Dr.

Ayser Muneer Turbomachines

CHAPTER SIX

6.1 Introduction:-

An axial compressor is a compressor that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a

rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally
flows parallel to the axis of rotation, or axially. This differs from other rotating
compressors such as centrifugal compressors, axial-centrifugal compressors and
mixed-flow compressors where the fluid flow will include a "radial component"
through the compressor. The energy level of the fluid increases as it flows through
the compressor due to the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the
fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential
component of flow into pressure. Compressors are typically driven by an electric
motor or a steam or a gas turbine.
Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have
the benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate, particularly in relation to
their size and cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to
achieve a large pressure rise, making them complex and expensive relative to other
designs (e.g. centrifugal compressors).

6.2 Description:-
Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary
components. A shaft drives a central drum, retained
by bearings, which has a number of annular airfoil
rows attached usually in pairs, one rotating and one
stationary attached to a stationary tubular casing. A
pair of rotating and stationary airfoils is called a stage.
The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors,
accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, convert
the increased rotational kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion and
redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next
stage. The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the
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flow direction to maintain an optimum Mach number using variable geometry as

the fluid is compressed.

6.3 Working:-
As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in
the energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based
on diffusing action of the passages. The diffusing action in stator converts absolute
kinetic head of the fluid into rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the
energy equation is a term that exists only because of the rotation of the rotor. The
rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid and adds it to the absolute kinetic
head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid particles increases its
velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between the fluid and
the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid and the
stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing
capability can produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This
produces greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor
together. This is the reaction principle in turbomachines. If 50% of the pressure
rise in a stage is obtained at the rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction.

6.4 Design:-
The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative
velocity between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities
of the airfoils. A typical stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure
increase of between 15% and 60% (pressure ratios of 1.15–1.6) at design
conditions with a poly tropic efficiency in the region of 90–95%. To achieve
different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed with different numbers of
stages and rotational speeds. As a rule of thumb we can assume that each stage in a
given compressor has the same temperature rise ( T). Therefore, at the entry,
temperature (T stage) to each stage must increase progressively through the
compressor and the ratio ( T)/(T stage) entry must decrease, thus implying a

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progressive reduction in stage pressure ratio through the unit. Hence the rear stage
develops a significantly lower pressure ratio than the first stage. Higher stage
pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid and rotors is
supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability. Such
compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimizing
the compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets. The
airfoil profiles are optimized and matched for specific velocities and turning.
Although compressors can be run at other conditions with different flows, speeds,
or pressure ratios, this can result in an efficiency penalty or even a partial or
complete breakdown in flow (known as compressor stall and pressure surge
respectively). Thus, a practical limit on the number of stages, and the overall
pressure ratio, comes from the interaction of the different stages when required to
work away from the design conditions. These “off-design” conditions can be
mitigated to a certain extent by providing some flexibility in the compressor. This
is achieved normally through the use of adjustable stators or with valves that can
bleed fluid from the main flow between stages (inter-stage bleed). Modern jet
engines use a series of compressors, running at different speeds; to supply air at
around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient flexibility for all flight
conditions.

An axial compressor consists of rotating elements of rather closely spaced blades

mounted between similar stationary elements. Each rotating element is called rotor
(R), while each stationary element is called stator (S). The stator has two
advantages:-

1. The stator serve to recover, as a pressure rise, part of the kinetic energy
imparted to the working fluid by the rotor blades.
2. To redirect the flow into an angle suitable for entry to the next row of
moving blades.

Each stage will consist of one rotating row followed by a stator row, but it is usual
to provide a row of so-called ''inter guide vanes (IGV)'', which is an additional
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stator row upstream of the first stage in the compressor as show in fig. (6-2), this
row serves to direct the axially approaching flow correctly into the first row of
rotating blades.

Fig. (6-2) Multi- Stage axil flow compressor rotor and schematic of an axil
compressor section.

The axial compressor may be designed with constant tip diameter (Fig. (6-2)) or
with constant hub (root) diameter (Fig.(6-3a)) or with constant mean diameter
(Fig.(6-3b)) or with all three varying. However, the mean blade radius dose not
usually changes very much. Another important constructional detail is the
contraction of the flow annulus from the low to the high pressure end of the
compressor. This is necessary to maintain the axial velocity at a reasonably
constant level throughout the length of the compressor despite the increasing
density. Most compressors of this type are designed on the basis of constant axial
velocity throughout the stages because of the simplifications which will be
apparent from subsequent sections.

Fig. (6-3) Axial Compressor Construction.

