sensors

Article
Solar Panels String Predictive and Parametric Fault Diagnosis
Using Low-Cost Sensors
Emilio García 1 , Neisser Ponluisa 1 , Eduardo Quiles 1, * , Ranko Zotovic-Stanisic 1 and Santiago C. Gutiérrez 2

1 Instituto de Automática e Informática Industrial, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera, s/n,
46022 Valencia, Spain; [email protected] (E.G.); [email protected] (N.P.);
[email protected] (R.Z.-S.)
2 Instituto de Diseño y Fabricación (IDF), Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera, s/n,
46022 Valencia, Spain; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-96-387-7007

Abstract: This work proposes a method for real-time supervision and predictive fault diagnosis
applicable to solar panel strings in real-world installations. It is focused on the detection and
parametric isolation of fault symptoms through the analysis of the Voc-Isc curves. The method
performs early, systematic, online, automatic, permanent predictive supervision, and diagnosis
of a high sampling frequency. It is based on the supervision of predictive electrical parameters
easily accessible by the design of its architecture, whose detection and isolation precedes with an
adequate margin of maneuver, to be able to alert and stop by means of automatic disconnection the
degradation phenomenon and its cumulative effect causing the development of a future irrecoverable
failure. Its architecture design is scalable and integrable in conventional photovoltaic installations. It
emphasizes the use of low-cost technology such as the ESP8266 module, ASC712-5A, and FZ0430



sensors and relay modules. The method is based on data acquisition with the ESP8266 module, which

 is sent over the internet to the computer where a SCADA system (iFIX V6.5) is installed, using the
Citation: García, E.; Ponluisa, N.; Modbus TCP/IP and OPC communication protocols. Detection thresholds are initially obtained
Quiles, E.; Zotovic-Stanisic, R.; experimentally by applying inductive shading methods on specific solar panels.
Gutiérrez, S.C. Solar Panels String
Predictive and Parametric Fault
Keywords: solar panel; predictive maintenance; fault diagnosis; photocell; partial shading degradation;
Diagnosis Using Low-Cost Sensors.
ESP8266; SCADA; iFIX
Sensors 2022, 22, 332. https://
doi.org/10.3390/s22010332

Academic Editors: Steven Chatterton

and Lang Xu 1. Introduction
Received: 17 December 2021 The European Union (EU) has proposed a more exhaustive analysis of the use of
Accepted: 31 December 2021 photovoltaic solar energy in its future energy policy. Although in recent times the most
Published: 3 January 2022 significant increase in the demand for solar energy was taking place in Asian countries,
2019 has been the year that has marked a difference, in which in the EU this demand has ex-
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
perienced higher growth, recovering a leadership position compared to other solar regions,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
by installing more solar energy than that based on other renewable energy technologies.
published maps and institutional affil-
Currently, the main reason for the success of solar energy in the EU is its low cost.
iations.
Solar energy is often cheaper than any other current technology. This is true for retail
electricity and, increasingly, for wholesale power as well. With the steeper cost reduction
curve ahead, the competitiveness of solar PV will increase even more. Other international
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. markets outside the EU also have the opportunity to benefit from the cost advantage of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. solar energy.
This article is an open access article Solar energy has achieved comparatively lower costs than its competing renewables,
distributed under the terms and and this downward trend will be more pronounced in the near future, guaranteeing very
conditions of the Creative Commons promising success. Additionally, Brussels, with its 2019 “Clean energy for all Europeans”
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// legislative package, favours the diffusion of photovoltaic energy until 2030, given its
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ versatility, speed and ease of installation.
4.0/).

Sensors 2022, 22, 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010332 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22, 332 2 of 29

The most profitable way to decarbonise the EU economy in the short term, contributing
to the achievement of its energy objectives and avoiding climate change, is to undertake
electrification based on renewable energies, where solar energy is in a very prominent
position. Due to its versatility, capacity, and the reduction in prices of solar panels of 96% in
the last ten years, solar energy is suitable and profitable to supply direct renewable energy
to public buildings, homes, companies, businesses, farms, agricultural facilities, charging
stations, etc.
Also, gases such as hydrogen obtained from renewable energies should contribute to
the fulfilment of the European Green Agreement in 2050, especially to be used in sectors
that are difficult to decarbonise, such as energy-intensive industries and heavy transport.
To produce renewable hydrogen, the sector requires a political commitment and regulatory
framework to end new investments in conventional fossil fuel-based generation and redirect
all available financing to generate a genuinely renewable hydrogen economy [1].
With the aim of continuing to increase the competitiveness of solar energy, there
are possible additional actions to be taken in relation to improving the operating and
maintenance costs of solar installations, based on the application of more appropriate
advanced methods for the supervision and predictive fault diagnosis of the facilities. It
must be taken into account that aging due to superimposed causes of degradation, as
happens with other types of industrial processes in direct outdoor installation conditions, is
a natural and inexorable phenomenon that becomes a major problem for any photovoltaic
installation. These installations are typically exposed to inclement weather conditions (such
as solar radiation, cold, rain, dust, humidity, snow, wind, and electrical storms) or pollution.
Such conditions make the appearance of the degradation phenomenon unavoidable, which
can significantly decrease energy production, diminishing the economic benefits expected
from the installation, increasing the expected return time of the investment and introducing
a component of uncertainty in the establishment of the warranty period. All of these are
fundamental factors that make it difficult for photovoltaic technology to continue increasing
its competition with other types of energy.
In the opinion of the authors of the present work, the conventional monitoring and
diagnosis methods that have been used in photovoltaic installations have not been the
most suitable since they were applied focused on the inverters of the panel strings [2–5]
but not on the solar panels themselves individually. However, it is in the panels where
the effects of degradation and catastrophic failures mostly take place in an indisputable
way, not making possible the objectives of the immediate detection and isolation of the
degrading event. This problem in all types of photovoltaic installations can be decisive
to know on which panel to act immediately, to disconnect the affected panel, improve
performance, or avoid the event of catastrophic failure. At present, the reasons that were
argued for the high costs necessary to carry out monitoring focused on the solar panel,
taking into account the technological development experienced in low-cost sensors and
devices, cannot be justified [6,7].
In this work, a predictive fault diagnosis method has been applied to be used in the
general prevention of the degradation of the panels in photovoltaic installations. It is de-
signed, in a special way but not exclusively, for the predictive diagnosis of the phenomenon
of the appearance of hot spots, which is recognized as one of the main causes of solar
panels degradation.
For the implementation of the predictive fault diagnosis algorithm, a specific low-cost
architecture has been developed to carry out online supervision of the predictive fault
parameters in each of the solar panels of the solar installation, which allows the automatic
disconnection of the panel affected avoiding the accumulation of the degrading effect. This
architecture is integrable and scalable with conventional distributed control systems of
medium and large photovoltaic installations, which will allow achieving better operating
and maintenance costs.
In the method, for the best estimate of the quantitative threshold value predictor of the
degrading symptom, the performance of experimental inductive shading tests is included
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 3 of 29

to correlate the reduction in power achieved with the induced shading. With this, an
adequate threshold value of the power deviation can be estimated so that it can be used as
a predictor parameter, avoiding the reaching of phases of irrecoverable deterioration of the
solar panel.
The main goal of the contribution is to develop a diagnosis method for PVM that is pre-
dictive, based on the online detection of a predictor symptom, centred and sampled on each
solar panel of the string, instead of being centred on the inverter, low-cost implementable,
and integrable in actually working photovoltaic installations.
This document is distributed as follows: Section 2 reviews works referring to the most
common failures in PV panels and works similar to the one proposed. In Section 3, the
hardware and software materials and the methodology to carry out the work are described.
In Section 4, the results obtained are shown, and a discussion of the results obtained with
this proposed methodology is carried out. Finally, in Section 5, the conclusions and possible
improvements that could be made are indicated.

2. Review of Solar Panels Fault Diagnosis Methods

Solar panels, when installed outdoors, are exposed to different degradation phenom-
ena due to environmental conditions (rain, hail, snow, cloudy days), vandalism, dust, bird
droppings, shadows from buildings near the facilities, aging, etc. Each of these types
of degradation phenomena can produce faults and failures [8–10], causing severe and
irreparable damage such as cracks, hot spots, fires, and total loss of the solar panel. For
this reason, it is necessary to carry out supervision and maintenance to ensure reliability,
efficiency and extended useful life in order to obtain maximum performance in power
generation [11,12].
Degradation failures due to environmental factors is the biggest problem faced by solar
panels; for this reason, several studies have been carried out on solar panels fault diagnosis.
From the point of view of the application of an early, systematic, online, automatic,
permanent predictive diagnosis, and supervision method, some requirements are desirable,
such as (a) high sampling frequency as fast as desired, (b) it should be based on the
supervision of an accessible predictive electrical parameter, (c) the detection occurs with
an adequate margin of manoeuvre so that it is able to alert and stop the degradation
phenomenon that causes the development of a future failure, and (d) it can be used to place
the system in a state of alert against the appearance of a diverse set of characteristic faults,
activating the detection, isolation, and analysis phases recognized in the general concept of
fault diagnosis [7].
Although previously the I–V parameters have not been taken into account for the
application of the supervision and diagnosis located in each of PVMs, justified by the
argument of the increase associated with the costs of the investment to be made, currently
with the experienced development of low-cost IoT sensors, this argument of increased costs
is not justified. The reduction in the power detected in the PVIs, especially the one focused
at the level of each of the panels, meets the best conditions to be used in the application of
predictive diagnosis techniques. Specifically, those parameters involved in the reduction
of the power generated in each of the PVMs, such as I-V, are strong candidates to be
supervised online in the form of time series in order to apply trend analysis algorithms on
the comparative deviation to obtain indicative signs prior to reaching a failure condition
without recovery possibility. Traditionally, the detection of the decrease in power in PVIs
has been carried out in the inverter connected to each of the strings of PVMs, but although
the accumulated decrease in the power produced can be detected in the inverter, the
possibility of quickly achieving the immediate objective of the detection and fault isolation
in the PVM is not possible. This problem in all types of PVIs can be decisive to know on
which panel to act immediately with regard to its maintenance, in order to disconnect the
affected panel, improve the overall performance, avoid catastrophic failure, or when the
problem requires additional localized panel analysis using redundant diagnosis methods.
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 4 of 29

