Desdemona

Edexcel English Literature A-level
Othello: Character Profiles

Desdemona
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DESDEMONA
THE TRAGEDY OF FEMALE INNOCENCE & MARITAL VIOLENCE
INTRODUCTION
Desdemona is depicted as a paragon of virtue, a beautiful, loving wife, and a woman of high
rank and culture. None of this is enough to protect her from Othello’s wrath: once he is
convinced, on Iago’s word alone, that she is an adulterer, there is nothing that will change his
mind. The question of Desdemona’s innocence is irrelevant to him, as it becomes clear that for
Othello to feel satisfied - and to have his manhood reinstated - there must be blood spilled. In
the same way, Shakespeare demands of his audience: is it right that a woman be murdered for
adultery, regardless of her guilt?
In many plays on the theme of disloyal wives, the wife’s eventual death at the hands of her
husband is intended as a warning for women: do not betray your husband. Death was
conventionally portrayed as a just punishment for infidelity, and audiences were welcomed to
cast judgement on the slain woman. This is not the case in Othello: Shakespeare maintains
powerful audience sympathy for Desdemona in her innocence and confusion, even while
playing with the idea of sympathy for Othello and even Iago. The cause behind her murder is
evident, and with it comes culpability for all onlookers - including the audience ourselves. For it
may be Iago that engineers this tragedy, but he is enabled by Venetian customs. The myth of
the cuckold and the fallen woman all strengthen his argument; equally, the tradition that what
happens between a husband and his wife should remain private means witnesses to Othello’s
aggression do nothing to help Desdemona. The audience, like the men on stage, look on in
silence, making us all complicit in the crime. We cannot condemn Iago or the passive
bystanders without condemning ourselves.
Desdemona’s fate at the hands of her husband identifies her with the host of Shakespearen
women who suffer from male aggression or neglect, such as Ophelia in Hamlet. But, as stated
above, this treatment of his female characters doesn’t equate with the belief that they deserve
such a fate; with each female death comes a profound message about the erasure of women in
patriarchal society. Though she dies, Desdemona is not a passive victim: at many points we
see her assert herself, determinedly pursuing her desires even when others disapprove. Even
when it would be natural (if not necessary, in Venetian society) to believe Othello’s
accusations against her, she maintains her innocence, and dies a martyr for the female cause.
Desdemona, arguably, is the only guiltless character in the text. While everyone around her is
succumbing to vice and temptation, she remains pure and loyal; faced with Othello’s brutality
and short temper, she continues loving him, although she recognises this may be to her
detriment. To some, her only crime is her naivety: she is unaware of military custom and
operation, so doesn’t understand Othello’s world. Alternatively, an interpretation may be her only
crime is her courage: she defies the expectations of her father and her community, marrying the
man she loves in the face of racism and bigotry. Her love is unyielding and forgiving -
garnering our respect but also taking her to her death.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
● The Ingenue: A prominent quality of Desdemona’s characterisation is her innocence

and virtue. Shakespeare highlights her kindness, loyalty, and selflessness, portraying
her as the perfect ‘maiden’. At the same time, he implies that her innocence exists
largely in the perceptions of others: Brabantio calls her “a maiden never bold,” (Act 1
Scene 3), Cassio calls her, “a maid / That paragons all description,” (Act 2 Scene 1),
and Othello describes her as an
“excellent wretch” (Act 3 Scene 3).
Desdemona’s chastity is much
sought after and capitalised on.
Though her innocence is partly a
concoction of male fantasy, there
are still aspects of her personality
that make her fit the ingenue
archetype. She is ignorant of the
workings of military culture, creating
friction between her and Othello;
what’s more, she is tragically
unaware of toxic masculinity. She
maintains that her husband is better
than such a base emotion, even
when faced with the ugliness of his
fury. Her naive outlook on married life is recalibrated by the down-to-earth wisdom of
her female counsel, Emilia.
● The Mediator: Desdemona is as much of a wordsmith as her husband. Her character

