WOLLEGA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

MSc. THESIS
ON

CAVITYCOUPLEDOPTOMECHANICALSYSTEMSFOR

SENSINGAPPLICATIONS: DISPLACEMENTANDMASS

By: Nigatu Gurmessa

April, 2023
Nekemte, Ethiopia

i
 WALLAGA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

CAVITYCOUPLEDOPTOMECHANICALSYSTEMSFOR

SENSINGAPPLICATIONS: DISPLACEMENTANDMASS

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, College of

Natural and Computational Science, Department of Physics for
Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters
of Science in Physics (Quantum)

By: Nigatu Gurmessa

Advisor: Misganu Chewaka(PhD)

April, 2023
Nekemte, Ethiopia

WALLAGA UNIVERSITY

ii
 SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
P.O. Box: 395, Nekemte, Ethiopia.
_________________________________________________________
APPROVAL SHEET FOR SUBMITTING FINAL THESIS
As the members of the Board of Examining of the Final MSc. thesis open defense, we certify that we
have read and evaluate the thesis prepared by Nigatu Gurmessa under the title “Cavity coupled
optomechanical systems for Sensing applications: Displacement and mass” and recommend
that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement for the Degree of Master of Science in
Quantum optics (Physics).

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incorporated into the final thesis entitled “Cavity coupled optomechanical systems for Sensing
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iii
 STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
I declare that this thesis entitled “Cavity coupled optomechanical systems for Sensing
applications: Displacement and mass” is my work and all sources of materials used for this
thesis have been appropriately acknowledged. This thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for MSc. Degree in Phyics at Wallaga University. I seriously declare that
this thesis is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any degree or
diploma. The thesis deposited at the University Library to make available to borrowers
under rules of the Wallaga University Library.

Brief questions from this thesis are allowable without special permission if accurate
acknowledgement of the source is made. However requests for permission for extended
quotations from or reproduction in part of this manuscript may be granted by Wallaga
University, the school of graduate studies in all other, permission must be obtained from the
author.

Name: Nigatu Gurmessa signature_______ date of submission_________

Place: Wallaga University, School of Graduate Studies, Department of Physics, Field of
Specialization Quantum, Nekemte, Ethiopia

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 DECLARATION
This is to certify that this thesis entitled “Cavity coupled optomechanical systems for
Sensing applications: Displacement and mass“ accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Masters of Science in Physics by the school of
graduate studies, Wallaga University through the college of Natural and Computational
Science, done by Nigatu Gurmessa a genuine work carried out by him under my guidance.
The matter embodied in this thesis work has not been submitted earlier for the award of any
degree or diploma.
The assistance and help received during the course of this investigation have been duly
acknowledged. Therefore, I recommend that it can accept as fulfilling the research thesis
requirements.

Advisor: Misganu Chewaka (PhD) Signature__________ Date__________

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks Almighty of God for ever thing He does in my life.
Firstly, I would like to express my deepest happiness to God for the reason that he gives me
long life, strength, to arrive this precise time, and blessing me in all aspects of my life.
Secondly, I would like to express my truth gratitude and thanks which comes from my heart
to my advisor Misganu Chewaka (PhD) for help full discussion, excellent guidance, caring
patience, constructive comments and encouragements from the beginning up to the end of
the study. He encouraged me to explore my own ideas and helped me to grow as an
independent researcher. I highly appreciate all his caring and support as an understanding
boss during my materiality time.
It is a great pleasure for me to thank my friends and colleagues for a lot of help and the
people at the department of mathematics of Wallaga University for numerous discussions
throughout this thesis.
Finally, I would like to extend gratefulness to my friend Bikila Olani that helped me to
fulfill the necessary materials and giving advice to study my lesson properly.

Also, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to Sanbato Kano(PhD)

(Department head) for his good approach and facilitating different things for the success of
this thesis.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM
ABBREVIATIONS
NEMS : Nano electromechanical systems
SQL : Standard quality limit
COMS : Cavity optomechanical system
AFM : Atomic Force Microscope
MRFM : Magnetic Resonance Force Microscope
WGM : Whispering Gallery Mode
MEMS : Micro Electromechanical Systems
ℑ : Imaginary numbers
ℜ : Real numbers
IR : Iris
FSFC : Free-Space to Fibre Coupler
PC : polarization controller
FC : Fibre coupler
AUX : Auxiliary input
SC : sealed chamber
SQL : standard quantum limit
SNR : signal-to-noise ratio
MEG : magneto encephalo graphy
SQUID : Super conducting quantum interference device
NEP : noise equivalent pressure
DOFC : digital optical frequency comb
PS : polystyrene
SOI : Silicon on insulator
IR : infrared
ACRONYM
ω : Greek letter Omega
α : Greek letter Alpha
ϕ : Greek letter Phi
∆ : Increment
γ : Greek letter Gamma
π : Greek letter pi
Ω : Greek letter omega

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∂ : Partial differential
+∞ : Positive infinity
−∞ : Negative infinity
η : Greek letter eta
μ : Greek letter mu
λ : Greek letter lambda

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Pag

e
APPROVAL SHEET FOR SUBMITTING FINAL THESIS............................................iii
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR....................................................................................iv
DECLARATION.................................................................................................................v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................................vi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM............................................................................vii
List of Tables........................................................................................................................x
List of figures......................................................................................................................xi
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE..................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background of the study........................................................................................1
1.1.1. Principles of optomechanical coupling..........................................................2
1.1.2. Noise analysis and sensing towards quantum limit........................................2
1.1.3. optomechanical sensing platforms.................................................................3
1.1.4. Optomechanical sensing applications............................................................3
1.1.4.1. Displacement sensing...................................................................................3
1.2. Statement of the Problem......................................................................................5
1.3. Research Questions...............................................................................................6
1.4. Objective of the study............................................................................................6
1.4.1. The General Objective...................................................................................6
1.4.2. The Specific objectives..................................................................................6
1.5. Significance of the study.......................................................................................7
1.6. Delimitation of the study.......................................................................................7
1.7. Organization of Thesis..........................................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................................................8
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...........................................................................8
2.1. Atomic force microscopy......................................................................................9
2.2. Hamiltonian of cavity optomechanics.....................................................................10
CHAPTER THREE............................................................................................................13
METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................................13
3.1. Methods of the study...........................................................................................13
CHAPTER FOUR..............................................................................................................14
RESULT AND DISCUSSION..........................................................................................14
4.1. Cavity optomechanical coupling.........................................................................14
4.2. Physical principles of cavity optomechanical sensing........................................16
4.2.1. Optomechanical coupling.............................................................................16
4.2. Optomechanical sensing applications..................................................................22
4.2.1. Noise, sensitivity, and bandwidth................................................................22
4.2.2. Displacement Sensitivity..............................................................................24
CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................................30
SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................30
5.1. SUMMARY........................................................................................................30
References..........................................................................................................................31

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List of Tables
Table (4.1): Experimental parameters for a representative sampling of published cavity-
based displacement sensors experiments.

List of figures
Figure (2.1): An AFM generates images by scanning a small cantilever over the surface of a
sample.
Figure (2.2): Schematic of a generic optomechanical system.
Figure (4.1): Schematic of a typical optomechanical system, with a laser-driven Fabry–Perot
(F–P) cavity.
Figure (4.2): An open system consisted of two coupled mechanical resonators. Each
resonator is coupled to an optical cavity..
Figure (4.3): (A) Physical principle of optical read out of the mechanical motion.
Figure (4.4): Experimental setup for the observation of cavity cooling or amplification of a
mechanical oscillator.
Figure (4.5): Motion transduction with a micro toroid cavity.
Figure (4.6): (A) Schematic of the tapered-fiber-inter faced optical cavity dispersively
coupled with an array of nanomechanical resonators.
Figure (4.8): (A) SEM image of an integrated hybrid force detection system base on a micro
disk cavity coupled with nano mechanical beam.Top right: enlarged picture of the adjacent
area. Bottom right: optical micro graph of the hybrid system coupled with a tapered fiber.
(B) Finite-element simulation of electric field distribution in the micro disk cavity. (C)
Frequency noise units and displacement density units as a function of frequency. Finite-
element simulation of the fundamental vibration mode of the beam is shown in the inset…
Figure (4.9): Schematic of gas mass center motion detection with the optomechanical
system based on the F–P cavity
Figure (4.10): (A) False-color image of multi-layer grapheme optomechanical devices. (B)
Cross-sectional illustration of the grapheme resonator along the white dashed dotted line in
(A). (C) Schematic of the detection circuit.
Figure (4.11): An on-chip optomechanical accelerometer

ABSTRACT
Cavity optomechanical systems enable interactions between light and mechanical
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resonators, providing a platform both for fundamental physics of macroscopic quantum
systems and for practical applications of precision sensing. The resonant enhancement of
both mechanical and optical response in the cavity optomechanical systems has enabled
precision sensing of multiple physical quantities, including displacements, masses, forces,
accelerations, magnetic fields, and ultrasounds. In this study, we analyze the progress of
precision sensing applications using cavity optomechanical systems. The invastigation is
organized in the following way: first we will introduce the physical principles of
optomechanical sensing, including a discussion of the noises and sensitivity of the systems,
and then review the progress in displacement sensing, mass sensing, force sensing, and
ultrasound sensing, Finally, we give a summary and outlook.
Keywords: cavity optomechanics; microresonators; on chip photonic devices; precision
sensing; squeezed light.