One of the main contributions provided by the approach of the predictive diagnosis
method specified in the present work is that it is centred and focused on the PVM, where
the degradation of the process mainly takes place. Therefore, the quick detection and
isolation in incipient phases are systematically guaranteed. It is online and real-time,
using observable electrical parameters of easy accessibility and reliability and allows, to
incorporate the possibility of automating actions on the system aimed at avoiding the
future failure event, detecting not faults but predictive symptoms.
However, as with other types of industrial facilities, in the third phase of analysis asso-
ciated with the general concept of fault diagnosis together with the detection and isolation
phases, to achieve greater precision in the diagnosis of the type of fault, it is required to use
other kinds of techniques and methodologies that provide redundancy, diversity, or greater
adaptation to analyse different types of failures. In this sense, methods based on infrared
(IR) and electroluminescence (EL) thermography have been used effectively. However,
these techniques are not without problems as they require good technical training for the
maintenance teams involved [13]. They also present notable differences in the quality of the
analyses depending on whether they are carried out in the outdoor or indoor environment
and also restrictions to immediate detection when used manually and causing interruptions
in normal operation [14]. The use of remotely piloted aircrafts RPA requires non-negligible
periods of recharging their batteries [15], their effective use also requires special technical
training [16,17], and the equipment is more expensive, cannot compete in terms of speed of
detection and isolation with the online predictive diagnosis method based on the use of the
electrical parameters of the PVMs.
In a generation system based on photovoltaic solar energy, the PVMs can be connected
in series or in parallel. The appearance of defects in a cell will affect the performance of
the PVM, and in the case of PVM strings, affects globally the respective string, which will
decrease the performance of the photovoltaic system [14,18].
Therefore, in the authors’ opinion, a centralized predictive diagnosis and supervision
system based on the use of I-V predictive parameters, monitored in the form of time series
prone to the treatment of statistical data and allows the design and implementation of
intelligent algorithms, is capable of carrying out immediately and simultaneously two
of the three recognized objectives to be carried out by the diagnosis of faults, such as
the detection and isolation of the fault centred on the PVM, which is indisputably the
fundamental basic unit where to apply maintenance tasks and in a complementary way,
immediately apply security actions, such as:
(a) Automatically disconnect the detected and isolated photovoltaic panel to avoid the cu-
mulative effect of degradation and the development of irreversible catastrophic failure.
(b) Optimizing the overall performance of the photovoltaic system in terms of its energy
generation objective, taking into account that the operation of a faulty PVM together
with a non-faulty PVM causes a greater loss of power generation if they continue to
be connected together.
Therefore, in the authors’ opinion, since the first fundamental objective of safeguarding
the affected panel has been achieved, based on the use of I-V parameters and their capacity
for rapid detection and isolation, taking into account that they are involved in most types of
specific PVMs failures and degradation, it is possible with a greater margin of manoeuvre,
also in better conditions of safety and energy efficiency of the solar installation, to apply
a phase of analysis of the root cause of the degradation process, using complementary
redundant methods more complex and deeper, but slower in its application and obtaining
results, which allow establishing additional correlations with thermographic and artificial
vision parameters for the specific analysis of a great diversity of degradation causes, not
only with regard to hot spots but also to the structural physical condition of the MVPs. In
this sense, below, a set of references are highlighted whose common denominator is the use
of RGB and IRT cameras using various techniques for specific analysis.
Ref. [19] proposes infrared thermography (IRT) as the best technique to identify faults,
including hot spot development. Ref. [20], presents a thermal model to simulate the
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 5 of 29

thermal performance of PV modules. This model is coupled with an electrical model

and a radiation model to evaluate the electrical performance of the PV panels. Ref. [21]
analyses field-aged modules operating for 18–22 years. Degradation effects are observed
in severely EVA discoloured PV cells. Temperature degradation effects are identified
through IRT in bus bars, contact solder bonds, blisters, hot spots, and hot areas. Agreement
between the source of electrical performance degradation and the degradation effects in
the defected cell identified by the IRT was found using the I-V curve analysis. Ref. [22]
presents Day Light Luminescence System Testing (DaySy), which generates electro- and
photoluminescence images of installed solar modules in bright daylight. This analysis
easily reveals broken solar cells with interrupted interconnects or cracks. Ref. [23], proposes
the use of standard thermal image processing and the Canny edge detection operator
as diagnosis tools for module-related faults that lead to hot spot heating effects. These
techniques were used on thermal images of defective PV modules from several field infrared
thermographic measurements.
However, although manual and ground procedures for the specific diagnosis of the
type of failure have been used extensively, they have drawbacks and difficulties, especially
for PVIs of large extensions, as they have to be applied in complex conditions and require
time in their proper task development [24]. In [25], the automatic supervision and fault
detection procedure for PV systems is based on power losses analysis, comparing the
thermal capture losses and the miscellaneous capture losses. Ref. [17] presents a non-
invasive inspection method providing information of possible failures of photovoltaic
modules. This method relates the thermal behaviour of the modules to the operational
status of PVMs, monitoring RGB (red, green, and blue) and IRT values. An adequate
thermal measurement module strongly depends on the proper camera angle selection
relative to the panel’s surface since reflections and external radiation sources are common
causes of misleading results with the unnecessary maintenance work [26].
In this context, the use of drones makes it possible to implement different configura-
tions in order to detect different types of failures. One of the most used configurations is
the dual configuration formed by an RGB camera and an IRT camera [27]. In [19,28–32],
works are cited and described in which many previously commented drawbacks associated
with the manual use of thermographic and artificial vision techniques in PVIs have been
improved and avoided. This new approach, after the manual use of drones, introduces
new advances that increase the automation of diagnosis tasks by applying algorithms for
planning drone flight routes, with more precise positioning, systematically applying the
correct camera angles regarding the position of the panels obtaining more precise diagnosis
data [28], and finding more exact locations of the defective PVMs among hundreds or
thousands of PVMs in large PVIs.
The main method of preventing the appearance of hot spots has been the passive
bypass diodes placed in parallel with the strings of photovoltaic cells, which is a standard
practice used in the manufacture of photovoltaic panels [33,34], to avoid degradant damage
that can occur in photovoltaic cells strings [35]. Bypass diodes function as an alternate
current path that prevents extreme reverse voltage bias in PV strings. A common mis-
conception is that bypassing a string protects cells from hot spots, but in studies carried
out in [36], it is shown that although the problem is mitigated, it does not prevent the
appearance of damage caused by hot spots.
In [37,38], another of the solutions proposed to avoid the problem of hot spots is to
increase the number of bypass diodes, even up to one for each cell. However, this proposal
has not been widely accepted among PVM manufacturers due to the increased cost due to
diodes and harmful from the point of view of electrical energy production [39].
A bypass circuit to improve the behaviour of MVPs in the event of hot spots is
presented in [40]. A series-connected power MOSFET is used in the design that reduces
the reverse voltage of the shaded solar cell. In [41,42], the problems associated with the
use of the standard bypass diode are discussed, and its replacement by a switch with a
single board design and control logic is proposed, but its practical application is debatable.
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 6 of 29

The design and development of hot spot mitigation techniques using a simple, costless,
and reliable method are proposed in [43,44]. The hot spots analysis in the PV system was
carried out using a FLIER i5 IRT.
On the other hand, in recent years, PVM optimizer devices have appeared that are
presented as the solution to the problem of hot spots, and more importantly, Solar Power
Optimizers break the trend of focusing monitoring and diagnostics exclusively on the
inverter of PVMs strings since they allow supervision and diagnosis on each of the PVMs.
But their price still does not make their widespread implementation easy. An alternative
for the generalization of supervision at the PVM level can be in low-cost IoT sensors, not
losing sight of their reliability [45–47].
The MPPT solar regulation approach proposed in [45] mitigates the hot spot in partially
shaded (small) PVMs with a temperature reduction of up to 20 ◦ C, using a drive parameter
selection optimization procedure and a slider algorithm, using an MPPT approach with
perturbation and observation (P&O) algorithm to track the point of maximum real power
through successive approximations. In [48], a proposal is made for the optimal location
of voltage sensors for online fault diagnosis of a photovoltaic array, with the objective of
reducing maintenance costs.
Ref. [49] presents an Internet of Things Technology (IoT) proposal for historical analysis
of a PVM and also for real-time remotely monitoring, performance evaluation, preventive
maintenance, and fault detection.
Similar IoT based cases can be found in [50,51], including low cost embedded solar
PV monitoring system, GPRS module to send data via the internet and global accessing,
providing real-time information on help maintenance and fault diagnosis, in the first
and including smart sensors, a cutting-edge controller and an algorithm for solar array
monitoring integrating alerts for anomaly detections in PV stations, in the second.
Due to its importance, several methods are being developed to carry out the supervi-
sion of solar panels in real-time [52,53]. These methods propose the use of wireless sensor
networks and communication through low-range Zigbee, sending current, voltage, radia-
tion, and temperature data to monitor the solar panels’ parameter curves in a web or mobile
application. It should be noted that these devices have little wireless connection range.
In [54], a method is proposed for the acquisition of data on solar irradiance, environmental
temperature, wind speed and direction, voltage, current, and panel temperatures through
a PcDuino. This method allows the diagnosis of faults in real-time, saving the data to an
SD card. This method isolates the failed solar panel for maintenance. However, it is not
possible to control every solar panel on the electrical network to which they are attached.
The methods proposed in [55,56] achieve the solar panels’ fault diagnosis using data from
current, voltage and other meteorological sensors using various platforms such as Arduino
and Raspberry Pi for data acquisition. They are sent over the internet to a server for later
representation on a web page, achieving supervision. However, their overall cost is close to
100 euros, still being a high value to be implemented in each solar panel. Most of the works
focus on the I-V curves, as in [57] that proposes the acquisition of data with the Arduino
board. The sensors used to measure the current is ACS712 with hall effect, and for the
voltage, a divider voltage sensor allows to monitor Isc and Voc, as well as I-V with variable
load. It only shows the measurements in the Arduino serial monitor, and the data is plotted
in Excel. Therefore, this type of supervision is not recommended because it cannot be done
in real-time, and the Arduino board must always be connected to the computer (PC).
In [58,59], another method for panel diagnosis is indicated, and it presents remote
mode monitoring with Arduino for data acquisition and for sending the data to the ThinkS-
peak server with the ESP8266 board. This server allows viewing on a dashboard the data
collected with the ACS712-30A sensors and a voltage sensor to acquire the I-V data. Also,
in [60], the data is saved in the ADAFRUIT CLOUD server, where they are displayed in a
dashboard offered by the server. It should be noted that these servers are not free, which
means an additional cost, and the solar panels can only be viewed but not controlled.
In [61], a new method is proposed to design radiofrequency antennas in the crystals of
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 7 of 29