is often placed in the middle of tensions and conflicts: for instance, between Othello
and Brabantio, and Othello and Cassio. In these situations, she is diplomatic and
empathetic with her language, aiming to resolve any difficulties. This skill is
demonstrated in her first appearance on stage, as she appeals to her father, “I do
perceive here a divided duty,” (Act 1 Scene 3). Similarly, she appeals for Cassio’s
case, telling him, “Thy solicitor shall rather die / Than give thy cause away,” (Act 3
Scene 3). Shakespeare portrays her extreme altruism, sacrificing herself for the needs
of others; this reaches its crux as Desdemona is killed, in part, for her perseverance in
representing Cassio. She explains to Othello, “He hath left part of his grief with me /
To suffer with him,” (Act 3 Scene 3), illustrating that others’ burdens become her own.
The conflicts of the play are taken out on her, with many juxtapositions symbolically
clashing within her identity. This may have implications for the role of women in society
as subservient dependents.
● The Strong Female Protagonist: Despite Brabantio characterising her as a “maiden

never bold” (Act 1 Scene 3), Shakespeare presents Desdemona’s assertiveness and
self-assuredness. She isn’t afraid to speak her mind or ruffle feathers. In her opening
address, she openly defies her father: “I challenge that I may profess / Due to the
Moor my lord,” (Act 1 Scene 3). She fights for her right to accompany Othello to
Cyprus, revealing her bravery and fierce commitment. Furthermore, joining her
husband on a wartorn isle reflects her fearless, resilient spirit. Her presence on stage is
bookended with another defiant act, as she maintains her innocence in the face of
Othello’s lies and fury: “That death’s unnatural that kills for loving [...] A guiltless
death I die,” (Act 5 Scene 2). She doesn’t hesitate to confront Othello with what he
has done, refusing to surrender to his authority as her husband. Shakespeare implies
she is killed as punishment for her rebellious resolve.
● The Doting Wife: In the character of Desdemona, Shakespeare shows us someone

who is unwavering in their love. In the beginning of the play, her love lifts her spirits and
liberates her. She says, “The heavens forbid / But that our loves and comforts
should increase,” (Act 2 Scene 1); in the face of her society’s severe disapproval,
oblivious of Iago’s conspiring, she feels invincible and optimistic for the future. Love
empowers her. She explains to the Senate, “My heart’s subdued / Even to the very
quality of my lord. / [...] To his honours and his valiant parts / Did I my soul and
fortunes consecrate,” (Act 1 Scene 3), meaning their lives are linked forever. With
religious imagery that evokes the wedding ceremony, Shakespeare shows her
commitment herself entirely to her husband. This unconditional love endures to the
end of the play, even when she knows Othello means to murder her: “His unkindness
may defeat my life, / But never taint my love,” (Act 4 Scene 2). She is faithful to him
in mind and body, rendering her as the ideal wife.
● The Martyr: As the play reaches its denouement and Iago’s plan comes to full fruition,
Desdemona becomes forlorn and dispirited. Where before her dialogue was full of lively,
colourful imagery, she now speaks of death: “If I do die before thee, prithee shroud
me / In one of those same sheets,” (Act 4 Scene 3). She feels imprisoned with no way
out, and her death is now an inevitability. However, she appears to accept this fact, as
shown by her funeral request to Emilia. This compliance might be interpreted as a
surrender and a loss of courage, or as a strength of will. She yields to Othello’s
judgement and accepts the blame for her murder, but also protests her own innocence
and is willing to die for what she believes to be true. The ironic truth of her faithfulness
turns her death into a call to arms for women; Othello discovers her innocence when it is
too late, exposing the flaws in his judgement and in patriarchal society as a whole: “this
look of thine will hurl my soul from heaven,” (Act 5 Scene 2). In death, Desdemona
becomes a saint: “heavenly true” (Act 5 Scene 2).
RELATIONSHIPS
Othello | When the play begins, Othello and Desdemona have eloped, unbeknownst to her
father. They fell in love during Othello’s visits to her house to speak with her father, as Othello
entertained Desdemona with tales of his life in foreign lands. While others disapprove of their
union because of Othello’s race and outsider status, it is one of the reasons Desdemona loves
him. Initially, their relationship represents the ideal marriage; they love each other strongly and
are happy in spite of the objections of others. Desdemona’s love empowers her. Their future is
full of promise. Furthermore, their relationship is a mutual, balanced one; they each respect the
other, drawing strength and comfort from them. This challenges both the racism of the time
and the misogyny of marriage as a patriarchal institution. Othello allows her more freewill and
voice than was typical of the time; similarly, Desdemona stands up for herself and Othello,
disregarding the restraints of class and colour that her peers observe.
However, the unknown territory of Cyprus and everything it brings with it adds strain to their
relationship. One main conflict in the opening acts is their attempts to consummate their
marriage. Repeatedly, they are denied time alone together, showing the general objection to
their relationship still impacts them. The chaos that erupts and Cassio’s subsequent demotion
adds more tension to their relationship, as their contrasting perspectives on duty and warfare
are brought to light. She mixes Othello’s work with his personal life by appealing Cassio’s case
to him. Either Desdemona doesn’t know about military customs and Othello’s responsibilities
or she believes they are trivial and unreasonable; it may be that she sees the pain Othello’s
decision has caused, and doesn’t think the politics behind it are worth such suffering. Her naive,
caring heart drives a wedge between them. This is amplified by Iago’s lies, which adds a
different context to her actions.
Ultimately, through Othello

