Grinding Wheel

Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and grain wear
and fracture patterns.

Knoop hardness range for various

materials and abrasives.
Grinding Wheel Types

Some common types of grinding wheels made with

conventional abrasives (aluminum oxide and silicon
carbide). Note that each wheel has a specific
grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper
and unsafe.
 Superabrasive Wheels

Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The rim consists of superabrasives and the wheel
itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. Note that the basic numbering of wheel types
(such as 1, 2, and 11) is the same as that shown in Fig. 9.2. The bonding materials for the
superabrasives are: (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified; (b) metal; (c) vitrified; and (f)
resinoid.
Grinding Wheel Marking System

Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.

Diamond and cBN Marking System

Standard marking system for diamond and cubic-boron-nitride bonded abrasives.

 Abrasive Grains

The grinding surface of an abrasive wheel

(a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain.
(A46-J8V), showing grains, porosity, wear
Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. Source: After
flats on grains (see also Fig. 9.7b), and
M.E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an
metal chips from the workpiece adhering to
abrasive grain. Note the negative rake angle, the small shear
the grains. Note the random distribution
angle, and the wear flat on the grain.
and shape of the abrasive grains.
Dressing

(a) Methods of grinding wheel dressing. (b)

Shaping the grinding face of a wheel by
dressing it with computer-controlled shaping
features. Note that the diamond dressing tool
is normal to the wheel surface at point of
contact. Source: OKUMA America
Corporation.
 Surface Grinding

FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustrations of surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-
spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the
workpiece. (c) Vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard-type grinder).

Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle

surface grinder.
Thread and Internal Grinding

Threads produced by (a) traverse and (b)

plunge grinding.

Schematic illustrations of internal-grinding operations.

Centerless Grinding

(a-c) Schematic illustrations of centerless-

grinding operations. (d) A computer-
numerical-control centerless grinding
machine. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
 Creep-Feed Grinding

(a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut.
(b) A groove produced on a flat surface in one pass by creep-feed grinding using a shaped wheel.
Groove depth can be on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a
shaped wheel. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc. and Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Finishing Operations
Schematic illustration of the structure of a coated
abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century,
and emery cloth are common examples of coated
abrasives.

Schematic illustration of a honing tool to improve the

surface finish of bored or ground holes.

Schematic illustration of the superfinishing process

for a cylindrical part: (a) cylindrical microhoning; (b)
centerless microhoning.
 Lapping

(a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on

flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.
 Chemical-Mechanical Polishing

Schematic illustration of the chemical-mechanical polishing process. This process is widely

used in the manufacture of silicon wafers and integrated circuits, where it is known as
chemical-mechanical planarization. Additional carriers and more disks per carrier also are
possible.
 Polishing Using Magnetic Fields

Schematic illustration of the use of magnetic fields to polish balls and rollers: (a) magnetic float
polishing of ceramic balls and (b) magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: After R.
Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.
 Ultrasonic Machining

(a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic-machining process; material is removed through

microchipping and erosion. (b) and (c) Typical examples of cavities produced by ultrasonic
machining. Note the dimensions of cut and the types of workpiece materials.
Advanced Machining Processes
 Chemical Milling

(a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffness-to-weight
ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling of aluminum-
alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have first been formed into
shape, such as by roll forming or stretch forming. Source: ASM International.
 Chemical Machining

(a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces are involved in this
process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining.
 Roughness and Tolerance
Capabilities

Surface roughness and dimensional tolerance capabilities of various machining processes. Note the wide range within
each process. (See also Fig. 8.26.) Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed., ©1980. Used by permission of Metcut
Research Associates, Inc.
 Chemical Blanking

Typical parts made by chemical blanking; note the fine detail. Source: Courtesy
of Buckabee-Mears St. Paul.
 Electrochemical Machining

Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a)

Schematic illustration of the electrochemical- Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360 HB; the part
machining process. This process is the reverse of on the right is the shaped electrode. Source: ASM
electroplating, described in Section 4.5.1. International. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-
bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor
disk.
 Electrochemical Grinding

FIGURE 9.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical grinding process. (b) Thin slot
produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.
Electrical Discharge Machining

FIGURE 9.32 Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.

 EDM Examples

(a) Examples of shapes produced by the electrical-discharge Stepped cavities produced with a
machining process, using shaped electrodes. The two round parts in square electrode by EDM. In this
the rear are a set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in operation, the workpiece moves in
front; see also Section 6.4. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (b) A the two principal horizontal
spiral cavity produced using a shaped rotating electrode. Source: directions, and its motion is
American Machinist. (c) Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle produced by synchronized with the downward
electrical-discharge machining. movement of the electrode to
produce these cavities. Also
shown is a round electrode
capable of producing round or
elliptical cavities. Source:
Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
 Wire EDM

Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be
performed with one reel of wire, which is then recycled.
 Laser Machining

(a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam

machining process. (b) Cutting sheet metal
with a laser beam. Source: (b) Courtesy of
Rofin-Sinat, Inc.

General applications of lasers in

manufacturing.
 Electron-Beam Machining

Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this process
requires a vacuum, and hence workpiece size is limited by the chamber size.
Water-Jet Machining

(a) Schematic illustration of water-

jet machining. (b) A computer-
controlled water-jet cutting
machine. (c) Examples of various
nonmetallic parts machined by the
water-jet cutting process. Source:
Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.
 Abrasive-Jet Machining

(a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b) Examples of parts produced
by abrasive-jet machining; the parts are 50 mm (2 in.) thick and are made of 304 stainless steel.
Source: Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.
 Design Considerations

Design guidelines for internal features, especially as applied to holes. (a) Guidelines for grinding the internal
surfaces of holes. These guidelines generally hold for honing as well. (b) The use of a backing plate for
producing high-quality through-holes by ultrasonic machining. Source: After J. Bralla.
 Economic Considerations

Increase in the cost of machining and finishing operations as a function of the surface finish required. Note
the rapid increase associated with finishing operations.
 Case Study: Stent Manufacture

The Guidant MULTI-LINK TETRATM coronary stent

system.

Detail of the 3-3-3

MULTI-LINK TETRATM
pattern.

Evolution of the stent surface. (a) MULTI-LINK

TETRATM after lasing. Note that a metal slug is still
attached. (b) After removal of slug. (c) After
electropolishing.