solar panels working as cheap sensor transponders, performing a better fault diagnosis
in the I-V curves. However, this new technique does not allow to operate with the solar
panels being not very efficient in case of serious failures.
Within this order of ideas, [62] shows the supervision and operation of solar panels
using the fuzzy NARX neural network fault arrest technique with IoT (Internet of Things)
technology. This technique detects the fault quickly and accurately, even achieving real-
time operation, which means that the solar panel can be disconnected from the system
in case of failing. Although this is a great advance from the point of view of automatic
control supervision, it should be noted that this method only allows the disconnection
of the solar panels in pairs, causing a disadvantage when optimizing their production in
case of solar panel faults. In [63], a method for monitoring with an open-source platform
based on IoT is proposed with the advantages it has over SCADA systems using the Eclipse
Kura and Eclipse Kapua software to transmit data in real-time or in batches, as well as
hardware necessary for the gateway (Kura) and the server (Kapua), uses PC Moxa UC-2112
which transmits the data through any of the communication protocols such as TCP, OPC,
Modbus TCP/IP, MQTT, OPC-UA. These protocols are also used in some research [64–66].
However, the communication is executed by MQTT from the Kapua server, sending the
data from each of the solar panels to be displayed on the Grafana platform, where the
drawn curves correspond to the parameters measured in the solar panels. Although the
method is very innovative in terms of new communication technologies, it has a gap in
automatic operation. It is also necessary to indicate that Eclipse Kura is a non-standardized
version, which is why some stability problems arise with various hardware devices.
As technology advances, new proposals continue to emerge, such as in [59] where it is
proposed to carry out tests in situ to diagnose faults in individual solar panels, based on the
use of a device called SmartPV with a cost of around 40 euros. This device allows obtaining
the operating parameters of each solar panel such as voltage, current, temperature, the
intensity of solar radiation, ambient temperature, and humidity. The data transmission is
done by wireless to a server, but the data only allows to visualize the curves of each one of
the parameters. Hence it does not allow any action to be carried out on the solar panel, such
as the automatic disconnection of a string from the solar panels, showing a disadvantage in
case of a serious failure that puts a large part of the production at risk, which is why there
is no progress in terms of automatic control.
In this work, the proposed predictive fault diagnosis method is tested using an experi-
mental test bench for the operation of three solar panels connected in series, on which the
automatic disconnection of the solar panel can be performed in real-time if a predictive
symptom of a possible future failure is detected. The development of this methodology is
done with the use of the ESP8266 module. The supervision and control of the solar panels
are carried out in the HMI/SCADA software (iFIX 6.5) dedicated to the automation of
the GE (General Electric) family of products. It is reliable industrial software with many
years of implantation in the industrial market. The work carried out shows that low-cost
technology can be integrated with robust industrial software without the need for a PLC,
making the application of low-cost predictive fault diagnosis compatible. This method
shows the supervision of the three solar panels in real-time, being able to perform tests on
the three solar panels, based on the disconnection of each of the solar panels to perform
Voc-Isc tests looking for possible downward deviations of the parameters as predictive
symptoms. The test makes it possible to detect if the solar panels are developing in an
initial stage the degrading phenomenon that will cumulatively lead in the near future to a
non-recoverable failure. Consequently, it is able to isolate the faulty solar panel and perform
the permanent automatic disconnection so that it does not harm the power generation of
the complete string while the pertinent maintenance actions are taken.

3. Materials and Methods

This part of the work is divided into two sections: The first section exposes the hard-
ware and software tools used, and the second section explains the applied methodology.
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a diode, aa diode, aa
diode,
a resistance
resistance
resistance
in parallel toin parallel
inthe
parallel
sourceto the
the source
toand source and the
andand
the diode, the diode,
seriesand
adiode, and aa series resistance
resistance [67–71].
series[67–71].
resistance [67–71].

Rs
Rs II
>> >> >> +
+
Id
Id Ip
Ip
>>

>>

Iph Rp
V
V
Iph Rp
--
Figure 1.
Figure1.
Figure Basic
1.Basic circuit
Basiccircuit of
ofaaasolar
circuitof solar cell.
solarcell.
cell.

The equations
Theequations
The equationsto to calculate
tocalculate
calculatethethe current
thecurrent and
currentand the
andthe voltage
thevoltage that
voltagethat defines
thatdefines
definesthethe curves
thecurves
curvesof of the
ofthe
the
solar
solar cell
solarcell in
cellin Figure
Figure111can
inFigure can be
canbe seen
beseen
seeninin [67,68,70].
[67,68,70].Figure
in[67,68,70]. Figure22shows
showsthethecurves
curvesof current,
ofcurrent, voltage
current,voltage
voltage
and power,
andpower,
and power,underunder conditions
underconditions
conditionsof of solar
ofsolar radiation
solarradiation
radiationofof 1000
of1000 W/m222 and
W/m
1000W/m and aa temperature
temperature of 25◦°C,
of 25 °C,
C,
which
which
whichareare the
arethe standard
thestandard parameters
standardparameters
parametersunder under optimal
underoptimal operating
optimaloperating conditions.
operatingconditions. It should
conditions.ItItshould also
shouldalso
alsobebe
be
taken
taken into
takeninto account
intoaccount
accountthat that the
thatthe output
theoutput
outputpowerpower
powerisis directly
isdirectly proportional
directlyproportional
proportionalto to the
tothe aforementioned
theaforementioned
aforementioned
parameters
parameters
parameters(solar(solar irradiance
(solarirradiance
irradianceand and
and temperature).
temperature).
temperature). The
The output
output
The power
power
output power is
is conditioned
is conditioned
conditioned by
by sev-
by several
sev-
eral
eral parameters
parameters that can
parameters that
that can
affect affect
can its its
its performance,
performance,
affect for
for example,
for example,
performance, partial,
partial, or
example, or
or total
total shading,
total shading,
partial, in addition
shading, in
in
addition
to some to some
failure in failure
the in
solar the solar
panels panels
described described
previously.
addition to some failure in the solar panels described previously. previously.

Figure 2.The
Figure2.
Figure 2. TheI-V
The I-Vand
I-V andP-V
P-Vcurves
curvesof ofaaphotovoltaic
photovoltaicdevice
device(Adapted
(Adaptedwith permission
withpermission from
permissionfrom ref.
fromref. [72].
ref.[72].
[72].
Copyright
Copyright 2015
Copyright2015 Kumar,
2015Kumar, P., et al.).
Kumar,P.,P.,etetal.).
al.).

In this work, three monocrystalline solar panels of the Victron Energy Blue Power
brand of 40 W were used (Figure 3). Their characteristics are described in Table 1. They are
manufactured with high quality and high transmission tempered glass for better toughness
and impact resistance. They also have a solid galvanized aluminium frame for installation
in different mounting systems. Its connection box is hermetic, providing high security.
There is a bypass diode for the automatic disconnection of cells affected by a shading event.
The output power will always depend on the standard parameters described in Table 1 [73].
 brand of 40 W were used (Figure 3). Their characteristics are described in Table 1. They
are manufactured with high quality and high transmission tempered glass for better
toughness and impact resistance. They also have a solid galvanized aluminium frame for
installation in different mounting systems. Its connection box is hermetic, providing high
security. There is a bypass diode for the automatic disconnection of cells affected by a
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 9 of 29
shading event. The output power will always depend on the standard parameters de-
scribed in Table 1 [73].

Figure3.3.View
Figure Viewofof solar
solar panels
panels in String.
in String.

Table1.1.SPM04041200
Table SPM04041200 solar
solar panel
panel features.
features.
Parameter
Parameter Symbol Symbol
Value Value
Unit Unit
Rated Maximum Power Pmax 40 W
Rated Maximum Power Pmax 40 W
Tolerance
Tolerance Tol 0Tol
±3 0 ±%3 %
Voltage
Voltage atatPmax
Pmax Vmp Vmp
18.33 18.33
V V
Current atatPmax
Current Pmax Imp 2.19
Imp A
2.19 A
Open-Circuit Voltage Voc 22.45 V
Open-Circuit Voltage
Short-Circuit Current Isc Voc
2.40 22.45
A V
Short-Circuit Current
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature NOCT Isc± 2
47 ◦C
2.40 A
Maximum System Voltage
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature 1000
NOCT V
47 ±DC2 °C
Maximum Series Fuse Rating 10 A
Maximum
Weight
System Voltage 3.10
1000
Kg
VDC
Maximum
Dimensions Series Fuse Rating 425 × 668 × 25 10 mm A
Operating Temperature −40 to +85 ◦C
Weight 3.10 Kg
Dimensions
Application Class Class A 425 × 668 × 25 mm
Protection Class
Operating Temperature  −40 to +85 °C
Cell Technology Mono-Si
Application Class Class A
Protection Class □
3.1.2. ESP8266 Module
Cell Technology Mono-Si
The ESP8266 device was developed by the company Espressif and is characterized
by being a low-cost chip that is used in conjunction with the NodeMCU module with a
3.1.2. ESP8266 Module
wireless internet connection. The operating voltage is 3.3 V; however, it allows input up to
The80ESP8266
10 V and device its
mA of current, was developed
processing by the
speed company
is 160 Mhz. ApartEspressif and isa characterized
from being low-cost
by being
device, it isaalso
low-cost chip that and
energy-efficient is used
easyin to conjunction
program. Thewith the NodeMCU
module is composedmodule
of severalwith a
wireless
pins such asinternet connection.
GPIO, SDIO, The I2C,
SPI/HSPI, operating voltage
I2S, UART, PWM, is 3.3
IR, V;
andhowever,
ADC. Thereit allows input up
are several
to 10 V of
versions andthis80module
mA of[74].
current, its processing speed is 160 Mhz. Apart from being a low-
This device is widely used today for and
cost device, it is also energy-efficient its versatility in the development
easy to program. The moduleof applications
is composed of
that
several pins such as GPIO, SDIO, SPI/HSPI, I2C, I2S, UART, PWM, IR, andItADC.
need to connect to the internet to transmit data or operations in real-time. is alsoThere
used in IoT applications.
are several There
versions of this are also[74].
module several investigations in which they have worked
with this technology in different scientific
This device is widely used today for areas [75–79]. in the development of applications
its versatility
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 10 of 29
that need to connect to the internet to transmit module
In this work, a NodeMCU V3 CH340 ESP8266 data or is used that in
operations allows to acquire
real-time. It is also
data and control the connection and disconnection of the solar panels in real-time (Figure 4).
used in IoT applications. There are also several investigations in which they have worked
with this technology in different scientific areas [75–79].
In this work, a NodeMCU V3 CH340 ESP8266 module is used that allows to acquire data
and control the connection and disconnection of the solar panels in real-time (Figure 4).

Figure4.4.NodeMCU
Figure NodeMCUV3
V3CH340
CH340ESP8266
ESP8266module.
module.

The disadvantage of the device is that it only has one analogue input pin (DCA), an
important feature to be able to use the module when there is more than one analogue
input. For this reason, in this work, a multiplexer/demultiplexer that is described below
has been used.
 S0 S1 S2 S3 ADC Input Channel
PIN # PIN # PIN # PIN 1 None
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
Sensors 2022, 22, 332
0 1 0 0 0 2 10 of 29
1 1 0 0 0 3
0 0 1 0 0 4
The1 disadvantage0 of the device
1 is that it only
0 has one analogue
0 input pin 5(DCA), an
important0 feature to be
1 able to use the
1 module when
0 there is more
0 than one analogue
6 input.
For this reason, in this work, a multiplexer/demultiplexer that is described below has
1 1 1 0 0 7
been used.
0 0 0 1 0 8
1 0
3.1.3. CD74HC4067 Module 0 1 0 9
0 1 0 1 0
This module allows increasing the analogue inputs in ESP8266. The module works 10
with a 1voltage range 1 from 2 V to 0 6 V. For its1configuration, 0 four digital inputs,
11 two
0 0 1 1 0
GND (ground) inputs, an analogue input, and Vcc (Direct current voltage), are 12 needed
(Figure15) [80]. Its input
0 pins are defined
1 by the1configuration0 described in Table13 2. This
Table is0created from1the four digital1 input pins 1(4 pins of the 0ESP8266), creating14 a matrix
with 161input channels 1 that transmit1 their data to1the digital analogue
0 15 ESP8266.
input of the

Figure5.5.Modulo
Figure ModuloCD74HC4067.
CD74HC4067.