and Desdemona’s
relationship Shakespeare
portrays the malignance
of self-doubt and
insecurity, particularly a
man’s insecurity in his
own masculinity. Othello’s
love for Desdemona is
usurped by his paranoia;
all traces of his previous
trust in her are gone. His wife becomes a source of fury and humiliation for him, and he
reduces their marriage to the traditional dynamic of a man fighting for authority over his wife.
In the end, he believes it is his duty to murder her in order to save others from the fate of a
cuckold. He views her death as a sacrifice for the benefit of all men, choosing male solidarity
over romantic love. In contrast, Desdemona remains loyal to her husband until her death. She
doesn’t understand the reasons behind his anger but is committed to resolving the issue. As
was typical for wives of the time, she blames herself for Othello’s unhappiness. Even when she
recognises her death is imminent, she chooses to stay by his side, sacrificing herself for her
love because she cannot bear to abandon him.
Emilia | Supposedly, Emilia is Desdemona’s maid or servant, but it is clear the two are close
friends. Again, Desdemona defies traditional structures of class and follows her heart.
Parallels are drawn between the two women’s marriages; their husbands, by the end of the play,
are driven by sexual jealousy and anger. Emilia is the more experienced of the two women.
Her marriage has already collapsed, and her husband no longer cares for her - if he ever did.
Therefore, her unhappy marriage juxtaposes with Desdemona’s blissful union in the opening
acts, while acting as a prophecy for how Othello and Desdemona’s marriage will sour by the
play’s end.
This is reflected in how Emilia’s grounded realism and cynicism contrasts with Desdemona’s
youthful, naive optimism. She acts as Desdemona’s counsel and guide, exposing her to the
harsh reality of marriage in a patriarchal society. Moreover, she purposefully defies tradition in
her views towards adultery, whereas Desdemona swears loyalty to her husband. To some,
Emilia may appear as the more
pragmatic, cold-hearted of the pair,
while others may interpret her
character as more progressive
and sexually liberated. Either way,
her views and life experiences
make her the perfect friend for
Desdemona. She is able to
empathise with her and comfort
her as she undergoes the trauma
of losing her husband to jealousy.
When Desdemona is murdered, it is
Emilia who exposes her husband’s lies and advocates for her friend’s innocence. The women
pledge allegiance to each other over their husbands, and lay next to each other in death. This
shows the power of female solidarity.
All of this means that the sororal bond between Desdemona and Emilia is likely the truest,
most honest relationship out of all those in the play. Their conversations lack the mind games
and ulterior motives of other exchanges. The only deceit comes when Emilia steals the
handkerchief for Iago. She does this under the influence of her husband: it is his suggestion,
and it is her duty to honour him. Therefore, one can argue that the only treachery in their
relationship is man-made. Shakespeare argues that female solidarity is threatened only by
external, male influence, which taints the purity and love of female friendship.
Brabantio | Desdemona marries Othello without her father’s knowledge, but it is clear she still
cares for him and respects him. It is his prejudice and the disapproval of their culture that
forces her to elope. In her address to the Venetian Senate, Desdemona emphasises how she is
indebted to her father for her education
and lifestyle. This adds a power
dynamic to their relationship, as
Desdemona feels obligated to honour
her father. In addition, she explains to
him that she must respect her husband
over her father in the same way her
own mother honoured Brabantio over
her father. This exchange demonstrates
the political influences and constraints
that hold significant influence over their
relationship. The love between father
and daughter is superseded by social
contracts and negotiations.
Just as the misogynistic custom of female ownership demeans the familial bond between
these two characters, Shakespeare implies that Brabantio loves an idealised version of his
daughter, rather than Desdemona herself. When objecting to her marriage, he describes her as
a meek, obedient, quiet lady. He thinks Desdemona is acting out of character by marrying
Othello, particularly because he thinks she is afraid of him. However, the woman who comes on
stage is fearless, assertive, and self-assured in her love for Othello. We get the impression
Brabantio doesn’t know his daughter as well as he thinks he does. The ideals of a ‘pure
maiden’ and an ‘obedient daughter’ create a barrier between them. Brabantio dies of a broken
heart as a result of Desdemona’s betrayal, but he may be mourning the authority he has lost
more than his daughter.
Iago | Iago’s false bond with Desdemona is perhaps the most tragic of the play. He pretends to
be her friend, even comforting her when Othello loses his temper with her. He impersonates a
close ally even while he plots her death, luring her into the path of Othello’s fury. Desdemona,
in contrast, respects Iago as a close friend of her husband, and trusts his opinion. When
Desdemona feels helpless and alone, she takes comfort in Iago’s loyalty; as an audience, we
know Iago is faking it all, making us pity her even more for how alone she truly is. Desdemona
has faith in Iago to protect her against her husband’s violence, and he betrays this trust.
When Othello loses his temper with Desdemona and hits her, Iago is who she summons for.
She is disheartened and shaken. Iago tells her not to cry, that Othello is just having a bad day
and will recover in time. Part of this response may be calculated to further his own plot. At the
same time, though, his reply imitates the typical response of family members and friends to
women experiencing domestic abuse at the time. In the face of taboo, women are abandoned
to face their husbands alone.
In addition to his perpetuation of domestic violence, Iago perpetuates the objectification of