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the study
The ground of optomechanics is the teamwork between optical and mechanical degrees of
independence facilitated by radiation pressure strength. It can be quantum-noise-limited
at room temperature allowing interferometric displacement measurement with sensitivity
at the femtometer equal and sufficient to determination the thermal motion of
nanomechanical resonators. optomechanics originates from significant belongings of
quantum theory and scientific requests (ASpelmeyer, et al., , 2014)promoting from the
expansion of micro/nano-fabrication techniques. Various cavity optomechanical systems
with both high optical and mechanical quality factors have been advanced for both
important investigation and practical applications. The opto-mechanical coupling between
a moving mirror and the radiation pressure of light has first appeared in the official cavity
optomechanical system consists of a Fabry-Periot cavity with a compliant end mirror
(Dalziel J. Wilson, 2012). the field of optomechanical presentations has been rapidly
innovative, mostly in the area of precision sensing. Optomechanics has also become one
of the most promising platforms for precise inertial sensing, such as accelerometers and
gyroscopes. This can be mainly attributed to its possibility to detect the motion at or even
below the standard quantum limit (SQL), thus making optomechanical transducers
particularly suitable for weak incoherent inertial measurement. The optomechanical
systems principally involve optomechanical cavities, in which radiation pressure coupling
between optical and mechanical domains is greatly enhanced. As a result, the optical
resonance frequency is exquisitely sensitive to mechanical motion. Furthermore, the
optomechanical cavities enable an unprecedented reduction in the footprint of the
sensors(H. Xu, L. Jiang, A. A)
Cavity optomechanics is an evolving field aiming to explore and exploit the nonlinear
radiation-pressure coupling between the cavity mode and mechanical degrees of
independence (Zhu, et al., , 2022) to quantum information processing (Stannigel, et al., ,
2012). Cavity optomechanics is a branch of  which focuses on the interaction between
light and mechanical objects on low-energy scales. COM is a part of physics which
emphases on the collaboration between light and mechanical matters on low-energy
scales. The stimulus for study on cavity optomechanics creates from significant
belongings of quantum theory and scientific requests (ASpelmeyer, et al., , 2014). COMS

1
were well-known by studied the dynamical effect of radiation weight on a harmonically
postponed end mirror of a cavity (Braginski and Manukin, 1967). Focusing on the
fundamental physics and quantum effects of cavity optomechanics used radiation pressure
strength of photons to regulator and manipulates motions of mechanical resonators to
study the quantum mechanical properties of macroscopic mechanical resonators (Chan, et
al., , 2011). COMS also provide ideal stages for precision sensing due to the mechanical
resonance enhanced response and optical resonance enhanced readout sensitivity. Shot
noise limited displacement sensitivity of the order of10−19 m/√ Hz has been understood
using cavity optomechanical systems. COM sensors also provide the advantages of small
size, low mass, and low influence consumption, on-chip integration capability,
compatibility with fiber coupling etc., and therefore have great potential to be used in real
applications in the near future. While I will emphasis on the recent study progresses of
optomechanical system-based precision sensing applications, including displacement
sensing and mass sensing.

1.1.1. Principles of optomechanical coupling

Micro cavities confine light within small volumes and store strong optical power on their
resonant frequencies. Compared with conventional optical cavities in the macroscale, the
smaller-sized micro cavities allow densely packaged optical components, and the intrinsic
high quality (Q) factors of some micro cavities, such as a micro toroid supporting WGMs
[D. K. Armani, T. J. Kippenberg, ] result in reduced loss in photonic circuits. In the recent
decade, the basic research of their properties [B. B. Li, Y. F. Xiao, C. L. Zou, X. F. Jiang, Y.
C. Liu] is gradually and steadily extended to applied research including laser sources, modulators,
filters, delay lines switches and biosensors ( J. Chan, T. P. Alegre, A. H. Safavi-Naeini, et al.,
2011). Mechanical resonators are typically used in electronic circuits to generate signals of a
precise frequency. Like their optical parallel, mechanical resonators also benefit a lot from
the advances in nanotechnology. The development of nano electro mechanical systems
(NEMS) endows them with unprecedented ability to detect physical quantities such as
displacement, force, mass, charge and inertial motion (K. Jensen, K. Kim, and A. Zettl,).
When coupled with optical resonators, nanomechanical resonators can be used to explore the
quantum properties of mechanical systems.

1.1.2. Noise analysis and sensing towards quantum limit

On any useful measurnment, signals are mixed with noises arising from aids of several

2
sources. Due to strong photon-photon contact, optopmechanical devices can be highly
susceptible to optomechanical rear action result. This result will change the rate and
damping rate as the quality of change is proportional to cavity control, stable optical input
power and coupling should be the optimization considered first in high sensitivity size.
Further, the optical power perturbation coming from the thermal optic coefficient (dn/dT )
sometimes may also have a large back action result. In optomechanical systems, the
quantum noise includes the roughness noise and the backaction noise. The roughness
noise originates from the uncertainty relation between the number and the phase of photons,
while the back action noise (or radiation pressure noise) originates from the radiation
pressure force of photons acting on the mechanical resonator. In most cases of
optomechanical sensing applications, the probe laser power is relatively little to avoid
thermal effect induced optical resonance shift (B.-B. Li, J. Bílek, U. B. Hoff, et al.,) and thus
the back action noise is characteristically insignificant. As a result, here we mainly consider
the thermal noise and shot noise in the optomechanical sensing systems.

1.1.3. optomechanical sensing platforms

optomechanical devices promise new abilities of quantum state control. Although in their
start, these platforms open the door to the potential quantum and other precise sensing
applications. Significant efforts have been made to realize the distributed quantum
systems based on the optomechanical platform, which will not only allow quantum
communication at a large scale but also export the possibility in microwave-optical
photon predicament and sensing mediated by phonons (ee, C.; Wu, C.Y 2022). With the
development of micro-/nano-fabrication techniques, various optomechanical platforms
have been developed, including macroscopic and microscale suspended mirrors,
membranes, waveguides, beams, whispering gallery mode (WGM) micro resonators and
photonic crystal cavities. Among them, WGM micro resonators and photonic crystal
cavities have attracted growing study interests for precision sensing applications, due to
their high Q optical and mechanical resonances, good optomechanical coupling, and
capability for integration (K. J. Vahala, 2021)

1.1.4. Optomechanical sensing applications

1.1.4.1. Displacement sensing

High-sensitive displacement sensing is the basis of many other sensing applications
because the differences of many other physical parameters can convert to position shift of

3
a certain component. Commonly, the mechanical displacement can be converted into
optical transmission signal through optomechanical coupling coefficient, and read out by
a photo detector or optical spectrum analyzer.increasing the optomechanical coupling
helps enhance the shot-noise-limited displacement sensitivity. Benefiting from the strong
optomechanical coupling , the factor limiting the sensitivity of photonic crystal cavity
systems is no longer shot noise In common, through optomechanical coupling the optical
transmission signal carries the information of the displacement of the mechanical
resonator. then it can be read out by a photo detector and optical spectrum analyzers (V.
Fiore, Y. Yang, M.C. Kuzyk, et al., (2011). Displacement sensors are used within any
application where the measurement of movement is required, for example;Shifts in
position,Gaps and change in gaps,Vibrations,Expansion of objects,Inclinesand Expansion
due to temperature.Displacement sensors convert the movement into electromagnetic,
electrostatic or magnetoelectric signals which can be read and converted into data and a
readable format for the user.There are so many different industries which use
displacement sensors and a huge amount of applications within these industries. Virtually
anything that moves will require measurement and will therefore require a displacement
sensor of some type.
The displacement sensor based on WGM cavity optomechanical systems has been
demonstrated to possess high sensitivity. displacement sensor based on cavity
optomechanical system reduced the noise by utilizing p o l a r i z a t i o n o f spectroscopy
techniques and achieved the displacement sensitivity level which was limited by the shot
noise [M. Sansa, M. Defoort, A. Brenac, et al., (2020). Newly, advances in
optomechanics have brought exciting potentials for displacement sensing due to high
sensitivity, small sizes, and, therefore, high operating rates of nano-opto-mechanical
structures and the possibility of integrated and thus parallel readout. For scalable
implementations, however, optical detectors and actuation must also be combined(W. J.
Westerveld, M. Mahmud-Ul-Hasan, R. Shnaiderman, et al., (2021).
Mass sensors are very significant components in nano technological measurement.
Typically mass spectrometer is used for nano particle sensing (even single atoms).in
current, nanomechanical oscillators are adopted in mass detection. they have already
enabled extraordinary sensitive measurement of mass down to 1×10−21 g in vacuum and 1×
−15
10 g in liquid environment. The external examples with mass Δm depositing onto the
surface of a mechanical resonator will lead to the resonant frequency shift Δωm (F.