Table 2. Multiplexer/demultiplexer truth table.

S0 S1 S2 S3 ADC Input Channel

# PIN # PIN # PIN # PIN 1 None
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 2
1 1 0 0 0 3
0 0 1 0 0 4
1 0 1 0 0 5
0 1 1 0 0 6
1 1 1 0 0 7
0 0 0 1 0 8
1 0 0 1 0 9
0 1 0 1 0 10
1 1 0 1 0 11
0 0 1 1 0 12
1 0 1 1 0 13
0 1 1 1 0 14
1 1 1 1 0 15

3.1.4. ACS712 Current Sensor

ACS712 is a Hall-type sensor that measures the intensity of both alternating and direct
current that passes through the conductor. Its operation is through the Hall effect; that is, it
measures the current when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the conductor, generating
a voltage difference proportional to the current that passes through it. This sensor is widely
used when working with microcontrollers such as Arduino, Raspberry Pi or, in this case,
ESP8266. This sensor works with 5 V; the variation of the amperage depends on the selected
model that can be 5 A, 20 A, 30 A (Table 3). It should be borne in mind that this sensor
 that is, it measures the current when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the conductor,
generating a voltage difference proportional to the current that passes through it. This
sensor is widely used when working with microcontrollers such as Arduino, Raspberry
Pi or, in this case, ESP8266. This sensor works with 5 V; the variation of the amperage
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 depends on the selected model that can be 5 A, 20 A, 30 A (Table 3). It should be 11 of 29 in
borne
mind that this sensor cannot be used if there is a very strong magnetic field because it
would affect the reading resolution [81–83].
cannot be used if there is a very strong magnetic field because it would affect the reading
resolution
Table [81–83].
3. Operating ranges and sensitivity.

Table 3. Operating ranges and sensitivity. Sensitivity, Sens (Typ)

Part Number TA (°C) Oprimized Range, Ip (A)
(mV/A)
Part Number TA (◦ C) Oprimized Range, Ip (A) Sensitivity, Sens (Typ) (mV/A)
ACS712ELCTR-05A-T −40 to 85 ±5 185
ACS712ELCTR-05A-T −40 to 85 ±5 185
ACS712ELCTR-20A-T −40 to 85 ±20 100
ACS712ELCTR-20A-T −40 to 85 ±20 100
ACS712ELCTR-30A-T −40 to 85 ±30 66
ACS712ELCTR-30A-T −40 to 85 ±30 66

The sensor for this work is implemented in a module that allows making the connec-
The sensor for this work is implemented in a module that allows making the connec-
tions easily (Figure 6a). The operating curve (Figure 6b) shows that the average voltage at
tions easily (Figure 6a). The operating curve (Figure 6b) shows that the average voltage at
the sensor output is 2.5 V indicating that the current is 0 A. This value varies as indicated
the sensor output is 2.5 V indicating that the current is 0 A. This value varies as indicated
above.
above.The nominal
The nominalcurrent
currentofofthe
thesensor
sensorused
usedininthis
thiswork
workisis5 5A,A,and
anditsitssensitivity
sensitivityisis185
mV/A. If the voltage is less than 2.5 V, it means that the current is negative.
185 mV/A. If the voltage is less than 2.5 V, it means that the current is negative.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Current Sensor; (a) current sensor; (b) current sensor operating curve.
Figure 6. Current Sensor; (a) current sensor; (b) current sensor operating curve.

3.1.5.Voltage
3.1.5. VoltageSensor
Sensor FZ0430
FZ0430
TheFZ0430
The FZ0430 voltage
voltage sensor
sensorconsists
consistsofofa voltage divider
a voltage (Figure
divider 7) and
(Figure 7) has
andahas
resolution
a resolu-
of 24.41 mV in its measurement. This sensor can measure up to a
tion of 24.41 mV in its measurement. This sensor can measure up to a maximummaximum of 25 of
V in
25 V
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 microcontrollers that work with 5 V. On the other hand, in microcontrollers that 12 with
work of 29
in microcontrollers that work with 5 V. On the other hand, in microcontrollers that work
3.3 V, such as the ESP8266 module, it is possible to read voltages up to 16.5 V [84].
with 3.3 V, such as the ESP8266 module, it is possible to read voltages up to 16.5 V [84].

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Voltage Sensor; (a)
Voltage Sensor; (a) Voltage
Voltage Divider;
Divider; (b)
(b) Voltage
VoltageSensor
SensorModule.
Module.

In this work, the readings to be measured are higher than 16.5 V according to the
characteristics of the solar panel (Table 1), this being a disadvantage when using this sen-
sor. However, being a voltage divider sensor inside, it is easy to modify the input. It
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 12 of 29

Figure 7. Voltage Sensor; (a) Voltage Divider; (b) Voltage Sensor Module.

In this
this work,
work, thethereadings
readingstotobebemeasured
measured areare higher
higher than
than 16.516.5 V according
V according to the
to the
characteristics
characteristics ofofthe
thesolar
solar panel
panel (Table
(Table 1), being
1), this this being a disadvantage
a disadvantage whenthis
when using using
sen- this
sensor. However,
sor. However, beingbeing a voltage
a voltage divider
divider sensorsensor inside,
inside, it is iteasy
is easy to modify
to modify the the input.
input. It It
simply requires
simply requires adding
addingaahigher
higherresistance
resistance toto
extend
extendthethe
voltage range
voltage at the
range input.
at the The The
input.
calculations are
calculations are performed
performedlater
laterininthe methodology
Section 3.2. section.

3.1.6. Relay Modules

3.1.6. Relay Modules
The relay
relaymodules
modules allow
allow thethe switching
switching of loads
of loads throughthrough mechanical
mechanical action.
action. The mod- The
ule is made
module up of up
is made optocouplers to connect
of optocouplers and disconnect
to connect the loads. the
and disconnect The loads.
relays are acti-
The relays
vated
are when it when
activated exceedsit their operating
exceeds value, and the
their operating control
value, andcan
thebe done from
control microcon-
can be done from
trollers, Arduino, Arduino,
microcontrollers, ESP8266, etc. In addition,
ESP8266, etc. Ineach relay iseach
addition, composed
relay isofcomposed
COM, NO,ofand NC NO,
COM,
pins,NC
and andpins,
its operating voltage depends
and its operating voltageondepends
its characteristics. In this work, the
on its characteristics. 8-channel
In this work, the
module is used,
8-channel moduleandisits operating
used, and itscharacteristics are in DC 30 V/10
operating characteristics A DC
are in and 30
ACV/10
250 V/10 A, AC
A and
and the activation voltage is 3.3 V (Figure 8) [85].
250 V/10 A, and the activation voltage is 3.3 V (Figure 8) [85].

Figure 8. 8-channel
Figure 8-channelrelay
relaymodule.
module.

3.1.7. Software
3.1.7. Software
In the development
developmentof ofthis
thiswork,
work,various
varioussoftware
softwareprograms
programs were
were used
used forfor communi-
commu-
cation, data acquisition and integration with the SCADA system. Their
nication, data acquisition and integration with the SCADA system. Their joint use joint use has made
has
itmade
possible to achieve
it possible the supervision,
to achieve predictive
the supervision, diagnosis,
predictive andand
diagnosis, real-time operation
real-time of the
operation
of thepanels,
solar solar panels,
carryingcarrying
out theout the integration
integration of low-cost
of low-cost technology
technology with industrial
with industrial software
software
of provenofquality.
provenThequality. The integration
integration carried
carried out out is described
is described in4.Table 4.
in Table

Table
Table 4. Software 4. Software
programs used.programs used.
Name Version Characteristics Company
Name Version Characteristics Company
• Open source
• to Open source
Arduino
Arduino IDE
IDE 1.8.15 •
1.8.15 Easy
•
program
Easy to program
Arduino
Arduino
• Versatile
• for programming
Versatile for programming other
othermodules.
modules.
• Versatility to unite various communication technologies.
• Versatility to unite various communication technologies.
KEPServerEX 6.4.321.0
• Security
• in communications.
Security in communications. Kepware
KEPServerEX 6.4.321.0 • It•brings
It brings together
together several
several industrialtechnologies.
industrial technologies. Kepware
• Secure communication with software for the development of SCADA systems.
• Secure communication with software for the development of
•
SCADA HMI/ SCADA development.
systems.
iFIX 6.5. • High performance in Monitoring and Control. General Electric
• HMI/
• SCADA development.
Greater efficiency in operations.
iFIX 6.5. General Electric
• High performance in Monitoring and Control.

3.2. Methodology
Online supervision and control of solar panels are of great importance to apply predic-
tive fault diagnosis. For this reason, in this work, an easy and fast solution is proposed,
with the low-cost sensors, devices, and technology mentioned in Section 3.1. In addition,
communication is performed with the software described in the previous section, as well
as the development of the algorithm on the SCADA System.
The ESP8266 module reads the data from the sensors and also allows the operation of
connection/disconnection of the solar panels. This data is sent to the internet through the
Modbus TCP/IP communication protocol to a local computer in which Kepserver and iFIX
software are installed. Kepserver software is configured with the same communication pro-
 the
withModbus TCP/IP
the low-cost sensors,communication protocol
devices, and technology to a local
mentioned computer
in Section inaddition,
3.1. In which Kepser
iFIX software isare
communication installed.
performed withKepserver
the software software
describedisinconfigured
the previous with
section,theas same
well com
tion
as theprotocol
developmentas ESP8266, and itonshould
of the algorithm the SCADA be noted
System. that Kepserver software allows
figuration of various communication protocols in aand
The ESP8266 module reads the data from the sensors also allows
versatile way. theAdditionally,
operation Ke
of connection/disconnection of the solar panels. This data is sent to the internet through
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 software acts as a communication broker with iFIX via local OPC communication 13 of 29
the Modbus TCP/IP communication protocol to a local computer in which Kepserver and
the
iFIXdata thatare
software has been transmitted
installed. from the
Kepserver software ESP8266with
is configured module is read
the same and displaye
communica-
SCADA
tion protocolsystem dashboards.
as ESP8266, Here
and it should the connection/disconnection
be noted that Kepserver software allowsoperation
the con- of t
tocol as ESP8266, and it should be noted that Kepserver software allows the configuration
panels
figurationisofalso performed.
various communicationThe protocols
development architecture
in a versatile of the proposed
way. Additionally, Kepserver mod
of variousacts
software communication
as a protocols
communication in a versatile
broker with iFIX way.
via Additionally,
local OPC Kepserver software
communication. In iFIX,
scribed
acts below (Figure
as a communication 9). with iFIX via local OPC communication. In iFIX, the
broker data
the data that has been transmitted from the ESP8266 module is read and displayed on the
that has been transmitted from the ESP8266 module is read and displayed on the SCADA
SCADA system dashboards. Here the connection/disconnection operation of the solar
system dashboards. Here the connection/disconnection operation of the solar panels is
panels is also performed. The development architecture of the proposed model is de-
also performed. The development architecture of the proposed model is described below
scribed below (Figure 9).
(Figure 9).