women. He purports to love Desdemona, yet causes her immense suffering. His actions reveal
his true motives, and it seems he views Desdemona as a trophy, a symbol for his virility and
authority over Othello. Othello has slept with his wife, and so it is only fair that he sleeps with
Othello’s: “wife for wife,” (Act 2 Scene 1) he explains, in a maxim that closely resembles the
Bible’s “an eye for an eye”. In this way, Desdemona is dehumanised, fought over like
merchandise.
Cassio | We don’t know much about Desdemona’s relationship with Cassio before the play
starts, if they even know each other at all. However, Cassio is her husband’s lieutenant, and
Desdemona respects him greatly for this. Cassio, for his part, claims to be the perfect
Florentine gentleman, greeting women with kisses and performing all the actions typical of
chivalry. He cares for Desdemona as a beautiful woman, but when Iago pushes him to admit
that he wants to sleep with her, he doesn’t rise to the bait. This is consistent with his identity of
the perfect gentleman, though his chivalry still objectifies Desdemona. Respectful as he may
be, he is still happy for Desdemona to speak to Othello in his stead. By charging her with this
responsibility, he unknowingly sends her to her death.
It’s unclear if Cassio is worthy of Desdemona’s loyalty because of some prior friendship or if
taking on other people’s cases is merely part of who she is. She is willing to use her position as
Othello’s wife to campaign for Cassio, even though it risks adding strain to their relationship.
Cassio and Desdemona’s relationship demonstrates her willingness to put others before herself;
she carries his burden with her and, in the end, sacrifices herself fully for him.
KEY THEMES
Because Desdemona is a female character written by Shakespeare to serve a purpose, every

decision he makes regarding her can be interpreted through the ‘presentation of femininity’.
Plus, most of the characters in the play - and Shakespeare’s contemporary audience - don’t look
past her gender, meaning her actions are received in the context of what people believe it
means to be ‘feminine’. Her identity is inherently feminine; therefore, we will explore the
different facets of femininity that Shakespeare explores, and how they intersect with other
themes in the play.
The purpose of Desdemona’s character as a construct goes beyond a commentary on