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6.5 Perfect Gas Relations:-

A perfect gas is defined as a fluid that has constant specific heats and follows the
law.
( )
Where;
P = absolute pressure.
T = absolute temperature.
R = Gas constant (287 J/ Kg.K)
= density (Kg/m3).

Cv= specific heat at constant volume in KJ/ Kg.K = ( ) .

Where i = internal energy per unit mass in (KJ/ Kg ).

 For a perfect gas (I & T).

CP= specific heat at constant pressure in KJ/ Kg.K = ( ) . ……….(6-3)

Where, h = Enthalpy per unit mass in (KJ/ Kg).

But, ( )

For perfect gases, equation (6-2) becomes di= Cv x dT ………………..(6-4)

If (Cp & Cv ) are considered constant over the temperature range. Then, equation
(6-3) become: dh = Cp * dT ………………………………………….(6-5)

Then from: we have,

Differentiating gives,
( )
The ''specific heat ratio (k)'' is defined as;

( )

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From equation (6-6) and (6-7) we have:

( )

( )

6.6 stagnation pressure:-

The kinetic energy terms in the steady flow energy equation can be accounted for
implicitly by making use of the concept of ''stagnation'' of total enthalpy.
Physically, the stagnation enthalpy ho is the enthalpy which gas stream of enthalpy
h and velocity V would possess when brought to rest adiabatically and without
work transfer. The energy then reduces to:

Where, WD = work done per unit mass flow rate.

( ) ( ) Where ( )

Let stagnation enthalpy h0 = h2 and h = h1

………………………………(6-10)

When the fluid is a perfect gas, then( ), and the corresponding concept of
stagnation (or total) temperature (To), is defined by:

…………………………………(6-11)

Where, is called the dynamic temperature.

T is called the static temperature.

To is called the stagnation temperature.
Applying the concept to an adiabatic compression, the energy equation becomes,
( ) ( )

( ) ( )…………………………..(6-12)
Similarty for heating process without work transfer,
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( ) ( ) ……………………………….(6-13)
The stagnation pressure (Po) is defined in a similar way to (To) but with added
restriction that the gas is imagined to be brought to rest not only adiabatically but
also reversibly, i.e. isentropically. The stagnation pressure is thus defined by,

( )

6.7 Elementary Theory

Figure (6-4) velocity triangles for one stage.

It is first assumed that the air approaches the rotor blades with absolute velocity
V1, at an angle to the axial direction as shown figure (6-4). In combination with
the peripheral velocity (u) of the blades, its relative velocity will be (W1) at an
angle ( ). Afert passing through the diverging passing formed between the rotor
blades which do work on the air and increase its absolute velocity, the air will
emerge with relative velocity (W2) at an angle ( ) which is less than ( ). This
turning of the air towards the axial direction is, as previously mentioned, necessary
to provide the increase of effective flow area and is brought about by the camber of
the blades. Since (W2) is less than (W1), due to diffusion , some pressure rise will
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have been accomplished in the rotor. The velocity (W2) in combination with u
gives the absolute velocity (V2) at exit from the rotor at an angle ( ). The air than
passes through the passages formed by the stator blades wherein it is further
diffused to velocity (V3) at an angle , which in most designs is arranged to equal
( )so that it is prepared for entry to the next stage. Here again the turning of the
air towards the axial direction is brought about by the camber of the blades.
Two basic equations follow immediately from geometry of the velocity triangles of
figure (6-4), these are

……………………………(6-15)

………………………………….(6-16)

If the velocity of flow is assumed constant through the stage than

and
…………………..(6-17)

From consideration of the change in angular momentum of the air in passing

through the rotor, an expression for the work done per unit mass flow rate (WD) is
given by;

( ) ………………………………………………….(6-18)

This expression can be put in terms of the axial velocity Vf and air angles to give;

( )………………………………………………..(6-19)

Or, by using equation (6-17) as;

( )……………………………………………….(6-20)

This input energy will be absorbed usefully in raising the pressure and velocity of
the air and wastefully in overcoming various frictional losses. Regardless of the
losses, or in other words the efficiency of compression, the whole of this input will
reveal itself as a rise in stagnation temperature of the air in the stage ( ). If the
absolute velocity of the air leaving the stage (V3) is made equal to that at entry
(V1), this will also be the static temperature rise the stage ( ), so that;
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( )……………………………………(6-21)

It is necessary to multiply the result given by equation (6-21) by the so-called

work-done factor ( ) which is a number less than unity. This is really a measure of
the ratio of the actual work-absorbing capacity of the stage to its ideal value as
calculated from the equation.

Figure 6-5 Axial Velocity Profiles

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