INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE

Semester 04

Prof Bouya
 Content

 Second language learning;

 Acquisition and learning;
 Acquisition barriers;
 Affective factors; Focus on method;
 The grammar–translation method;
 The audiolingual method;
 Communicative approaches;
 Focus on the learner;
 Transfer;
 Interlanguage;
 Motivation;
 Input and output;
 Communicative competence;
 Applied linguistics
 Introduction

• Children acquire their 1st language really fast and without any effort.

• All children develop language at roughly the same age.

• The question is: if 1st language acquisition is so straightforward, why
is learning a 2nd language so difficult?

• Think about a baby acquiring his first language.

• Think about a person acquiring a second language.

• What similarities and differences are there in the two processes?

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Second language learning
• The distinction between
• ‘Foreign language learning‟: “learning a language that is not
generally spoken in the surrounding community.”

• e.g. a Saudi student learning English in Saudi Arabia. (EFL)

• „Second language learning‟: “learning a language that is
spoken in the surrounding community.”

• e.g. a Saudi student leaning English in the USA. (ESL)

• The expression second language learning is used more
generally to describe both situations. 3
 Acquisition and learning
• Acquisition: the gradual development of ability in a
language by using it naturally in communicative situations
with others who know the language.

• Learning: a more conscious process of accumulating

knowledge of the features of a language (e.g. vocabulary
& grammar) in institutional setting.

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 Acquisition and
learning
• Activities associated with learning:
used in schools
result in more knowledge “about” the language (as
demonstrated in tests) than fluency in using the language (as
demonstrated in social interaction).
• Activities associated with acquisition:
experienced by young children
experienced by those who “pick upfrom L2 from long periods
of interaction with native speakers.
• Those individuals whose L2 exposure is primarily a learning type
of experience tend not to develop the same kind of general
proficiency as those who have had more of an acquisition type of 5
experience.
 Acquisition barriers
• Why is learning an L2 different from acquiring an L1?

Factor L1 L2

Age childhood teenage or adult years

Interaction time constant a few hours each week of school

interaction time

Responsibilities Little to do a lot of other things going on

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Another No Yes
language?
 Acquisition barriers

• Many adults manage to overcome the difficulties and develop an

ability to use the L2 effectively- though not usually sounding like
native speakers.

• e.g Arnold Schwarzenegger, actor/ Governor of California, whose

accent is clearly noticeable yet who is as linguistically proficient as
any native speaker of American English.
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• This provides evidence for the Critical Period Hypothesis
 Acquisition barriers

• However, even in ideal acquisition situations, very few adults seem to

reach native-like proficiency in using an L2.
• There are individuals who can achieve great expertise in the written
language, but not the spoken language.

• e.g. Joseph Conrad:

wrote novels in English that became classics of English literature
his English speech retained the strong Polish accent of his L1
• This suggests that some features of an L2 (e.g. vocabulary and
grammar) are easier to learn than others (e.g. pronunciation) 7
 Acquisition barriers
• Against this view, it has been demonstrated that students in
their early teens are quicker and more effective L2 learners in
the classroom than seven-year-olds.
• The optimum age for learning may be during the years from
about 10 to16 when:
• the flexibility of our inherent capacity for language has not
been completely lost
• the maturation of cognitive skills allows a more effective
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analysis of the regular features of the L2 being learned
Affective factors
• Affective (not effective) = Affections/ feelings
• There are other types of acquisition barriers that might inhibit the
learning process

• Self-consciousness
• Unwillingness
• Embarrassment
• Lack of empathy with the other culture.
• Dull textbooks, unpleasant classrooms, an exhausting schedule
of study or work, etc.
• Basically, if we are stressed, uncomfortable, self-conscious or 7
unmotivated, we are unlikely to learn very much.
Affective factors
• Children may overcome such factors quickly.
• Studies have shown that children quickly overcome their inhibitions
as they try to use new words and phrases.

• Adults can sometimes overcome their inhibitions too.

Experiment:
• In one interesting study, a group of adult L2 learners volunteered to
have their self-consciousness levels reduced by having their alcohol
levels gradually increased

• Up to a certain point, the pronunciation of the L2 noticeably

improved 7
• After a certain number of drinks, pronunciations deteriorated rapidly
Focus on method

• More recent approaches designed to promote L2

learning have tended to reflect different theoretical
views on how an L2 might best be learned.

• The grammar-translation method

• The audiolingual method
• Communicative approaches

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 The grammar-translation method

Characteristics:
• Treating L2 as any other academic subject
• Use of vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules
• Memorization is encouraged
• Written language rather than spoken language is emphasized
• Translation to the mother tongue

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 The grammar-translation method

• Produced many successful L2 users

Criticism:
• does not focus on how language is used in everyday conversation
• Saudi students can leave school, having achieved high grades in
English, yet find themselves at loss when confronted by the way
English native speakers actually use their language.

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 The audiolingual method
Characteristics:
• Emphasizes spoken language
• Systematic presentation of the L2 structure, moving from the
simple to the more complex, in the form of drills – repetition.
• The use of language is a „habit‟ that needs a lot of practice.
• Dialogue form, mimicry, set phrases, drills, memorization, tapes,
language labs.

Criticism:
• boring
• not like the interactional nature of actual spoken language use. 13
 Communicative approaches
• Communicative approaches are partially a reaction against:
• the artificiality of “pattern- practice”
• the belief that learning the grammar rules of a language will
result in an ability to use the language.
• Based on the belief that the functions of a language (what is it
used for) should be emphasized rather than the forms of the
language (correct grammatical or phonological structures).