Figure 9. SCADA architecture.

Figure9.9.SCADA
Figure SCADAarchitecture.
architecture.

As
As
As explained
explained
explained in in Section
inSection
Section 3.1.5, 3.1.5,
3.1.5,the the ESP8266
theESP8266
ESP8266 moduleonly
module module
only allowsonly
allows allows
tomeasure
to measure to measure
voltages
voltages
from
from000
from toto
to 16.5
16.5
16.5 V. V. However,
V.However,
However, the the voltage
thevoltage
voltage measurement
measurement
measurement rangecan
range canberange
be can be
extended,
extended, extended,
adding
adding new addin
aanew
resistance
resistance
resistance at the
at the
at the V+ input. This
V+ input.
V+ input. change is
This change
This change made
is made is in the
in made two
the twoin sensors,
the two
sensors, both for the
bothsensors, solar
both
for the solar panel
for the sol
panel
stringsensor
string sensorand andononthe
thesensor
sensorforforthe
theVoc
Voctest
testofofeach
eachsolar
solarpanel
panel(Figure
(Figure10).
10).
string sensor and on the sensor for the Voc test of each solar panel (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Modification of voltage sensors; (a) Sensor for the Voc test of solar panel; (b) Voltage
sensor Voc of solar panels string.
Figure
Figure 10.10. Modification
Modification of voltage
of voltage sensors;
sensors; (a) Sensor for(a)
theSensor
Voc test for thepanel;
of solar Voc (b)
testVoltage
of solar panel;
sensor (b
The voltage value that the ESP8266 module can read must be calculated, but first the
sensor
Voc Voc
of solar of solar
panels panels string.
string.
calculation of the new resistance must be performed (Figure 11) as described in Equation
(1). The voltage value that the ESP8266 module can read must be calculated, but first the
The voltage value that the ESP8266 module can read must be calculated, but
calculation of the new resistance must be performed (Figure 11) as described in Equation (1).
calculation of the new resistance must be performed (Figure 11) as described in E
(1). RT = R1 + R3 RT = R4 + R6
RT = 30 kΩ + 22 kΩ RT = 30 kΩ + 133 kΩ (1)
RT = 52 kΩ RT = 163 kΩ
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 14 of 2

Sensors 2022, 22, 332 14 of 29

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅4 + 𝑅6
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 14 of 29
𝑅𝑇 = 30 kΩ + 22 kΩ 𝑅𝑇 = 30 kΩ + 133 kΩ (1)
𝑅𝑇 = 52 kΩ
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅4=+163
𝑅6kΩ
𝑅𝑇 = 30 kΩ + 22 kΩ 𝑅𝑇 = 30 kΩ + 133 kΩ (1)
𝑅𝑇 = 52 kΩ 𝑅𝑇 = 163 kΩ

Figure11.11.
Figure NewNew voltage
voltage sensors;
sensors; (a)sensor
(a) New New for
sensor fortest
the Voc theof Voc
solar test of(b)
panel; solar
Newpanel;
voltage(b) New voltag
sensor
sensor
Voc Vocpanels
of solar of solar panels string.
string.
Figure 11. New voltage sensors; (a) New sensor for the Voc test of solar panel; (b) New voltage
sensor Once
Voc ofthe
Once new
solar
the resistance
panels
new string. value
resistance has been
value obtained,
has been it is necessary
obtained, to knowtothe
it is necessary valuethe valu
know
that the sensor can measure from the ESP8266 module according to Equation (2).
that the sensor can measure from the ESP8266 module according to Equation (2).
Once the new resistance value has been obtained, it is necessary to know the value
that the sensor can =𝑉
𝑉 Vmeasure
= Vin fromR5 𝑉 V= 𝑉 R13
= Vin (according
out ( R4+ R5the
) ESP8266out
module R12+ R13) to Equation (2).
( R4+ R5) ( R12+ R13)
𝑉 𝑉 =V=𝑉
in 𝑉
= Vout R5 𝑉 𝑉= V
𝑉=
in 𝑉
= Vout R13
(2
(52ΩKΩ.+7.5Ω kΩ) (163ΩKΩ+ . 7.5ΩkΩ)
𝑉 𝑉= V 𝑉=in 3.3 V V
= 3.3 7.5 kΩ𝑉 =
. Ω
𝑉 𝑉V=
in 3.3 VV
= 3.3 7.5 kΩ
. Ω
(2)
(2)
𝑉 𝑉= 3.3
V=in 23.21 V 𝑉 𝑉= 3.3=
= 23.21Ω V. Ω Vin75.02 VΩ V. Ω
= 75.02
V V
. Ω . Ω
From 𝑉the=calculations
23.21 V and the 𝑉 changes
= 75.02made
V in the sensors previously, the circuit i
designed
Fromthe
From for both the
thecalculations data reading
calculations and the changes and
changesmadethe operation
madeininthe of thepreviously,
thesensors
sensors solar panels,
previously, being
thethe
circuit necessary
is
circuit is
to make
designed the
for connections
both the data shown
reading andin Figure
the 12.
operation of the solar panels, being
designed for both the data reading and the operation of the solar panels, being necessary necessary to
tomake
makethe
theconnections shown
connections in Figure
shown 12. 12.
in Figure

Figure
Figure 12.12. Solar
Solar panels
panels monitoring
monitoring andand control
control circuit.
circuit.
Figure 12. Solar panels monitoring and control circuit.
Additionally,
Additionally,
Additionally, it it must
it must
must be indicated
beindicated
be indicated that thatthethat
the the resolution
resolution
resolution of the theofESP8266
ofESP8266 themodule
ESP8266 is 10module
module is 10 is 1
bits.
bits.
bits.
This This
This
means meansmeans
that that that a from
voltage
a voltage
a voltage 0 V from
fromto03.3V0 VV
to to
is3.3 V3.3
is V is represented
represented
represented from 0 to from from
1024.0 to 0the
toother
On1024. 1024.
On the On the othe
other
hand,
hand,
hand, it is important
it is important
it is important to mention
to mention
to mention that
that for that
the for
foracquisitionthe acquisition
the acquisition of data offromof data
data the
from from the
the sensors
sensors sensors is neces
is neces-
is necessary
sary
to
sary to to
program program
program thethe
the ESP8266 ESP8266
module,
ESP8266 module,
whose
module, whose
programming
whose programming
programming is carried is carried
out
is carriedin the inoutthein
out Arduino the
IDEArduin
Arduino
software,
IDEIDEsoftware, being
software, essential
being
being to add
essential
essential to several
to add
add libraries
severalseveral for its for
correct
libraries
libraries operation.
forcorrect
its its correct operation.
operation.
After
After
After the
the thedata
datadata hashas
has been
beenbeenread from
readread
from the
fromthevoltage and
the voltage
voltage andcurrent
and
current sensors
current
sensors byby thethe
sensors ESP8266
byESP8266
the ESP826
module,
module,
module, it
it is is sent
it sent
is sentthrough
through
through the Modbus
the the
Modbus
Modbus TCP/IP
TCP/IP communication
TCP/IPcommunication
communication protocol
protocol to the remote
to the
protocol toremote
the remot
computerwhere
computer wherethe theiFIXiFIXand
andKepserverEX
KepserverEXsoftware softwareare areinstalled.
installed.The The KepserverEX
KepserverEX soft- soft
computer where the iFIX and KepserverEX software are installed. The KepserverEX
software is used as a communication tunnel between the ESP8622 module and the SCADA
ware
ware is is
usedused as as
a communication
a communication tunneltunnel between
betweenthe ESP8622
the ESP8622 module and the
module andSCADA
the SCADA
(iFIX). It is important to point out that for communication between the aforementioned
(iFIX). It is important
(iFIX). Itisisnecessary
important to point out
to pointthe that
outOPC for communication
thatcommunication
for communication between the aforementioned
software to configure protocolbetween
in iFIX. the aforementioned
software
software is necessary
is necessary to configure
to configure the the
OPCOPC communication
communication protocol in iFIX.
protocol in iFIX.
 𝑉 < 2.5 → −↓ 𝐴
The value of the current (I) measured by the sensor is defined by Equation (7), where
Vin is the voltage that enters pin 2 of the CD74HC4067 module (ACS712 sensor output
pin), the resolution is the voltage of the ESP8266 reference (3.3 V) for 10 bits (1024), and
the sensitivity of the ACS712-5A sensor is 0.185 μV/A (Equations (7) and (8)).
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 15 of 29
Sensor sensitivity= 0.185 μV → ACS712 (5A) (6)

Reference voltage resolution = 3.3 V/1024 (7)

Data transferred from KepserverEx to iFIX is defined by analogue signal and digital
signal tags (Figure 𝐼13).
= Furthermore,
𝑉 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 2.5 V /𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
the calculations to indicate A the values read by the(8)
current
Onand
the voltage sensors
other hand, are performed
the voltage read byin calculation
the tags. It is
ESP8266 module is interpreted
also convenient to note
according to
that the ACS712 current sensor must be powered at 5 V (2.5 V being equivalent to
Equation (9). Calculations are performed in a calculation tag within the iFIX software [86].0 A).
It must be taken into account that the reference 𝑉 voltage
− 𝑉 of the ESP8266 module is 3.3 V.
Therefore, calculations must 𝑉= 𝑉 − 𝑅to show
be made ∗ the correct reading
+ 𝑉 (Equations (3)–(5)). (9)
𝑅 −𝑅
𝑉 is the voltage that enters pin Vin0>and 2.51→ of +
the↑ CD74HC4067
A module, Rmin is the min-
(3)
imum resolution of the ESP8266 module (Rmin = 0); Vmax is the maximum voltage from equa-
tion 2 (Vmax = 23.21 V or 75.05 V), andVR =is2.5
inmax the→maximum
0A (4)
resolution of the ESP8266 mod-
ule (Rmax = 1024). The calculated values
Vin <of 2.5the
→voltage
− ↓ A and current sensors are shown (5)on
the SCADA dashboard made in iFIX (Figure 14).

Figure13.
Figure 13. Creation
Creationof
oftags
tagsin
iniFIX
iFIX6.5.
6.5.

The value of the current (I) measured by the sensor is defined by Equation (7), where
Vin is the voltage that enters pin 2 of the CD74HC4067 module (ACS712 sensor output
pin), the resolution is the voltage of the ESP8266 reference (3.3 V) for 10 bits (1024), and the
sensitivity of the ACS712-5A sensor is 0.185 µV/A (Equations (7) and (8)).