femininity, misogyny, and violence against women, though these are very significant ideas. It is
her race and her class that make Brabantio, Iago, the Senate and others believe Othello isn’t a
suitable husband for her. Desdemona, on the other hand, pays no mind to the complex politics
and customs underlying Venetian life; she loves Othello because of his cultural heritage and
his military role. As such, she symbolises a utopian, progressive future free from conservative
restrictions. Her mere existence and identity threaten the hegemony of white masculinity, and
so she is silenced by her oppressors.
Love & Marriage
Within the text, Shakespeare examines what marriage means to different people. When
Shakespeare was writing, it was commonplace for fathers to choose who their daughters could
marry; hence, marriage was a symbol of political alliance or tactics, rather than a testament to
true love. To Iago and eventually Othello, marriage is a legal contract that gives the husband
authority and ownership over his wife. Desdemona’s view of marriage, however, is in
accordance with the perfect romantic ideal. To her, marriage is about love.
In his presentation of the couple’s courtship, Shakespeare gives Desdemona an active role;
this is in contrast to tradition, where women were expected to be passive as suitors courted
them. Othello recounts, “She’d come again, and with a greedy ear / Devour up my
discourse,” (Act 1 Scene 3), showing how Desdemona knew what she wanted and pursued it.
The verb “devour” is intense and bordering on aggressive, conveying her active participation
in their relationship. The verb also connotes carnal desire, as Shakespeare attests to the
presence of female sexuality in relationships.
As Othello continues his story, Shakespeare presents love as something that should bring
comfort and strength to both parties; Othello says, “She gave me for my pains a world of
sighs: / She swore, in faith, ‘twas strange, [...] / ‘Twas wondrous pitiful; / She wished she
had not heard it, yet she wished / That heaven had made her such a man,” (Act 1 Scene
3). Desdemona’s empathy for him shows the respect she has for him. She wants to console
him, presenting marriage as a mutual give and take. The line “she wished / That heaven had
made her such a man” suggests Othello’s heroism is romanticised; his exotic tales offer an
escape from her mundane, restricted world. Alternatively, it suggests she wishes to be “such a
man” herself, again showing how Othello offers escapism and liberation for her. His life story,
his colour and his class, are so far flung from her restrained life in Venice. It could be interpreted
that Desdemona is in love with the idea of Othello, the romanticised archetype of a hero, than
with Othello himself. Even if this is so, Shakespeare suggests Othello doesn’t mind: “She loved
me for the dangers I had passed, / And I loved her that she did pity them,” (Act 1 Scene
3), depicting the mutual respect and understanding they share. Shakespeare suggests their
marriage is founded on Othello’s Otherness and Desdemona’s ambitious, large heart.
In Desdemona, we see love to be something fearless, unyielding, and unapologetic. She

declares to the Senate, “That I did love the Moor to live with him, / My downright violence
and storm of fortunes / May trumpet to the world,” (Act 1 Scene 3), showing her refusal to
back down. Subverting the customs of her time, she has chosen Othello to be her husband and
demands that her decision is respected. The argument that women have a right to choose their
husbands is typical of Shakespeare’s plays. The imagery in “downright violence” and “storm
of fortunes” connote warfare and are typically masculine, conveying the power of her love;
the imagery also alludes to Othello’s heroism, which she loves him for. Shakespeare presents
marriage as perfect harmony between two people: Desdemona explains, “My heart’s
subdued / Even to the very quality of my lord,” (Act 1 Scene 3), a metaphor that conveys
solace and union, even to the point of complete loss of the Self. The lines between Othello and
Desdemona have blurred, fulfilling love’s goal to transcend all barriers.
Shakespeare uses a semantic field of religious allusions to portray Desdemona’s love as

something sacred and idealised. She says, “To his honours and valiant parts / Did I my soul
and fortunes consecrate,” (Act 1 Scene 3), and “The rites for which I love him,” (Act 1
Scene 3), returning to the idea of marriage as a ritual for true love. The religious imagery
suggests Desdemona’s love resembles faith, as she worships Othello. In contrast, when she
notices Othello’s change of character and volatile behaviour, she tells Emilia, “We must think
men are not gods,” (Act 3 Scene 4). This implies she is recognising her naivety in
worshipping Othello as an infallible being. Shakespeare may be arguing that marriage should
be about understanding and accepting your partner’s flaws; on the other hand, he may imply
that marriage is ignorant in its idealism.
Loyalty & Devotion to Men
Desdemona’s commitment to Othello is unwavering, even when he becomes abusive towards