• A shift from concern with the teacher, the textbook, and the
method to an interest in the learner and the acquisition process. 14
 Focus on the learner
 One of the radical features of the communicative approach is the toleration of

„errors‟ produced by students.

 Traditionally, “errors” were regarded negatively and had to be avoided or

eradicated.
 An “error,” then, is not something that hinders a student‟s progress, but is probably a

clue to the active learning progress being made by the student as he or she tries out
ways of communicating in the new language.

 Just as children acquiring their L1 produce certain types of

ungrammatical forms (e.g. overgeneralization) at times, so we might

expect the L2 learner to produce similar forms at certain stages
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 Transfer
• Some errors may be due to “transfer” (also called “crosslinguistic influence”).
• Transfer means using sounds, expressions or structures from the L1 when
performing in the L2.

• e.g. an Arabic speaker may say: “open the lights?”

Two types:
• Positive transfer: If the L1 & L2 have similar features, then the learner may benefit
from positive transfer. "e.g. I wish I travel tomorrow/ ‫"ة‬#$ "%&' ‫*)أ‬+ï‫"أ‬

• Negative transfer (interference) : transferring an L1 feature that is really different

from the L2 (e.g. putting n. before adj: the girl beautiful) results in negative
transfer.
• We should remember that negative transfer is more common in the early stages of 16
L2 learning and often decreases as the learner develops familiarity with the L2.
 Interlanguage
• Interlanguage= an in-between system of L2 learners, which has
some features of the L1 and L2 plus some independent of the L1
and L2.

• e.g. the Spanish L1 speaker who says in English She name is

Maria is producing a form that is:

• not used by adult speakers of English,

• does not occur in English L1 acquisition by children,

• and is not based on a structure in Spanish.

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 Interlanguage
• If some learners develop fixed repertoire of L2 expressions,
containing many forms that do not match the target language
and seem not to be progressing any further, their interlanguage
is said to have „fossilized‟.

• „fossilization‟ in L2 pronunciation = foreign accent.

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 Motivation
• Very important in language learning.

• Instrumental motivation= to achieve some goal

• Graduation requirement
• Read scientific publications
• Find a better job

• Integrative motivation= social purposes

• Become an accepted member in a community
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 Motivation
• Those who experience some success in L2
communication are among the most motivated to learn.

Success Motivation

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 Input & output

• Input= the language the learner is exposed to

• To be beneficial for L2 learning, input has to be comprehensible.

• simpler in vocabulary & structure = foreign talk

• How are you getting on in your studies?

• English class, you like it?

• This type of foreigner talk may be beneficial at early stages.

• Not only for immediate communicative success, but also for providing
comprehensible examples of the basic structure of L2.

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 Input & output
• As the learner‟s interlanguage develops, there is a need for more
interaction – „negotiated input‟.

• Negotiated input = L2 materials that the learner can acquire in interaction

through requests for clarification while active attention is given to what is
said.

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 Input & output
• Output= the language the learner produces
• The opportunity to produce comprehensible output in meaningful interaction
is another important element in the learner's development of L2 ability.

• Yet it is one of the most difficult things to provide in large L2 classes.

• One solution has been to create different types of tasks and activities in which
learners have to interact with each other, usually in small groups or pairs, to
exchange information or solve problems.

• Despite fears that learners will simply learn each other‟s “mistakes,” the
results of such task-based learning provide overwhelming evidence of
more and better L2 use by learners.
• The goal of such activities is not that the learners will know more about the L2,
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but that they will develop communicative competence in the L2
Communicative competence

• Communicative competence= the general ability to use language

accurately, flexibly, and appropriately.

• Grammatical competence

• Sociolinguistic competence

• Strategic competence

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 Grammatical competence

• It involves the accurate use of words and structures.

• How to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language.
• What words do I use?
• How do I put them into phrases and sentences?
• Is it enough?
• No, Concentration on grammatical competence only will not
provide the learner with the ability to interpret or produce L2
expressions appropriately.

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Sociolinguistic competence

• How to use and respond to language appropriately, given the

setting, the topic, and the relationships among the people
communicating.

• Which words and phrases fit this setting and this topic?
• How can I express a specific attitude (courtesy, authority,
friendliness, respect) when I need to?

• How do I know what attitude another person is expressing?

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Strategic competence
• How to recognize and repair communication breakdowns

• How to work around gaps in one‟s knowledge of the language

• How do I know when I‟ve misunderstood or when someone has
misunderstood me?

• What do I say then? How can I express my ideas if I don‟t know the
name of something or the right verb form to use?

• e.g. a Dutch L1 speaker wanted to refer to een hoefijzer in English, but

didn‟t know the English word. So, she used a communication strategy.

• the things that horses wear under their feet, the iron things

• the listener understood immediately what she meant (horseshoes). 24

 Applied Linguistics
• In attempting to investigate the complex nature of L2 learning,
we have to appeal to ideas not only from linguistic analysis, but
from other fields such as communication studies. education,
psychology, sociology.
• Applied Linguistics
• Because it represents an attempt to deal with a large range of
practical issues involving language (not only L2 learning),
applied linguistics has created connections with fields as
diverse as anthropology, neurolinguistics, social psychology,
and sign language studies.

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