Sensor sensitivity = 0.185 µV → ACS712(5A) (6)

Reference voltage resolution = 3.3 V/1024 (7)

I = {[(Vin ∗ Resolution) − 2.5 V]/Sensibility} A (8)
On the other hand, the voltage read by the ESP8266 module is interpreted according to
Equation (9). Calculations are performed in a calculation tag within the iFIX software [86].

Vmax − Vmin
 
V = (Vin − Rmin ) ∗ + Vmin (9)
Rmax − Rmin

Vin is the voltage that enters pin 0 and 1 of the CD74HC4067 module, Rmin is the
minimum resolution of the ESP8266 module (Rmin = 0); Vmax is the maximum voltage from
Equation 2 (Vmax = 23.21 V or 75.05 V), and Rmax is the maximum resolution of the ESP8266
module (Rmax = 1024). The calculated values of the voltage and current sensors are shown
on the SCADA dashboard made in iFIX (Figure 14).
 Sensors 2022, 22, 332 16 of 29
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 16 of 29

(a)

(b)
Figure 14. SCADA
Figure system;
14. SCADA (a) Main
system; screen;
(a) Main (b) Historical
screen; data data
(b) Historical screen.
screen.

The TheVoc-Isc teststests

Voc-Isc are are
carried outout
carried through
through short-term
short-termprogrammed
programmedserialserialdisconnec-
disconnections
tionsofofeach
each solar
solar panel to tograph
graphitsitscurves
curvesonon thethe SCADA
SCADA dashboard.
dashboard. TheThe
faultfault diagnosis
diagnosis
method
method lookslooks for possible
for possible comparative
comparative downward
downward deviations
deviations of theofparameters
the parameters as pre-
as pre-
dictive
dictive symptoms
symptoms indicative
indicative that that a fault
a fault is developing
is developing in anininitial
an initial
stage.stage.
ThisThis degrading
degrading
phenomenon
phenomenon will will cumulatively
cumulatively lead lead
in the innear
the near future
future to a to a non-recoverable
non-recoverable failure.
failure. It is It is
necessary to indicate that the Voc test is carried out first, and then the Isc test is carried out.
necessary to indicate that the Voc test is carried out first, and then the Isc test is carried
out. This same process is is repeated
repeated for
for all
all the
the solar
solar panels
panels connected
connected to to the
the string.
string.
Predictive FaultFault
Predictive Diagnosis Method
Diagnosis Method
Predictive fault diagnosis
Predictive fault diagnosisis based on carrying
is based on carryingout experimental
out experimental tests tests
to locate pre- pre-
to locate
dictive symptoms.
dictive symptoms.The Voc-Isc curves
The Voc-Isc are plotted
curves on the
are plotted onsame dashboard
the same dashboard to facilitate the the
to facilitate
online comparison
online comparisonof the
ofcurves of the
the curves ofthree solarsolar
the three panels.panels.
The The
data data
update can be
update candone every
be done 100 ms,
every 100 which
ms, which is the
is recommended
the recommended or standard
or standard
update defined
update by KEPServerEX
defined by KEPServerEX V6; however,
V6; however,this can
thisbe candefined
be definedby thebyuser, depending
the user, depending
on the type of application and the characteristics of the hardware that is
on the type of application and the characteristics of the hardware that is being attachedbeing attached to to
the software. In this
the software. Incase, a period
this case, of 1 sofwas
a period 1 s used, which
was used, is enough
which is enoughto transfer data data
to transfer because
because
programming
programming the ESP8266
the ESP8266module, a sample
module, of 300
a sample of readings
300 readingsis made, which
is made, are averaged
which are averaged
to have
to have a single
a single reading
reading and and
sent sent
everyevery second
second thusthusgivinggiving
a more a more reliable
reliable result.
result. In theIn the
KEPServerEX
KEPServerEX V6 software
V6 software configuration,
configuration, a timea of
time
1 s of
to 1wait
s tofor
waitthefor the update
update is defined.
is defined.
The The Voc-Isc
Voc-Isc curves
curves mustmust be similar
be similar in normal
in normal conditions
conditions because
because they they are from
are from the the
same type of PVMs with the same characteristics. However, if any of them is different, itit can
same type of PVMs with the same characteristics. However, if any of them is different,
can be understood that a fault symptom has occurred and has been detected. For every
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 17 of 29
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 17 of 29

be understood that a fault symptom has occurred and has been detected. For every fault
symptom,
fault symptom,it is necessary to automatically
it is necessary isolate
to automatically the solar
isolate panel
the solar so assonot
panel as to
notcompromise
to compro-
the
mise the entire production of the solar panel string until analysing the type of the
entire production of the solar panel string until analysing the type of fault, cause
fault, the
and finally giving it the necessary attention to avoid the failure, and subsequently
cause and finally giving it the necessary attention to avoid the failure, and subsequently reconnect
it to the string
reconnect it toofthesolar panels.
string In this
of solar way, In
panels. it isthis
detected
way, ita is
symptom
detectedthat can subsequently
a symptom that can
generate a hot spot or irreparable damage to the solar panels (Figure
subsequently generate a hot spot or irreparable damage to the solar panels (Figure 15).15).

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Flow chart for
Flow chart for predictive
predictive fault
fault diagnosis.
diagnosis.

Finally, the
the proposed
proposed method
method for parametric
parametric predictive fault diagnosis is verified
through 88experiments.
through experiments.InInthe
thefirst
first experiment,
experiment, thethe solar
solar panels
panels are are operating
operating correctly
correctly and
and without
without shadows,
shadows, andremaining
and the the remaining
sevenseven
were were carried
carried out covering
out covering different
different areas
areas of the
solar
of thepanel, representing
solar panel, partialpartial
representing shadowing. The following
shadowing. sectionsection
The following explains the results
explains of
the re-
the
sultsexperiments.
of the experiments.

4. Results and
4. Results and Discussion
Discussion
This
This section
section presents
presents the
the different
different experiments
experiments carried out in
carried out in the
the first
first solar
solar panel
panel
(SP1) (Figure 3). These experiments are based firstly on the string of solar panels
(SP1) (Figure 3). These experiments are based firstly on the string of solar panels without without
shadows
shadows andand then
then covering different areas
covering different areas of
of the
the solar
solar panel
panel to
to observe
observe the
the behaviour
behaviour ofof
the Isc-Voc curve with respect to the other solar panels. The experiment was
the Isc-Voc curve with respect to the other solar panels. The experiment was carried carried outout
on
the terrace
on the of Building
terrace 5C of
of Building 5Cthe
of Polytechnic University
the Polytechnic of Valencia
University (latitude
of Valencia and longitude:
(latitude and lon-
gitude: +39°28′56.53′′, −0° 20′36.88′′). Table 1 shows that the dimensions of the solar mod-
ule are 37 × 63.5 cm, and its area is 0.235 m2.
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 18 of 29

Sensors 2022, 22, 332 +39◦ 280 56.5300 , −0◦ 200 36.8800 ). Table 1 shows that the dimensions of the solar module
18 of 29 are
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 37 × 63.5 cm, and its area is 0.235 m2 . 18 of 29

4.1. Sensor Measurement Check

4.1. Sensor Measurement Check
4.1. The calibration
Sensor Measurementof the sensors is important to know the measurement error of the sensor
Check
The calibration of the sensors is important to know the measurement error of the
with respect
The to the
calibration DT-33D
of the multimetre
the DT-33D
sensors becauseto
is important the reading
know of the sensorserror
must comply
sensor with respect to multimetre because thethe measurement
reading of the sensorsof the
must
with the IEC61724
sensor with standard. The standard indicates that the accuracy of the measurement
comply with respect to thestandard.
the IEC61724 DT-33D multimetre because
The standard thethat
indicates reading of the sensors
the accuracy must
of the meas-
incomply
voltage andthe current must have a maximum error of 1%,that
and theaccuracy
maximumthe error of the
urementwith IEC61724
in voltage standard.
and current must The standard
have indicates
a maximum error ofthe
1%, and theofmaximum
meas-
power
urement must be
in power2% [55].
voltagemust
and be current must have a maximum error of 1%, and the maximum
error of the 2% [55].
errorVoc
(1) of the power mustof
measurement bethe
2%solar
[55]. panel string (Figure 16).
(1) Voc measurement of the solar panel string (Figure 16).
(1) Voc measurement of the solar panel string (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Voc measurement in string solar panels.

Figure 16.Voc
Figure16. Vocmeasurement
measurement in string solar
in string solarpanels.
panels.
(2) Measurement
(2) Measurement of
of Isc
Iscand
andVoc
Vocof
ofaasolar
solarpanel
panel(Figure 17).
(Figure 17).
(2) Measurement of Isc and Voc of a solar panel (Figure 17).

Figure 17. Voc-Isc tests in SP1.

Figure 17. Voc-Isc tests in SP1.
Figure 17. Voc-Isc tests in SP1.
The measured data comply with the IEC61724 standard. Table 5 indicates that the
Thesensor
voltage
The measured
measured data
reading comply
error
data with
is below
comply the
1%
with asIEC61724
the required standard.
IEC61724 bystandard.Table
the standard.
Table5 indicates thatthat
5 indicates the the
voltage sensor reading error is below 1% as required by the standard.
voltage sensor reading error is below 1% as required by the standard.
Table 5. Voc measurements in solar panels.
Table 5. Voc measurements in solar panels.
SP Multimeter (V) Sensor (V) Error %
SP SP
String Multimeter
66.6 (V) Sensor
67.08(V) Error
0.48 %
0.72%
String
SP 1SP 66.6
22.1 67.08
22.05 0.48
0.05 0.72%
0.23%
SP 1 22.1 22.05 0.05 0.23%
 SP 2 22.10 22.10 0.00
SP 3 22.2 22.15 0.05
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 19 of 29

Table 6 shows the measurements made on the three panels by the AC

Table 5. Voc
verifying thatmeasurements in solar panels.
the IEC61724 standard
is met in the Isc measurement.
SP Multimeter (V) Sensor (V) Error %
Table 6.String
Isc measurements
SP 66.6in solar panels.
67.08 0.48 0.72%
SP 1 22.1 22.05 0.05 0.23%
SP 2 22.10 22.10 0.00 0.00%
SP SP 3
Multimeter
22.2
(A) Sensor
22.15
(A)
0.05
Error
0.23%
SP 1 2.14 2.13 0.01 0
SP 2Table 6 shows the measurements
2.23 2.25panels by the ACS712
made on the three 0.02 sensor, 0
verifying that the IEC61724 standard is met in the Isc measurement.
SP 3 2.24 2.23 0.01 0
Table 6. Isc measurements in solar panels.
4.2. Solar Panel
SP
Experiments
Multimeter (A) Sensor (A) Error %
The SP
experiments
1 in this section2.13consist of the
2.14 0.01analysis of0.47%
the behaviour
SP 2 2.23 2.25 0.02 0.90%
Isc-Voc for
SP 3predictive faults
2.24 diagnosis.
2.23 0.01 0.45%

4.2.1.
4.2.Solar Panels
Solar Panel without Shadows
Experiments
The experiments in this section consist of the analysis of the behaviour of the curve
In Figure 18, the voltage produced by the string of solar panels in open
Isc-Voc for predictive faults diagnosis.
normal operation is shown. The Voc curves of each of the solar panels are al
4.2.1. Solar Panels without Shadows
Figure 18a, the sum of the voltage of the three solar panels connected in stri
In Figure 18, the voltage produced by the string of solar panels in open circuit in its
Figure 18boperation
normal has two dashboards.
is shown. The first
The Voc curves of eachdashboard (left)are
of the solar panels shows that the vo
also plotted.
the solar panel
In Figure 18a, string
the sumdecreases when
of the voltage of thea three
solarsolar
panel is disconnected.
panels connected in stringTheis secon
67.08 V. Figure 18b has two dashboards. The first dashboard (left) shows that the voltage
(right) shows that the three Voc curves are similar because they are under t
Voc of the solar panel string decreases when a solar panel is disconnected. The second
ditions, showing
dashboard a variation
(right) shows of 0.002257%
that the three Voc curves areinsimilar
one of the solar
because panels.
they are In Figur
under the
samepresented
curves conditions, showing
are fora variation of 0.002257%
each solar panel.inInone of the solarthey
addition, panels.present
In Figure the
18c, same
the Isc curves presented are for each solar panel. In addition, they present the same
in Figure
behaviour18b.
as in Figure 18b.