4
LiuandM.Hossein-Zadeh,2021)
−2m eff
Δm= ωm (1.1)
ωm

f m=
1
2π √ K
meff
(1.2)

Changes in the spring effective mass δmeff will cause the resonance frequency shift of the
2 meff
mechanical resonator δf m, which isδm eff = δf m. Qualitatively, we simply conside the
fm
deposited mass
−2 meff
md ≈ δm = δf m (1.3)
eff
fm
Due to the need for the measurement of molecular-scale substances in the fields, the
measurement of the mass of electrically neutral particles has become a hot research issue
[ R. Riedinger, S. Hong, R. A. Norte, et al., (2016)]. In general, the tiny size of
microresonators reduces their physical properties very sensitive to the perturbation caused
by outside effect. These mechanical resonator-based mass sensors trust on a resonant
frequency shift due to an accreted mass and do not need the process of molecular
ionization. It can be seen from equation (1.3) that when the purpose of the device is
immovable, smaller masses can be detected by reducing the actual mass of the
mechanical resonator or rising the resonance frequency of the mechanical resonator. Extra
exactly, the relationship between statement mass and the rate shift also depends on the
necessary position of the object in the mechanical mode [R. Riedinger, A. Wallucks, I.
Marinković, et al., (2018),

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Cavity optomechanical systems have possible views in the development of advanced
applications and the important investigations of quantum mechanics. Cavity
optomechanical systems show significant potential for studying the fundamental issues of
quantum theory because of the macroscopic quantum properties of mechanical resonators
((Khalili, et al., , 2016).Cavity optomechanics was introduced as the most recent
"innovative of photon history" in nature photonics along well documented concepts and
technology like quantum information. the skill to achieve the cavity coupled
optomechanical systems for sensing application: displacement and mass is difficult to
reach for great determination cases will answer why it is difficult to determine and how
Optomechanical sensing applications such as Displacement sensing and Mass sensing

5
work. The study of the quantum entanglement of the cavity coupled optomechanical
systems sensing application Displacement and Mass will provide an opportunity to make
new advances in Quantum optics and to explain the Displacement and mass sensing
application. While this analysis will focus on the new examination progresses of
optomechanical system based precision sensing applications, including displacement
sensing, mass sensing. By the stimulus of the above application of optomechanical we
will be precipitate the physical principles of cavity optomechanical sensing, the
optomechanical coupling principle, evaluation of the different optomechanical sensing
platforms advanced in the past few years, and then discuss the noise, sensitivity, and
bandwidth of optomechanical sensing. Optomechanical sensing applications such as
Displacement sensing and Mass sensing was overviewed.
1.3. Research Questions
The following questions may arise for further study from the above mentioned
phenomenon:
 What are the recent Physical principles of cavity optomechanical sensing?
 What is the cavity coupled Optomechanical systems sensing applications:
Displacement and Mass?
 What are the principles of cavity coupled optomechanical systems sensing
application: Displacement and Mass?
 How does cavity coupled optomechanical systems sensing
applications:Displacement and Mass work?
 What are the application optomechanical systems for sensing Displacement and
Mass?
1.4. Objective of the study
1.4.1. The General Objective
The general objective of this study is to study cavity coupled optomechanical systems for
sensing application: Displacement and Mass.

1.4.2. The Specific objectives

To attain the general objective, the following specific objectives will are:
 To determine principles of cavity coupled optomechanical systems sensing
applications: Displacement and Mass
 To analyze the cavity coupled optomechanical systems for sensing applications:
Displacement and Mass

6
 To identify the Noise sensitivity of cavity coupled optomechanical systems
 To evaluate the cavity coupled Optomechanical sensing applications of
Displacement and mass.
 To examine Displacement and Mass sensing applications of cavity coupled
optomechanical systems.
1.5. Significance of the study
Currently dynamic efforts are under way to cavity coupled optomechanical sensing and
the cavity coupled Optomechanical sensing applications. However, they do not lend to
understanding of the Physical principles of cavity coupled optomechanical sensing and
the cavity coupled Optomechanical sensing applications. This understanding is important
in order to develop the principles Optomechanical coupling, Optomechanical sensing
platforms, and Noise, sensitivity, and bandwidth and the application of cavity coupled
Optomechanical sensing of Displacement sensing and cavity coupled Optomechanical
sensing of Mass sensing. We are going to explore the different principles of Physical
cavity coupled optomechanical sensing and the cavity coupled Optomechanical sensing
applications. The outcome of the study also helps all scientific communities, industries
and new coming investigators being the data used as reference for additional related
investigations.
1.6. Delimitation of the study
The thesis was conducted under the stream of Optomechanical sensing and focuses only
on the cavity coupled optomechanical systems for sensing application: Displacement and
Mass. It would delimit the area of study to Hamiltonian of Cavity optomechanical system,
and also delimit to analyze and discuss some application of Displacement and mass
sensing.
1.7. Organization of Thesis
This thesis contains 5 chapters and is organized as: Chapter one provides introduction and
necessary preliminaries concepts of the cavity coupled optomechanical systems for
sensing application: Displacement and Mass. Such as: Principles of optomechanical
coupling, Noise analysis and sensing towards quantum limit, optomechanical sensing
platforms, and Optomechanical sensing applications. which wuold be used throughout
this study. Chapter two provides a review of related literature, Chapter three reveals the
methodology and mathematical procedure used to conduct the thesis on the given title,
Chapter four discussion and Results. Finally, Chapter five presents the brief summary and
conclusion of the study.

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 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Cavity optomechanics has become a quickly developing research field discovering the
linking between the optical field and mechanical oscillation. Cavity optomechanical
systems were forecasted to display rich and nontrivial effects due to the nonlinear
optomechanical interaction. But, most advancement during the past years has focused on
the linearization of the optomechanical interaction, which ignored the fundamental
nonlinear nature of the optomechanical coupling. Determining nonlinear optomechanical
collaboration is of rising importance in both classical and quantum mechanisms, and
nonlinear optomechanical collaboration has appeared as an important new frontier in
cavity optomechanics. It permits many applications extending from single-photon sources
to generation of nonclassical states. The fleeting analysis of these progresses and
discussion in some of the recent challenges in this field is given by (Xiong Hao, et al., ,
2015).
The two approaches for deriving corrections to the “linear model” of cavity
optomechanics, in order to describe effects that are beyond first order in the radiation
pressure coupling is compared by (Kamila Sala and Tommaso Tufarelli , 2018). In the
regime where the mechanical frequency is much lower than the cavity one. a widely used
phenomenological Hamiltonian conserving the photon number is Compared a two-mode
truncation of C. K. Law’s microscopic model, which we take as the “true” system
Hamiltonian is compared. While these approaches agreed at first order, the latter model
does not conserve the photon number, resulting in challenging computations. Mass
sensing offering both a broad detection range and a high resolving power is essential for
quantitative precision content analysis and high-yield mass production of various kinds of
materials (Da In Song, et al.,, 2018). A novel type of simple low-cost optomechanical
mass sensing employing an optical displacement detector that consists of a free-space
Fabry-Pérot optical cavity and an intra-cavity wedge prism pair, which provides an
enhanced resolution and an extended capacity simultaneously demonstrated by (Da In
Song, et al.,, 2018).
Cavity optomechanics provides a powerful platform for observing many interesting
classical and quantum nonlinear phenomena due to the radiation pressure coupling
between its optical and mechanical modes. In particular, the chaos induced by
optomechanical nonlinearity has been of great concern because of its importance both in

