2":
// Execute menu option 2
break;
case 3":
// Execute menu option 3
break;
default:
cout << "Please enter valid response.";
}

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 Conditional Operator
• Also called "ternary operator"
• Allows embedded conditional in expression
• Essentially "shorthand if-else" operator
• Example:
if (n1 > n2)
max = n1;
else
max = n2;
• Can be written:
max = (n1 > n2) ? N1 : n2;
• "?" and ":" form this "ternary" operator

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 Loops
• 3 Types of loops in C++
• while
• Most flexible
• No "restrictions"
• do -while
• Least flexible
• Always executes loop body at least once
• for
• Natural "counting" loop

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 while Loops Syntax

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 while Loop Example
• Consider:
count = 0; // Initialization
while (count < 3) // Loop Condition
{
cout << "Hi "; // Loop Body
count++; // Update expression
}
• Loop body executes how many times?

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 do-while Loop Syntax

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do-while Loop Example
• count = 0; // Initialization
do
{
cout << "Hi "; // Loop Body
count++; // Update expression
} while (count < 3); // Loop Condition
• Loop body executes how many times?
• do-while loops always execute body at least once!

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 while vs. do-while
• Very similar, but…
• One important difference
• Issue is "WHEN" boolean expression is checked
• while: checks BEFORE body is executed
• do-while: checked AFTER body is executed
• After this difference, they‟re
essentially identical!
• while is more common, due to it‟s
ultimate "flexibility"

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 for Loop Syntax
for (Init_Action; Bool_Exp; Update_Action)
Body_Statement

• Example
• for (count=0;count<3;count++)
{
cout << "Hi "; // Loop Body
}
• How many times does loop body execute?

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The break and continue Statements
• Flow of Control
• Recall how loops provide "graceful" and clear flow of control in
and out
• In RARE instances, can alter natural flow
• break;
• Forces loop to exit immediately.
• continue;
• Skips rest of loop body
• These statements violate natural flow
• Only used when absolutely necessary!
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 Nested Loops
• Recall: ANY valid C++ statements can be inside body of loop
• This includes additional loop statements!
• Called "nested loops"
• Requires careful indenting:
for (outer=0; outer<5; outer++)
for (inner=7; inner>2; inner--)
cout << outer << inner;
• Notice no { } since each body is one statement
• Good style dictates we use { } anyway

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