(a)
Figure 18. Cont.
ors 2022, 22, 332
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 20 of 29

(b)

(c)
18. Voc
Figure 18.
Figure Voctest;test;
(a) Voc
(a)testVoc
to the SP string;
test to the(b)SP
Vocstring;
test to each
(b)one of the
Voc solar
test topanels;
each(c)one
Isc test
of the sol
to each of the solar panels.
test to each of the solar panels.
The tests carried out on each of the solar panels were performed in real-time. The
curves are different if the solar panels are exposed to different conditions or when detecting
The tests carried out on each of the solar panels were performed in
a fault.
curves are different if the solar panels are exposed to different conditions o
4.2.2.
ing Experiments with Covered Areas of Different Sizes in a Solar Panel
a fault.
In this section, seven different experiments were carried out on a single solar panel
(SP1) of the string to analyse the behaviour of its Isc-Voc curves. The shaded areas used for
4.2.2. Experiments
the experiment with
are listed Covered
in Table 7. Areas of Different Sizes in a Solar Panel
In this section, seven different experiments were carried out on a sin
Table 7. Shaded Areas.
(SP1) of the string to analyse the behaviour of its Isc-Voc curves. The shad
L1 (cm) L2 (cm) Area (m2 ) %
for the experiment are listed in Table 7.
Solar panel 37 63.5 0.235 100.00%
Shadow 1 4.7 4 0.002 0.80%
TableShadow
7. Shaded
2 Areas.16 3.7 0.006 2.52%
Shadow 3 37 3.7 0.014 5.98%
Shadow 4 63 4 0.025 10.73%
Shadow 5 20.5 L1 (cm) 16.3 L2 (cm) 0.033 )
Area (m214.22%
Shadow
Solar6 panel 37 37 16.5 63.5 0.061 0.235 25.98% 10
Shadow 7 46 33.2 0.153 65.00%
Shadow 1 4.7 4 0.002 0
Shadow 2 16 3.7 0.006 2
Shadow 3 37 3.7 0.014 5
Shadow 4 63 4 0.025 1
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 21 of 29

Case (a) 0.80% shadow area

In Figure 19, it can be seen that an area of 0.80% of the SP1 is covered. This represents a
cell of the solar panel. When performing the Voc-Isc tests in SP1 and then in the other solar
panels, it can be observed that the Isc-Voc curves of SP1 do not show significant changes in
Voc with respect to the other solar panels. However, a small impact on the Isc curve of SP1
with respect to the other solar panels can be observed (Figure 19). Although the changes
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 are not significant, it is predicting a fault, which is not significant at the moment, but21which
of 29
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 may generate a hot spot in the future. 21 of 29

Figure 19. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with a shaded area of 0.8%.
Figure 19. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with a shaded area of 0.8%.
Figure 19. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with a shaded area of 0.8%.
Case (b) 2.52% shadow area
Case (b) 2.52% shadow area
CaseIn (b)Figure
2.52% 20,
shadow
it canarea
be seen that the shaded area covers 2.52% of SP1, representing
four In
In Figure
Figure
cells 20,
of SP1. ititcan
20,When canbebeseen that
seen
performing the
that shaded
the
the shaded
Voc-Isc area covers
area
tests, 2.52%
covers
the change of
inSP1,
2.52% representing
of SP1,
the Voc of four
representing
curve SP1
cells
does of
four cellsSP1. When
of SP1.any
not reflect performing
When the
performing
change Voc-Isc
the to
in reference tests,
Voc-Isc
the Voc the change
tests, theother
of the in
change the Voc
in the
solar curve
VocThe
panels. of SP1
curve
Iscofdoes
SP1
curve
not
does
of reflect
SP1 not
withany
reflectchange
any to
respect in
thereference
change to the
in reference
other solar Voc
to the
panels of the other
Voc of the
indicates solar
other
that panels.
theresolar The IscThe
is apanels. curve
short-circuitIsc of SP1
curve
current
with respect
of SP1ofwith
drop to the
13%,respect
proving other
tothat solar
the the panels
other indicates
solar panels
proposed method that
indicatesthere is
detectsthat a short-circuit
thethere
shadowis afault current
short-circuit drop
in SP1. currentof
13%, proving that the proposed method detects the shadow fault
drop of 13%, proving that the proposed method detects the shadow fault in SP1. in SP1.

Figure 20. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with a shaded area of 2.52%.
Figure 20. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with a shaded area of 2.52%.
Figure 20. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with a shaded area of 2.52%.
Case (c) 5.98% shadow area
CaseIn
Case (c)Figure
(c) 5.98% 21,
5.98% shadow area area is increased in relation to the previous experiment. An
the shaded
shadow area
entireIncolumn
Figure of
21,SP1
thesolar
shaded area
cells is increased
is covered. As ainresult,
relation
theto the previous
Voc-Isc experiment.
tests carried An
out in SP1
entireInthat
show Figure
column 21,SP1
of
in the the solar
Voc shaded area
cells
curve, is
is increased
is covered.
there a slight ainresult,
relation
Aschange, thetoVoc-Isc
the previous
decreasing bytests experiment.
carried
0.11% An
out in SP1
in reference to
entire
show column
that in of
the SP1
Voc solar cells
curve, is
there covered.
is a As
slight a result,
change, the Voc-Isc
decreasing bytests carried
0.11% in
the other solar panels. The Isc curve of SP1 can be seen to decrease 24% in relation to the out in
reference SP1
to
show that
the other in the Voc
solar panels. curve, there
The Isciscurveis a slight
of SP1 sochange, decreasing
cananbeimportant
seen to decreaseby 0.11%
24% in reference
in relation to
other Isc curves. This value significant, fault has been detectedtothat
the
the other solar panels. The Isc curve of SP1 can be seen to decrease 24% in relation to the
other be
must Iscreviewed.
curves. This value is significant, so an important fault has been detected that
other Isc curves. This value is significant, so an important fault has been detected that must
must be reviewed.
be reviewed.
 Case (c) 5.98% shadow area
In Figure 21, the shaded area is increased in relation to the previous experiment. An
entire column of SP1 solar cells is covered. As a result, the Voc-Isc tests carried out in SP1
show that in the Voc curve, there is a slight change, decreasing by 0.11% in reference to
Sensors 2022, 22, 332
the other solar panels. The Isc curve of SP1 can be seen to decrease 24% in relation 22 toofthe
29
other Isc curves. This value is significant, so an important fault has been detected that
must be reviewed.

Figure 21. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 5.98%.
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 Figure 21. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 5.98%. 22 of 29

Case (d)
Case (d) 10.73%
10.73% shadow
shadow area
area

In Figure
In Figure 22,
22, aa whole
whole rowrow of
of solar
solar cells
cells is
is covered,
covered, andand the
the Voc-Isc
Voc-Isc tests are carried
tests are carried
out, providing as a result that the Voc is reduced by 0.77% in SP1. This decrease doesdoes
out, providing as a result that the Voc is reduced by 0.77% in SP1. This decrease not
not present
present significant
significant changes
changes in relation
in relation to other
to the the other
solarsolar panels.
panels. The The result
result of Isc
of the thetest
Isc
test in SP1 decreases abruptly by 108% when compared with the Isc
in SP1 decreases abruptly by 108% when compared with the Isc of the other solar panels. of the other solar
panels.
It It can
can also also be observed
be observed that thethat
SP1 the SP1to
begins begins
consumeto consume energy
energy from from
the otherthesolar
other solar
panels
panels reducing their production. Therefore, this fault has a lot of relevance,
reducing their production. Therefore, this fault has a lot of relevance, significantly affect- significantly
affecting
ing production.
production. It is necessary
It is necessary to immediately
to immediately disconnect
disconnect SP1 fromSP1the
from thepanel
solar solar string
panel
stringproper
until until proper maintenance
maintenance is performed.
is performed. Therefore,
Therefore, it is once
it is once againagain demonstrated
demonstrated thatthat
the
the proposed method is effective and reliable when detecting fault symptoms.
proposed method is effective and reliable when detecting fault symptoms.

Figure 22. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 10.73%.
Figure 22. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 10.73%.
Case
Case (e)
(e) Shaded
Shaded area at 14.22%
area at 14.22%
In Figure 23, the shadow area is greater than in the previous experiment. In the Voc-
In Figure
Isc tests, 23, theof
a decrease shadow
1.28% area is greaterinthan
is observed the in the previous
voltage experiment.
of the Voc curve ofInSP1.
the Voc-Isc
Isc de-
creases by 75% in relation to the other solar panels. This decrease is not as serious as by
tests, a decrease of 1.28% is observed in the voltage of the Voc curve of SP1. Isc decreases in
75%previous
the in relation to the otherwhere
experiment, solar SP1
panels. This decrease
behaved as a load, is not
the as seriousarea
shading as in the previous
being smaller.
experiment,
This where
fact is due SP1configuration
to the behaved as a of load,
the the shading
solar cells. Itarea being
is still smaller.
critical as itThis fact is 25%
produces due
to the configuration of the solar
power compared to other solar panels. cells. It is still critical as it produces 25% power compared
to other solar panels.

Figure 23. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 14.22%.
 Case (e) Shaded area at 14.22%
In Figure 23, the shadow area is greater than in the previous experiment. In the Voc-
Isc tests, a decrease of 1.28% is observed in the voltage of the Voc curve of SP1. Isc de-
creases by 75% in relation to the other solar panels. This decrease is not as serious as in
Sensors 2022, 22, 332
the previous experiment, where SP1 behaved as a load, the shading area being smaller. 23 of 29
This fact is due to the configuration of the solar cells. It is still critical as it produces 25%
power compared to other solar panels.