8
fundamental physics and potential applications ranging from secret information
processing to optical communications ((Chunchao Yu, et al., , 2021). the review focused
on the chaotic dynamics in optomechanical systems. The basic theory of general
nonlinear dynamics and the fundamental properties of chaos are introduced by (Gui-Lei
Zhu, et al.,, 2022). Several nonlinear dynamical effects in optomechanical systems are
demonstrated (Gui-Lei Zhu, et al.,, 2022).
COM discovers the coupling between optical and mechanical modes mediated by the
radiation pressure force. Unlike the passive scheme, the active optomechanics with
optical gain directly imposes the mechanical motion upon the lasing dynamics, unveiling
the intrinsic properties determined by the system itself (Gui-Lei Zhu, et al.,, 2022). Here
we numerically explore the general characteristics of the active optomechanics. Reducing
the optical gain down to one active atom highlights the quantum nature of atom cavity
and phonon-Photon interactions. The one atom optomechanical micro laser does not only
emit non classical photons but also generate non classical photon–phonon pairs. Our work
extends the cavity optomechanics to the active fashion, paving the way towards
optomechanical light sources for photonic integrated circuits, onchip quantum
communication, and bio sensing is extended by (Deshui Yu and Frank Vollmer, , 2022).
Cavity optomechanical systems are demonstrating diverse applications in sensing and
transduction, profiting from advances in related theories and experiments, which also
promotes quantum research based on them. The typical applications of cavity
optomechanical systems and some of recent progress in this field and then discuss the
potential of cavity optomechanical systems for exploring fundamental questions in
quantum theory and the challenges encountered in current developments is introduced .
Cavity optomechanical systems play a vital role in quantum computing and quantum
information and enrich the quantum toolbox, particularly in quantum interfaces and
quantum memory (Huanying Sun, et al., , 2023).
2.1. Atomic force microscopy
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with
verified resolution on the order of parts of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than
the optical diffraction limit. The information is gathered by "sense" or "touching" the
surface with a mechanical investigation. Piezo electric elements that enable tiny but
accurate and precise movements on (electronic) command enable precise scanning.
Despite the name, the Atomic Force Microscope does not use the Nuclear force

9
(Voigtländer, Bert (2019)

Figure 2.1: An AFM generates images by scanning a small cantilever over the surface of
a sample. The sharp tip on the end of the cantilever contacts the surface, bending the
cantilever and changing the amount of laser light reflected into the photodiode. The
height of the cantilever is then adjusted to restore the response signal, resulting in the
measured cantilever height tracing the surface (Giessibl, Franz J. (2003)

2.2. Hamiltonian of cavity optomechanics

The Febry–Pérot resonator is composed of two highly reflective mirrors with a space of L.
Among them, one end mirror is immovable, while the other is flexible and can be
considered as a mechanical oscillator. This cavity supports a series of resonances with
πc
eigen frequencies ω c ,n ≈ n ωc with ω c = here n is the figure mode number and c is the
L
speed of light in vacuum. For brevity, we reflect a single cavity mode with frequency ω c.
Typically talking, the input laser enters the cavity through the fixed mirror and is
reflected by the movable mirror. This reflection changes the position of movable mirror
and enables momentum transfer from photons to mechanical modes, thus exerting
radiation pressure on mechanical degree of freedom. Meanwhile, the mechanical motion
causes a shift in the optical resonance frequency, which leads to a change of circulating
light intensity and thus radiative force on the motion. In this way, a dynamic coupling
between the mechanical oscillator and optical field is established through the radiation
pressure, which is called optomechanical coupling.
In order to precisely model the coupling process, we run a full quantum description of

10
cavity optomechanical interaction below. A common cavity optomechanical system with
the total Hamiltonian: (Gui-Lei Zhu, et al., , 2022)
^ ^ +H
H= H ^ (3)
0 ∫ ¿+ H^ dri ¿

Where the free Hamiltonian for uncoupled single cavity mode and mechanical oscillator,
reads:
H 0=h ωc a^ † a^ + h ωm b^ † b^
^ (4)

Figure (2.2): Schematic of a generic optomechanical system.

(Gui-Lei Zhu, et al., , 2022). Schematic of an optomechanical Fabry-Perot resonator
with one end (right) and one movable (left) mirror. Upon reflecting a photon, the movable
mirror recoils due to radiation pressure.
Where a^ ( a^ † ) and b^ ( b^ † ) are the annihilation (creation) operators of the optical cavity mode
and the mechanical mode, respectively. We define the position and momentum operators
as:
^ b^ † ) , p0 =−ℑ ω c x zpf ( b−
x 0=x zpf ( b+ ^ b^ † ) (5)

Where m effective mass of mechanical oscillator, x zpf =

√ ℏ
2 mω c
is the zero-point

fluctuation amplitude of the mechanical oscillator. The above position and momentum
operators satisfy the commutation relation
¿. (6)
The motion of the right end mirror alters the cavity length, resulting in the coupling of the
optical and mechanical modes being parametric, i.e. the cavity resonance frequency is
modulated by the mechanical amplitude. Expand the optical frequency in Taylor series as:
x ( ∂ ωc )
ω c ( x )=ω c ( 0 )+ + O ( x ) ≈ ωc ( 0 ) + g ¿ (7)
∂x

Where g0 = [ ]
∂ ωc
x
∂ x zpf
is the radiation-pressure coupling strength (or single-photon

optomechanical coupling strength). Thus the interaction part of the Hamiltonian can be
written as:

11
^
H ∫ ¿=ℏg a ¿¿¿ (8)
0

In addition, the last term in ^ ^ +H

H= H 0
^
∫ ¿+H^ dri ¿ describes the input optical driving of the
system, with the Hamiltonian:
^
H dri =ℏ α L (a¿ ei ω t +a¿ † e iω t )
L L
(9)

Here ω L is the frequency of input driving laser α L =

√ K ex p¿ iϕ
ℏω L
e represent the driving

strength, where p¿ is the input laser power, K ex refers to the loss rate associated with input
coupling, and is the initial phase of input laser. In a reference frame rotating at the laser
frequency, the total Hamiltonian ^ ^ +H
H= H 0
^
∫ ¿+ H^ dri ¿ of the optomechanical system can be
written as:
^
H ¿† ¿ ¿† ¿† ¿
=−∆ a ( a ) +ω m b (b¿¿ ¿)+ g0 a (a )¿ ¿ (10)
ℏ
Where ∆=ω L −ω c is the detuning of the input laser and cavity frequency (Gui-Lei Zhu, et
al., , 2022)

12
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Methods of the study
We analyze the Cavity coupled optomechanical systems sensing applications:
Displacement and Mass, we will use the following methods. We will analysis the
progress of precision sensing applications using cavity optomechanical systems. The
evaluation is organized in the following way:

 We will introduce the physical principles of optomechanical sensing, including a

discussion of the noises and sensitivity of the systems. Physical principles of
 Optomechanical coupling
 Optomechanical sensing stages
 Noise, sensitivity, and bandwidth
 We will review the progress in displacement sensing and mass sensing.
We will use the cavity mode coupled with a mechanical mode, which can be modeled as a
Febry-Perot (F–P) cavity with one fixed mirror and one movable mirror mounted on a
spring. The precisely model the coupling process, we will provide a full quantum
description of cavity optomechanical interaction form of the below. A general cavity
optomechanical system with the total Hamiltonian:
^ ^ 0+ H
H= H ^ ^
∫ ¿+H dri ¿

From the above equation we will use the following terms:

 The optical driving of the system ( ^
H dri ¿ ,
 The Hamiltonian of the uncoupled optical and mechanical modes, ( ^
H 0 ¿ and
 The optomechanical interaction between the optical mode and the mechanical
mode, ( ^
H∫ ¿ ¿

 Will provide for the optomechanical system an excellent platform for precision
displacement sensing and mass sensing. To measure the displacement x (ω) of the
mechanical resonator in the frequency domain by the displacement sensing based on
the optomechanical system.
 The resonator acts as a mass sensor due to the resonance frequency sensitivity of the
mass absorbed onto it.
 We will be use the software programs like MATLAB

13
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Cavity optomechanical coupling
The canonical cavity optomechanical system consists of a Fabry-Periot cavity with a
compliant end mirror. We shall be interested in performing measurements of the
displacement of the end-mirror by monitoring the phase or amplitude of the field leaking
out of the cavity. Towards this end, we provide a basic description of the dynamics of the
cavity optomechanical system, which are succinctly described by a pair of coupled
differential equations (Markus Aspelmeyer et al., , 2014):
2
m ẍ ( t )+ mγ m ẋ ( t )+ mω m x ( t ) =Fext ( t )+ F RP ( x ,t ) (4.1)
ȧ c ( t)=¿
Equation (4.1) is the equation of motion for a damped harmonic oscillator and describes
the displacement, x , of the compliant end mirror. The variables m, γ m, and ω m are the
effective mass, damping rate, and natural frequency of the mirror, respectively. F ext ( t ) is
the sum of all the external forces on the mirror, excluding the radiation pressure force,
F RP ( x , t ), which we shall return to shortly.
Equation is the equation of motion for the complex amplitude, a c,of the intracavity field
in the slowly varying envelope approximation, normalized so that ¿ a c (t )∨¿2 ¿ is the
energy of the intracavity field. The variables κ , ω0 , ωc , k 1, and E¿ denote the energy decay
rate of the cavity, the angular frequency of the input field, the resonance frequency of the
cavity, the rate of energy decay through the input mirror, and the slowly varying complex
amplitude of the input field, respectively.
The two equations are coupled via the position-dependent cavity resonance frequency:
mc
ω c ( t )= ≈ ω c ( 0 ) −Gx(4.3)
2 ( L+ x )
where m is the cavity mode order (an integer value), c is the speed of light, L is the
nominal cavity length, and:
d ωc ωc
G= ≈ (4.4)
dx L
is the optomechanical coupling factor.

14
To see how G enters into the dynamics of the mechanical resonator, note that for x=0 ,
the radiation force experienced by the mirror can be written in several ways:
2 2
2 PCirct ( t ) |a c ( t )| ℏ ω c n c G|a c ( t )|
F RP ( x , t )= = = = ℏG n c = ( 4.5)
c L L ωc
where PCirct ( t ) is the power circulating in the optical cavity (the power incident on the end
mirror) and n c is the intracavity photon number (Markus Aspelmeyer et al., , 2014).
Linearizing about small fluctuations, a c −⟨ ac ⟩ and making the notational change:
a c →⟨ ac ⟩+ ac , F RP →⟨ F RP ⟩+ F RP, etc., yields the linearized cavity optomechanical
equations (assuming a stationary input field, E¿ =0 ¿ :
2
m ẍ ( t )+ mγ m ẋ ( t )+ mω m x ( t ) =Fext ( t )+ F RP ( x ,t ) (4.6)
a˙c ( t )=( κ +i ∆ ) ac ( t ) +iGx ( t ) ⟨ a c ⟩ (4.7)

where ∆=⟨ ω 0 ⟩−⟨ ωc ⟩ is the laser-cavity detuning, ⟨ ac ⟩=

√ 2k 1 ⟨ E¿ ⟩
is the mean cavity
κ+ i ∆
G ( ⟨ ac ⟩ ac + c . c . )
field, and F c (x , t)= is the fluctuating radiation pressure force.
ωc
We assume that the cavity field responds instantaneously to the mechanical motion (the
so-called “bad cavity limit”), in which case the left hand side of equation (4.7) can be
ignored, and the sensitivity of the intracavity field to mechanical motion becomes:
iGx ( t )
a˙c ( t ) ≈
k +i ∆ c
⟨ a ( t ) ⟩ ( 4.8)
Finally, the output field can be related to the circulating field by the input-output relation
(Markus Aspelmeyer et al., , 2014):
Eout ( t )=√ 2 k 2 ac ( t ) (4.9)
We note that, in the simplest case of a resonantly probed cavity ( ∆=0), the phase of the
output field, ϕ out (t ), can be expressed in terms of the position of the mechanical resonator
in a familiar way:
ℑ [ Eout ( t ) ] ℑ[ ac ( t ) ] Gx ( t ) ω c x ( t ) 2 Fx ( t )
ϕ out ( t ) ≈ = = = = (4.10)
ℜ [ Eout ( t ) ] ℜ[ ac (t )] k Lk λ
πc
where F= is the cavity finesse.
Lκ
More generally, taking the Fourier transform of both sides of equation, we can relate a c
and x by an optomechanical susceptibility:

15
 ac ( ω ) G
X a ( x ) ( ω )= = ( 4.11)
c
X ( ω ) ∆+ω−ik
where, for completeness, we’ve retained the finite cavity response term, a˙c ( t), in equation
(4.7), leading to the term, ω, in the denominator (which is negligible in the bad cavity
limit, ω ≪ κ ).

4.2. Physical principles of cavity optomechanical sensing

In this subdivision, we present the physical principles of cavity optomechanical sensing.
First we introduce the optomechanical coupling principle, review the different
optomechanical sensing platforms, and then discuss the noise, sensitivity, and bandwidth
of optomechanical sensing.

4.2.1. Optomechanical coupling

Optomechanical coupling describes a phenomenon that an optical radiation field interacts
with the mechanical vibrational mode. For example, we focus on a F – P optomechanical
system (Figure 4.1). The cavity fields exertradiation pressure on the movable mirror,
which leads to the changes of both the resonance frequency and damping rate and of the
mechanical modes. At the same time, the mechanical vibration of the spring modulates
the position of the movable mirror, which changes the cavity length L and optical
resonant frequency ω c.
To precisely model the coupling process, we provide a full quantum theory of cavity
optomechanical coupling below. Here, both the mechanical resonator and the cavity field
are pictured as quantized bosonic fields. Beginning with the system Hamiltonian and
taking the dissipation into account, the system dynamics can be described by quantum
Langevin equations. Let us consider a typical cavity optomechanical system composed of
a single optical cavity mode coupled with a mechanical mode, which can be modeled as a
F – P cavity with one fixed mirror and one movable mirror mounted on a spring (Figure
1).

Figure (4.1): Schematic of a typical optomechanical system, with a laser-driven Fabry–

Perot (F–P) cavity. The left mirror is fixed and the right mirror is movable.

16
 4.2.1.1. Hamiltonian of Cavity optomechanical system
We consider two coupled identical mechanical resonators with optomechanically
induced gain and loss. Each of the resonators is characterized by frequency ω j, damping
rate γ m and coupling strength J . The schematic diagram is presented in figure 2. In this
configuration, we assume that only the mechanical commutation relation are modified,
while the optical commutation relation remains unchanged, i.e. [a , a† ]=1. This restriction
can be justified as those are expected to be negligible compared with the deformations of
the massive mechanical modes (Girdhar P and Doherty A C , 2020). The total
Hamiltonian of the whole system can be written as (ℏ=1) .
H=H f + H i + H d + H g ( 4.12)
where,
H f = ∑ ω a , j a†j a j + ω j b†j b j
j=1 , 2

H i= ∑ {−g a j a j ( b j +b j }−J ( b1 b2 + b1 b2 )
† † † †

j=1 ,2

H d = ∑ iE (¿ a j e
† −i ω p , j t i ωp , j t
−a j e )(4.13)¿
j=1,2

1 2
H g= ∑
† 4
ω j m j μ j ( b j−b j )
j=1 , 2 12

In this expression, H f represents the sum of free Hamiltonian of the optomechanical

system,a j ( b j ) and a j ( b j ) are the creation and annihilation operators of the j th cavity
† †

(mechanical resonator) ( j=1,2) . The frequencies of the cavities and mechanical

resonators are ω a , j and ω j , respectively. H i describes the interaction Hamiltonian of the
configuration. The first term represents the coupling of the cavities to the corresponding
mechanical resonators with optomechanical coupling strength g. The second term
describes the coupling between the two mechanical resonators with coupling strength J ,
where the rotating wave approximation was applied. H d indicates that the two cavities are
driven by external fields with amplitude E and frequency ω p. H g describes the
gravitational effects in mechanical resonators. The effective mass of the j th mechanical
mode is m j .