Figure 23. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 14.22%.
Figure 23. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 14.22%.
Case
Case (f)
(f) Shaded
Shaded areaarea at
at 26.34%
26.34%
In Figure 24, the shadow area represents more than a quarter of the solar panel. The
In Figure
Voc-Isc 24, theout
tests carried shadow
show area represents
that there more than
is a decrease a quarter
of 4.11% of the
in the Vocsolar panel.
of SP1. The
Despite
Voc-Isc tests carried out show that there is a decrease of 4.11% in the Voc
this, the difference in Voltage Voc in relation to the other panels is not so great. On theof SP1. Despite
this, the
other difference
hand, it can beinseen
Voltage
that Voc
the in
Iscrelation to the
of SP1 has otherabrupt
a quite panelsdropis not
andso that
great.
theOn the
panel
other hand, it can be seen that the Isc of SP1 has a quite abrupt drop and
begins to absorb energy and not to generate current in reference to the other solar panels. that the panel
begins
Its to absorb
decrease energy
is 109% anda not
being to generate
percentage thatcurrent in reference
compromises to the otherTherefore,
all production. solar panels. it
Its decrease is 109% being a percentage that compromises all production.
must be disconnected from the string of solar panels. The disconnection of SP1 is done Therefore, it
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 must be disconnected
automatically and online. from the string of solar panels. The disconnection of SP1 is
23 done
of 29
automatically and online.

Figure 24. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 26.34%.
Figure 24. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with shaded area 26.34%.

Case (g)
Case (g) Shaded
Shaded area
area at
at 65.00%
65.00%
In Figure 25, the experiment consists of shading 65% of SP1. Voc of SP1 decreases by
19% inIn relation
Figure 25,to the
the experiment consistsThis
other solar panels. of shading
time the65% of SP1.
change VocVoc
in the of SP1 decreases
curve by
is evident,
19% in relation to the other solar panels. This time the change in the Voc curve
but it is still capable of producing a high voltage. The same does not happen when the Isc is evident,
but
test it
is is still capable
performed on of producing
each a high
of the solar voltage.
panels. The
It can besame
seen does not happen
that, once when
again, the Iscthe Isc
curve
test is performed
of SP1 on each
decreases with of the
respect tosolar panels.
the other It can
solar be seen
panels that, once
by 111.4%. again,
This the Isc
indicates curve
that the
of SP1 decreases with respect to the other solar panels by 111.4%. This indicates that the
solar panel is consuming current from the other panels.
solar panel is consuming current from the other panels.
The results of this experiment show that the SP2 and SP3 panels have reduced their
The results of this experiment show that the SP2 and SP3 panels have reduced their
generation by 3.7% and 3.4%, respectively, compared with the results of the first experi-
generation by 3.7% and 3.4%, respectively, compared with the results of the first experiment
ment with shadow 1. This implies that SP1 must be disconnected from the solar panel
with shadow 1. This implies that SP1 must be disconnected from the solar panel string.
string.
Once again, it is demonstrated that the proposed method is efficient in detecting
Once again, it is demonstrated that the proposed method is efficient in detecting fault
fault symptoms in real-time and predictively. The panel with the fault symptom can be
symptoms in real-time and predictively. The panel with the fault symptom can be discon-
disconnected without compromising the production of electrical energy from the other
nected without compromising the production of electrical energy from the other solar
solar panels connected in string.
panels connected in string.
 generation by 3.7% and 3.4%, respectively, compared with the results of the first experi-
ment with shadow 1. This implies that SP1 must be disconnected from the solar panel
string.
Once again, it is demonstrated that the proposed method is efficient in detecting fault
symptoms in real-time and predictively. The panel with the fault symptom can be discon-
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 24 of 29
nected without compromising the production of electrical energy from the other solar
panels connected in string.

Figure 25. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with 65% shaded area.
Figure 25. Isc and Voc test at SP1 with 65% shaded area.
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 24 of 29
After the experiments carried out, it can be seen that the method developed allows
After the experiments carried out, it can be seen that the method developed allows
predictive fault diagnosis and also the operation of the solar panels in real-time, guaran-
predictive fault diagnosis and also the operation of the solar panels in real-time, guaran-
teeing that through the Voc-Isc tests, fault symptoms can be detected and also disconnect
teeing that through the Voc-Isc tests, fault symptoms can be detected and also disconnect
• the pink when
panelthe solar
thepanels are being connected;
the solar
solar panel from
from the solar panel
solar panel string,
string, without threatening
without threatening production
production until
until proper
proper
• maintenance
light blue is
when only
performed two
and solar
the panels
solar haveisbeen
panel connected;
reconnected to the string.
maintenance is performed and the solar panel is reconnected to the string.
• orange when there are some small peaks that indicate that there are sporadic shad-
4.3. ows
4.3. from Data
Historical
Historical clouds;
Data ofof Voc
Voc ofof the
the String
String of
of Solar
Solar Panels
Panels
• dark
The green indicates the night production, in this case 0of
V;the string of solar panels. A
The SCADA
SCADA also also allows
allows seeing
seeing the
the historical
historical data
data Voc
Voc of the string of solar panels. A
• history
red indicates the loss of connection to the
record of less than 72 consecutive hours is shownnetwork;
shown in in Figure
Figure 26.
26.
• light green
Figure indicates
26 shows the variation
multiple in solar
variations irradiance.
in the historical data of the voltage produced in
open circuit by the string of the solar panels. The variations are indicated with ovals of
different colours:

Figure
Figure26.
26.Historical
Historicaldata
dataofofthe
theVoc
Vocsolar
solarpanel
panelstring.
string.

AFigure
simple,26easy
shows multiple variations
to implement, in the
reliable and historical
efficient data of
solution forthe voltage produced
predictive fault diag-in
openincircuit
nosis by of
a string thesolar
string of thehas
panels solar panels.
been The variations
proposed. are has
This method indicated
a verywith
low ovals
imple-of
different colours:
mentation cost. Table 8 lists the materials and prices for implementing this methodology.
• pink when the solar panels are being connected;
Table 8. Material costs to implement the proposed solution.
• light blue when only two solar panels have been connected;
• orange whenDescription
there are some small peaks that indicate
Units that
Unit there(€)are sporadic
Price shadows
Total Price (€)
from clouds;
ESP8266 Module 1 2.31 2.31
• dark green indicates the
CD74HC4067 night production, in 1this case 00.44
Module V; 0.44
• red ACS712ELCTR-05B-T
indicates the loss of connection
Sensor to the network;
1 0.83 0.83
• light green indicates the variation in solar irradiance.
FZ0430 Sensor 2 0.21 0.42
A simple, easy
Relayto Module
implement, reliable and efficient
2 solution 3.55for predictive fault
7.10 diagno-
sis in a string ofResistor
solar panels
22 khas been proposed. This
1 method0.05 has a very low implementa-
0.05
tion cost. Metal
Table 8film
listsresistor
the materials
133 kand prices for implementing
1 0.10 this methodology.
0.10
Male and female waterproof connector 3 0.16 0.48
Terminal blocks 4 0.17 0.68
Breadboard 1 0.96 0.96
Perforated breadboard 1 0.58 0.58
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 25 of 29

Table 8. Material costs to implement the proposed solution.

Description Units Unit Price (€) Total Price (€)

ESP8266 Module 1 2.31 2.31
CD74HC4067 Module 1 0.44 0.44
ACS712ELCTR-05B-T Sensor 1 0.83 0.83
FZ0430 Sensor 2 0.21 0.42
Relay Module 2 3.55 7.10
Resistor 22 kΩ 1 0.05 0.05
Metal film resistor 133 kΩ 1 0.10 0.10
Male and female waterproof connector 3 0.16 0.48
Terminal blocks 4 0.17 0.68
Breadboard 1 0.96 0.96
Perforated breadboard 1 0.58 0.58
Total 13.95

5. Conclusions
The main contribution of this work is that the diagnosis method is predictive, based
on online detection by a predictor symptom parameter, sampled sequentially. It is centred
in each solar panel of the PV string instead of being centred on the inverter. In this way, it
makes easy immediately solar panel isolation. It is low-cost implementable, and integrable
in actually working photovoltaic installations.
The application of predictive fault diagnosis in photovoltaic installations is an im-
portant factor in increasing the upward trend in the installation of this type of renewable
energy. Achieving adequate levels of economic viability of this type of facility depends on
obtaining an optimal production of electrical energy and the application of advanced pre-
dictive fault diagnosis techniques, which allow low-cost, immediate maintenance focused
on each of the panels selectively.
The predictive fault diagnosis developed methodology, based on the use of the Voc-Isc
parameters and focused on the solar modules, makes it possible that any symptom of power
reduction, especially any shading process experienced on any panel of the solar installation,
is detected and isolated immediately. Therefore, that reduction used comparatively can be
employed as a predictor symptom for the early detection and isolation of the degrading
event in the solar panel, and alternatively activate, by disconnecting it, the automatic
interruption of the degrading accumulating effect on the affected panel, avoiding the
appearance of an unrecoverable hot spot.
However, since the reduction in power is a symptom of other types of important
failures that affect solar panels, the proposed methodology opens the possibility of carrying
out in the best possible conditions another type of more specific redundant analysis based
on visual and thermographic inspection, whose immediacy is not comparable to online
Voc-Isc parametric diagnosis.
For the implementation of the predictive fault diagnosis algorithm, a specific architec-
ture has been developed using low-cost sensors and devices to carry out online supervision
of the fault predictor parameters by applying a sequentially sampling on each of the solar
panels of the photovoltaic system strings. This architecture is integrable and scalable with
real-world distributed control systems and conventional SCADAs for medium and large
photovoltaic installations, using standard communication protocols that are easy to con-
figure. It allows the use of different types of technologies, with low-cost implementation,
integrable with purely industrial software that previously could only be connected by
means of a PLC.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.G.; methodology, E.G. and N.P.; software, E.G. and
E.Q.; validation, N.P., E.G. and E.Q.; formal analysis, E.G. and E.Q.; investigation, N.P. and E.G.;
resources, E.G., R.Z.-S. and S.C.G.; data curation, N.P.; writing—original draft preparation, N.P.;
writing—review and editing, E.G. and E.Q.; visualization, E.Q.; supervision, E.G., R.Z.-S. and S.C.G.;
Sensors 2022, 22, 332 26 of 29

project administration, E.G., R.Z.-S. and S.C.G.; funding acquisition, E.G., E.Q., R.Z.-S. and S.C.G. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Opertek Soft S.L. for analysis software assistance.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter

GPIOS General purpose input/output interface
I Current
Isc Short circuit current
IoT Internet of things
I2C Interface inter-integrated circuit
I2S Interface Integrated Interchip Sound
MQTT Message Queue Telemetry Transport
OPC-OLE Object Linking and Embedding for process control
OPC-UA Unified Architecture OPC
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
PVM Photovoltaic module
PWM Pulse-Width Modulation
SDIO Safe digital input/output interface
SP Solar panel
SPI/HSPI Serial Peripheral Interface
UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter
V Voltage
VDC Direct Current Voltage
Voc Open circuit voltage
wsd Wind speed and direction

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