17
Figure (4.2): An open system consisted of two coupled mechanical resonators. Each
resonator is coupled to an optical cavity. The two cavities are driven by red- and blue-
detuned pump laser, respectively (Girdhar P and Doherty A C , 2020).
By this study we consider the following Hamiltonian (H) system written as:
H=H drive+ H free + H∫ ¿(4.14)¿

Here the first term of equation (4.14), H drive describes the optical driving of the system.
Consider that a continuous-wave laser is injected into the system, and the laser
Hamiltonian is written as:
H drive=Ω¿ e i ω t a+ Ω e−i ω t a† (4.15)
L L

where ω L is the input laser frequency, a (a† ) is the bosonic annihilation (creation) operator
of the cavity optical mode, and

Ω=
√ k ex p i ϕ
ℏ ωL
e

denotes the driving strength, where P is the input laser power, ϕ is the initial phase of the
input laser, and k ex is the decay rate of input-cavity coupling.
The second term of equation (4.14), H free is the Hamiltonian of the uncoupled optical and
mechanical modes, described by
† †
H free =ωc a a+ ωm b b(4.16)
Among it, the mechanical mode is regarded as a quantum harmonic oscillator, where
b (b ) is the bosonic annihilation (creation) operator of the mechanical modes, and ω c (ω m
†

) is the optical (mechanical) resonance frequency. The commutation relations satisfy

† †
[a , a ]=1 and [b , b ]=1. The displacement operator of the mechanical mode is given by
†
x=x ZPF (b +b)
where

x ZPF =
√ ℏ
2 meff ω m
is the zero-point fluctuation, with meff being the effective mass ofthemechanicalmode.
The third term of equation (4.14), H ∫ ¿ ¿ describes the optomechanical interaction between
the optical mode and the mechanical mode, which is given by

18
 H ∫ ¿=g a †
a (b +b) (4.17)¿
†

Here
g= x ZPF G
Represents the single photon optomechanical coupling strength, and
∂ ωc ( x )
G=
∂x
is the optomechanical coupling strength representing optical frequency shift per
displacement. This Hamiltonian can be obtained by simply considering that the optical
resonance frequency is modulated by the position of the mechanical resonator and using
Taylor expansion at the original point, which is written by
∂ ωc ( x )
+ O ( x ) ≃ ωc ( 0 )+ g ( b + b ) .
†
ω c ( x )=ω c ( 0 )+ x
∂x
A more rigorous and detailed derivation of this Hamiltonian can be found in Law’s paper
(Law, 1995). Besides, the radiation pressure force is written as the derivation of H ∫ ¿ ¿
with respect to displacement:
H ∫¿ g
F=−d = a† a ( 4.18 ) ¿
dx x ZPF
In the frame rotating at the input laser frequency ω L, the system Hamiltonian is
transformed to
H=−Δ a† a+ω m b† b+ g a † a ( b† +b ) + ( Ω ¿ a+ Ω a† ) ,(4.19)
Where
Δ=ω L −ω c
is the input-cavity detuning.
The quantum Langevin equations are given by

(
ȧ= iΔ−
k
2 )
a−iga ( b † +b ) −i Ω−√ k ex a¿ ,ex −√ k 0 a¿ ,0 ( 4.20 a)

(
ḃ= −iω m−
γ
2 )
b−ig a† a− √ γ b¿ (4.20 b)

Here k 0 is the intrinsic cavity decay rate,

κ=k 0 +k ex
is the total cavity decay rate, γ is the damping rate of the mechanical mode. Besides,
a ¿.0 , a¿ ,ex , and b ¿ are the noise operators associated with the intrinsic cavity decay,
external cavity decay(input-cavity coupling), and mechanical damping. Additionally, the

19
quality factors of optical and mechanical mode are defined as the ratio of their resonant
κ γ
frequency and damping rate respectively, which are Q0= and Q m =
ωc ωm
The optomechanical coupling enables optical read out of mechanical motions. As shown
ωL
in Figure 4.3A, when the laser frequency f L = is locked on the side of an optical
2π
resonance, the mechanical oscillation with a displacement of x translates into a periodic
change in the cavity length, and therefore shifts the optical resonance frequency and
modulates the amplitude of the intra cavity field periodically. As a result, the output photo
current i(t) experiences a periodic modulation, with a frequency corresponding to the
mechanical frequency ω m, and an amplitude proportional to the displacement x and
linearized optomechanical coupling strength G . For simplicity, we consider a simple case
of a single mechanical resonance, for which the response of a mechanical resonator to an
external force as a function of the frequency is quantified by the mechanical susceptibility
of the resonator χ (ω)=1 ∕ ( meff (ω 2m−ω 2−i ωγ )). In Figure 3B we plot ¿ χ (ω)∨¿ of a
mechanical resonator with mechanical quality factor Qm =1000, normalized to the
susceptibility at zero frequency ¿ χ (0)∨¿. It can be seen that the response of a mechanical
resonator to external force is significantly enhanced at its mechanical resonance, with a
factor of Q m. Therefore, the mechanicalresponse to an external stimulus, such as force and
acoustic pressure, etc., is enhanced by the mechanical resonance, and having a high
mechanical quality factor is important to achieve better measurement sensitivity. In
addition, the optical read-out sensitivity is also enhanced by the optical resonance,
benefitting from the ultra high optical quality factor of the micro cavities.

20
Figure (4.3): (A) Physical principle of optical read out of the mechanical motion. A
mechanical displacement x shifts the optical transmission spectrum from the black solid
curve to the red dash-dotted curve. The periodic mechanical motion therefore cause a
modulation of the output photo current i(t), when the laser frequency f L is locked on the
side of the optical resonance (Law, 1995).
(B) Susceptibility ¿ χ (ω)∨¿ of a mechanical resonator as a function of the frequency,
normalized to its zero frequency susceptibility ¿ χ (0)∨¿. The susceptibility on the
mechanical resonance is enhanced by a factor of mechanical quality factor Qm compared
to that at zero frequency.

4.2.1.2. Measuring the Optomechanical Response

The mechanical properties of whispering gallery mode micro cavities can be probed by
coupling resonant laser radiation into the micro cavities using tapered optical fibers
(Spillane, et al. , 2003) Such probing will detect mirror or cavity motion as a modulation
in the power transmitted past the resonator. This modulation can, in turn, be measured as
a photocurrent upon detection with a photodiode. The continuous, optical probe wave,
itself, can also be used to affect changes in the mirror dynamics via the back-action effect.
A schematic of the experiment, which can be used to study optomechanical phenomena,
is shown in the Figure 10 below. It consists of a continuous-wave pump laser (here, a
965−nm diode laser) which is coupled into a standard, single-mode optical fiber. This
fiber enters the experimental chamber, where it also contains a tapered region used to
enable evanescent coupling between the tapered fiber and various types of micro cavities.
The output fiber is connected to different analysis instruments, including an electrical
spectrum analyzer and oscilloscope. Note that moreover locking electronics is used to
ensure operation at a fixed detuning.

21
Figure (4.4): Experimental setup for the observation of cavity cooling or amplification of
a mechanical oscillator. All relevant data from the electronic spectrum analyzer and the
oscilloscope are transferred to a computer controlling the experiment. More details in the
text. IR: iris, FSFC: free-space to fibre coupler, PC: fibre polarization controller, FC: fibre
coupler, AUX: auxiliary input, SC: sealed chamber (Spillane, et al. , 2003).

4.2. Optomechanical sensing applications

4.2.1. Noise, sensitivity, and bandwidth
The most important parameter for optomechanical sensors is sensitivity, which is defined
as the minimum detectable signal, and can be quantified by the noise equivalent signal.
Thus we will discuss the noise sources in the optomechanical systems, which include
thermal noise from the thermal environment with non-zero temperature, and noises from
the probe laser. Noises from the probe lasers consist of the classical noise and the
quantum noise. The classical noise (mainly in the low frequency range) includes laser
intensity noise, phase noise, etc., which can be suppressed by some measurement
techniques, such as balanced homodyne detection. The quantum noise originates from the
quantum property of photons, also known as photon shot noise. In optomechanical
systems, the quantum noise includes the imprecision noise and the backaction noise. The
imprecision noise originates from the uncertainty relation between the number and the
phase of photons, while the back action noise (or radiation pressure noise) originates from
the radiation pressure force of photons acting on the mechanical resonator. In most cases
of optomechanical sensing applications, the probe laser power is relatively low, to avoid
thermal effect induced optical resonance shift (B. -B. Li, J. Bílek, U. B. Hoff, et al.,
2018), and thus the back action noise is typically negligible. As a result, here we mainly
consider the thermal noise and shot noise in the optomechanical sensing systems.
The sensitivity of a physical quantity A (including displacement, force, etc.) at the
frequency ω is determined by
√ S AA (ω) ,
where the noise spectrum is defined as the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation
function of A as

22
 +∞
S AA (ω)= ∫ ⟨ A (t) A (0) ⟩ ei ω t dt
−∞

Micro toroid’s have high optical quality factors and broad mechanical resonance
frequency range, therefore providing a good platform for high sensitivity and broad
bandwidthoptomechanicalsensing.Hereweconsideramicrotoroidmechanicaloptomechanica
lresonator, with an optical quality factor Q 0=10 6, mechanical quality factor Qm =1000 ,
effective mass meff =2ng , optomechanical coupling strength G=500 MHz /nm. At room
temperature T =300 K , a mechanical resonator experiences a thermal noise force
F th =√ S FF (ω)=√ 2 meff γ k B T CITATION MAs14 \l 1033 (M. Aspelmeyer, 2014) . The
displacement noise power spectrum of a mechanical resonator from thermal noise is
2 2 γ kB T
Sthxx =| X ( ω )| S 2th = ( 4.21 )
[ 2
meff ( ω2m−ω 2) −ω 2 γ 2 ]
The displacement noise power spectrum from the laser shot noise, on the other hand, is
frequency independent (W. P. Bowen and G. J. Milburn,, 2016).

( )
2
th k ω
S xx = 2
1+ 2 (4.22)
16 ηN g 0 k
where κ is the total optical decay rate, η=0.8 is the optical detection efficiency, N is the
intra cavity photon number
P κ ex
N=
ℏ ωL
for probe power P . The displacement noise power spectra for shot noise at different
powers are shown in the black ¿), red (2 μW ), blue (20 nW ), purple (200 pW ), and green
(2 pW ) dotted curves. The total noise power spectra for displacement at different powers
are shown in the dash-dotted curves. It can be seen that, the systems have less noise at
off-resonance frequency. And as the probe power increases, the shot noise dominated
displacement sensitivity is improved and thermal noise limited displacement sensitivity is
easier to reach for high probe power cases. In addition to the probe power, the optical Q0
factor and optomechanical coupling strength also affect the sensitivity. The higher Q0 and
G are, the higher the readout sensitivity is, and therefore it is easier to reach thermal noise
limited sensitivity.
Practical optomechanical sensors are usually used to detect an external physical quantity.
For example, for magnetic field sensing using optomechanical systems, it is essentially

23
detecting a magnetic field (B) induced force (F ∝ B) acting on the mechanical resonator.
Therefore in the following, we discuss the force sensitivity
√ S FF ( ω )
√ S FF (ω)=
| X ( ω )|
of a mechanical resonator. It can be seen that the peak sensitivity for force occurs at the
mechanical resonance frequency, and the sensitivity degrades when going away from the
mechanical resonance. As a result, reaching thermal noise limited regime is beneficial for
better sensitivity. The peak sensitivity is dependent on the mechanical damping rate
gamma. Therefore, having a lower damping rate (or higher mechanical Qm factor) is
important for a better force sensitivity.
In order to characterize the frequency dependent sensitivity, we define a bandwidth as the
frequency range in which the sensitivity is better than twice of the peak sensitivity. It can
be seen that, the higher the probe power is, the broader the bandwidth is. For example, at
a probe power of 200 μW , the thermal noise limited frequency range covers all the way
from DC to about twice the resonance frequency. In addition to probe power, having a
higher optical factor Q0 and optomechanical coupling strength are also helpful to reach
the thermal noise limited sensitivity, and therefore broadening the bandwidth of the
optomechanical force sensor. This means that optomechanical sensors provide an ultra-
broad band sensing platform, with band width easily reaching tens of MHz .
4.2.2. Displacement Sensitivity
Both the damping rate as well the effective temperature of a mechanical mode are
observed by measuring the calibrated displacement noise spectra as a function of power.
Despite their small amplitude, these thermally excited oscillations are readily observable
in the transmitted light. Indeed, optical interferometers are among the most sensitive
monitors for displacement. For quantum-noise-limited homodyne detection the shot noise
limited displacement sensitivity of a cavity opto-mechanical system is given by:
δ x min ≅ λ/¿
For numbers typical of the toroidal micro cavity work (
F ≈ 40000 ,η ≈ 0.5 , P ≈1 µW , λ=1064 nm) this implies a displacement sensitivity of
δ x min ≅ 5.10−19 m/ Hz. Interestingly,it is in principle, even sufficient to detect the zero
point motion of δ x min ≅ 5.10−16 m within a 1 kHz resolution bandwidth.
Ultrahigh-sensitivity displacement sensing is the core of precision detection of many
physical quantities, such as force, magnetic field, acceleration and ultrasound. The

24
optomechanical system provides an excellent platform for precision displacement
sensing.
The displacement sensing based on the optomechanical system (Figure 4.1) is to measure
the displacement x (ω) of the mechanical resonator in the frequency domain. In general,
through optomechanical coupling, the optical transmission signal carries the information
of the displacement of the mechanical resonator. Then, it can be readout by a photo
detector and optical spectrum analyzers (Y. W. Hu,, 2013).
Various cavity optomechanical systems have been demonstrated to be suitable for the
displacement sensors, involving WGM cavities (D. J. Wilson, et al., , 2015), photonic
crystal cavities (F. Galeotti et al., , 2020), F–P cavities (O. Arcizet et al.,, 2006). Table
(4.1) summarizes the relevant optomechanical parameters for some representative recent
experimental implementations in displacement sensing.
The displacement sensor based on WGM cavity optomechanical systems has been
demonstrated to possess high sensitivity. In 2008, Schliesser et al. reported a
displacement sensor based on a silica micro toroid cavity optomechanical system (Figure
4.5). They reduced the noise by utilizing homodyne and polarization spectroscopy
techniques and achieved the displacement sensitivity of 10−19 m/ √ Hz level, which was
limited by the shot noise (A. Schliesser et al., , 2008). In 2010, Ding et al. developed a
micro disk made of GaAs. Due to the high refractive index of GaAs, the optomechanical
coupling G reached 71 GHz /nm, which led the sensitivities of their system down to
m/ √ Hz (L. Ding, et al., , 2009)
−17
2 ×10

25
Figure (4.5): Motion transduction with a micro toroid cavity. (A) Schematic
and (B) optical microscope image of tapered fiber coupled micro toroid cavity (A.
Schliesser et al., , 2008).
Apart from coupling with the internal mechanical mode, the WGM micro cavities were
also explored to couple with the external mechanical resonators through the near field.
The superiority of the evanescent field coupling is separating the optical and mechanical
degrees of freedom, which extends the sizes of the measured mechanical resonator into
the nano scale. In 2009, Anetsberger et al. put forward a displacement detector based on
the near field cavity optomechanics (Figure 4.6 A). They measured the motion of the
external sin strings employing the evanescent field of the toroid silica micro cavities.
Taking advantage of a Pound–Drever–Hall (PDH) technique (O. Arcizet, et al., , 2006),
they implemented the sensitivity of 5.7 ×10−16 m/ √ Hz, limited by the shot noise (G.
Anetsberger,et al., , 2009). In 2015,Wilson et al. exploited the special fabrication
technique to significantly shorten the distance between the mechanical and optical
elements, which enhanced the optomechanical coupling to G=4.4 GHz / nm. Assisted by
the feedback cooling method, the sensitivity of their system was down to
m ∕ √ Hz , which was a combination of thermorefractive noise, diode laser
−17
4.3 × 10
frequency noise, and soon (D. J. Wilson, et al., , 2015).
From works 2, 3, 4, 5 in Table (4.1) and equation (4.22), it is seen that increasing the
optomechanical coupling helps enhance the shot-noise-limited displacement sensitivity.
Benefiting from the strong optomechanical coupling (G above 10 GHz /nm), the factor
limiting the sensitivity of photonic crystal cavity systems is no longer shot noise. In 2009,
Eichen field et al. proposed a displacement sensor based on the Si3 N 4 photonic crystal
cavities. Limited by the photo receiver noise, their system got the sensitivity with
m/ √ Hz (M. Eichenfield, et all., , 2009). In 2017, Zhang et al. demonstrated a
−17
5 ×10
detection system with a femtogram scale nanobeam optomechanical crystal resonator.
Even in the water, its sensitivity achieved 9.3 ×10−18 m/ √ Hz (H. Zhang, et all., , 2017), in
the same year, Zobenica et al. presented an integrated sensor utilizing the photonic crystal
cavity (Figure 4.7). As Figure 4.7B showed, the tuning, sensing, and read-out functions
were concentrated in an area of only 15 ×15 μ m 2. Employing an electromechanically
tunable, double-membrane photonic crystal cavity, the system had a sensitivity of
1×10−13 m∕√Hz restricted by the pick-up electrical noise (Ž. Zobenica, et all., , 2017).
Then, in 2020, Galeotti et al. rolled off the sensitivity of the on-chip displacement sensor

26
to 7×10−15 m∕√Hz, which was helped by using more compact electrical probes with
correspondingly lower pick-up noise (F. Galeotti, et all., , 2020).

Figure (4.6): (A) Schematic of the tapered-fiber-inter faced optical cavity dispersively
coupled with an array of nanomechanical resonators. Scanning electron micrograph (false
color) of (B) doubly clamped sin nanostring resonators and (C) micro toroid cavity. (D)
Displacement density as a function of frequency. In set: finite-element simulation of the
string’s fundamental mo

Figure (4.7): (A) Sketch of the photonic crystal cavity sensing device. (B) False-colored
SEM image of a typical device (top view) with contact pads to both sensing and actuation
diodes. Bottom: zoom-in SEM image showing the active part of the sensor: a four-arm
bridge structure containing a photonic crystal cavity suspended above a fixed photonic

27
crystal membrane. In set: SEM image of the patterned optical cavity. (C) Electronic
spectrum analyzer spectrum of the photo current noise where the fundamental mechanical
mode is visible in the out-put power (red dots) and control measurement with laser off
(black dots). The right axis displays the calibrated power spectral density of motion.
Insert: finite-element simulation of fundamental mechanical mode at frequency of
2.18 MHz (Ž. Zobenica, et all., , 2017).

Table (4.1): Experimental parameters for a representative sampling of published cavity-

based displacement sensors experiments.
Device type √ S xx ( m/ √ Hz) meff (kg) Qm G(MHz . n m−1 ) year
1.Microtoroid [31] ∼ 9.0 ×10
−19
1.0 ×10
−11
¿ 5.0 ×10
4
−¿ 2008
2.Microdisk [90] 2.0 ×10−17 2.1 ×10−14 6.6 ×10 2 7.1 ×104 2010
3.Microtoroid cavity-
string [84] 5.7 ×10
−16
4.9 × 10
−15
4.0 × 10
4
2.3 ×10
1
2009
4.Microtoroid cavity-
nanowire [91] 5.3 ×10−19 4.0 × 10−15 2.8 ×102 9.4 × 101 2010
5.Microdisk cavity-
nanobeam [92] 5.3 ×10
−19
2.9 ×10
−15
7.6 ×10
5
4.4 ×10
3
2015
6.Photonic crystal (0.5 1.5)× 10
2

nanobeam [73] 4.3 × 10

−17
4.3 × 10
−14
7.7 ×10
5
2009
7.Photonic crystal
nanobeam [42] 4.0 × 10−15 1.0 ×10−11 1.4 ×10 6 3.5 ×10 4 2012
8.Photonic crystal
nanobeam [93] 9.3 ×10
−18
1.4 ×10
−16
6.6 ×10
0
7.8 ×10
5
2017
9.Microwave cavity-
nanowire [94] 4.8 × 10−15 1.1 ×10−14 6.2 ×105 2.0 ×10−1 2009

There are other schemes to realize displacement sensing in optomechanical systems. In

2013, Tallur et al. illustrated a detection approach based on Rayleigh scattering in an
optomechanical system, which enhanced the displacement sensitivity at multi GHz
frequencies in there solved side band regime (S. Tallur and S. A. Bhave,, 2013). Then in
2020, Liu et al. proposed an integrated cavity-free optomechanical displacement sensor,
which was based on a three-dimensional directional coupler and dual-channel wave guide
photo diodes. Constrained by the pick-up electric noise, their system attained the
sensitivity of 4.5 × 10−14 m ∕ √ Hz (T. Liu, et all., , 2020).

28
Grounded on quantum correlations between the shot and backaction noise, there are some
works in reducing the quantum noise and even obtaining the displacement sensitivity
beyond the standard quantum limit (SQL) (M. Aspelmeyer, et all., , 2014). In 2013, Hoff
et al. demonstrated that injecting the squeezed light helps reduce the shot noise in the
micro cavity system. In 2015, Peano et al. provided a scheme of creating squeezed light
inside the cavity with a nonlinear medium, which enhanced the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) of the system. In 2017, Kampel et al. modified the readout of the interferometer,
also called variational techniques, and realized the near-SQL-limited measurement. In
2019, Mason et al. improved the variational techniques and realized the beyond-SQL
sensitivity at the off-resonant frequency. In 2020, Sainadh et al. put forward a scheme of
beating the SQL through the interaction between the linear and quadratic optomechanical
coupling in an unresolved side band limit.

4.3.3. Mass sensing

Traditionally, the mass of tiny charged particles is measured by the mass spectrometer (J.
Griffiths, 2008). Due to the need for the measurement of molecular-scale substances in
the fields of chemistry and biology, the measurement of the mass of electrically neutral
particles has become a hot research issue (J.-J. Li and K.-D. Zhu,, 2013). In general, the
minuscule size of microresonators renders their physical properties extremely sensitive to
the perturbation caused by external influence. These mechanical resonator-based mass
sensors rely on a resonant frequency shift due to an accreted mass and do not need the
process of molecular ionization, opening a new chapter during these years in the field of
nanotechnology measurement. At present, there are two methods for microresonator
frequency measurement, the electrical measurement method (J. Chaste, et al., , 2012) and
the optical measurement method (W. Yu, et al.,, 2016). This section will introduce the
latter in detail.
The resonator acts as a mass sensor due to the resonance frequency sensitivity of the mass
absorbed onto it. Although the measurement technique is quite challenging, the principle
of mass sensing is still simple. A mechanical resonator can be described by a harmonic
oscillator, which has an effective mass meff , a spring constant k , and a resonance
frequency

f m=
1
2π √ k
meff
(4.24)

Changes in the spring effective mass meff will cause the resonance frequency shift of the

29
mechanical resonator f m, which is
2meff δ f m
m eff δ = .
fm
Qualitatively, we simply consider the deposited mass as
−2meff δ
md ≈ meff δ = f m (4.25)
fm
It can be seen from equation (4.25) that when the resolution of the instrument is fixed,
smaller masses can be detected by reducing the effective mass of the mechanical
resonator or increasing the resonance frequency of the mechanical resonator. More
specifically, the relationship between deposition mass and the frequency shift also
depends on the binding position of the object in the mechanical mode (S. a. Dohn, et al., ,
2007).
In 2012, Li et al. proposed a scheme of the all optical mass sensor based on an
optomechanical system, in which a micro toroid cavity was coupled to a strong pump
field and a weak signal field. Later, in 2013, Liu et al. realized the mass sensor in silica
micro-toroid cavity optomechanical systems. Due to the resonator with 6.0 × 10−8 g
effective mass and 1.5 × 103 effective mechanical quality factor, the system exhibited 150
fg (1.5 × 10−13 g) mass sensitivity. The driving light provided by near infrared (IR)
tunable laser acted as both pump source and probe light, which were coupled into and out
of the microtoroidal cavity utilizing a silica fiber taper. The pump power exceeds the
optomechanical oscillation threshold, and the probe light optical signal was transferred
into the electrical signal that was collected and analyzed in the RF spectrum analyzer.
Furthermore, they demonstrated intrinsic harmonic optical modulation inside the
optomechanical system can amplify the signal to enhance the sensitivity of the system.
In 2016, Yu et al. developed a microsphere cavity optomechanical system, whose
mechanical res-onator had 10−6 g ef fective mass and 2.6 × 106 effective mechanical
factor, leading to 66 kDa (1.1 × 10−19 g) mass sensitivity. Figure 10B is the power spectral
density of the cavity transmission displaying the 262 kHz fundamental oscillation and its
high-order harmonics. They put the microspheres into the solution of the protein molecule
and observed the binding event of the protein molecule and microspheres by the recorded
time-frequency diagram of the system under the third harmonic of the oscillation
frequency. As shown in Figure 10C, the binding and separa-tion of protein molecules
with microspheres were observed at the time of 28 and 34 s, respectively. Their works
showed the excellent performance of the microsphere cavi-ties in the liquid environment

30
as well as the potential of the optomechanical system in the detection of biomolecules.

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY
5.1. SUMMARY
Cavity optomechanical systems provide an ideal platform for precision sensing. In this
study, we review the recent research progress in precision optomechanical sensing,
including the sensing principle, and various sensing applications. We have provided
examples of optomechanical sensors for displacement sensing, mass sensing, force
sensing, acceleration sensing, and magnetic field sensing. In recent years, these examples
have moved beyond proof of principle and towards real applications. With the
development of modern micro/nano fabrication technology, more and more chip scale
sensing platforms have been developed and used for versatile sensing applications.
Further improvements are needed for better performance of cavity optomechanical
sensors, to meet the requirements for specific applications. For instance, for cavity
optomechanical magnetometers, their sensitivities at low frequency ranges (from DC to
100 Hz) still need to be improved, for applications such as magnetic anomaly detection
and MEG.

31
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