her. Shakespeare shows how she takes the role of dutiful wife seriously. While her devotion
may present an idealised version of unending love, Shakespeare also uses it to demonstrate
the entrapment of women in marriage. In a patriarchal society such as Jacobean England, a
woman’s only hope to survive and live a respectable life was to have a husband. Because of
this, we can see that Desdemona has no choice but to love Othello, to see past his cruelty, and
to obey his wishes. Her love for him is innate and deep-rooted, perhaps implying she has been
conditioned to the point that she physically cannot stop loving him.
Shakespeare explores the conflicting loyalties women were expected to honour in society.
Addressing her father, Desdemona says, “I do perceive here a divided duty: / To you I am
bound for life and education; / [...] You are lord of all my duty; / [...] But here’s my
husband,” (Act 1 Scene 3). The duality of a “divided duty” implies she is under immense
pressure to please both parties; also, it challenges the idea that marriage was a transaction
between father and husband, as Desdemona maintains she still feels a duty to her father. She is
the one deciding who she will serve. Still, Shakespeare shows how she must appease her
father and avoid upsetting him, as she acknowledges “to you I am bound for life and
education”. Furthermore, this illustrates how dependent women were forced to be on the men
in their lives. It is implied the “duty” women felt was a necessary and inevitable consequence of
their denied autonomy. In the Jacobean era, women could be disowned or deprived of
financial support if they failed to perform their daughterly/wifely duties. Shakespeare portrays
two “lord[s]” Desdemona must serve; Brabantio and Othello are in conflict with each other, but
their seemingly irreconcilable differences are reconciled in Desdemona. She is forced to
become an emblem for compromise and diplomacy.
A consequence of Desdemona’s devotion, Shakespeare illustrates, is a loss of her individuality.

She tells the Senate, “My heart’s subdued even to the quality of my lord,” (Act 1 Scene 3)
and “To his honours and valiant parts / Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate,” (Act 1
Scene 3). These metaphors imply Desdemona takes instruction from Othello on what kind of
person to be. Her identity is irreversibly enmeshed with his. Though at this stage in the play,
this union of “soul[s]” appears romantic, Shakespeare reveals the dangers of such
dependency. Now Desdemona has “consecrated” herself to him, she cannot leave; she must
serve him as a religious follower serves their god. Subsequently, she tells her husband,
“Whate’er you be, I am obedient,” (Act 3 Scene 3), implying blind loyalty and lost liberty.
Desdemona is subjected to Othello’s capricious mood swings and identity change. The line
“whate’er you be” implies the legal contract of marriage supersedes the love she feels for his
“honours and valiant parts” (Act 1 Scene 3): he can lose the qualities she admires, and she
must still obey him.
As mentioned before, women were dependent on their husbands for financial and social
security. If they lost the favour of their husbands, they would lose a life worth living. Because of
this, Desdemona’s literal death can be interpreted as a symbol for the metaphorical deaths
women faced at the whim of their husbands. Just as Othello chooses to take the law into his
own hands and murder Desdemona, the worth of a woman’s life and whether she deserved a
place in high society was decided arbitrarily by the men in her life. When Desdemona states,
“His unkindness may defeat my life, / But never taint my love,” (Act 4 Scene 2), we see
that, in the face of the tremendous power Othello holds over her, she still cannot stop loving
him. Her duty as his wife must persist even if he decides to end her “life”. “Unkindness” is a
euphemism for domestic abuse, conveying how a husband’s violence towards his wife was a
silent taboo in society. The line foreshadows her death, contrasting the trivial “unkindness”
with the very real prospect of murder. Shakespeare shows how domestic abuse, and patriarchal
rule in its entirety, is a silent killer, something that society refuses to see or acknowledge.
Similarly, Shakespeare demonstrates how women were expected to sacrifice themselves for
their husbands. The juxtaposition in the quote above between Desdemona’s “life” and her
“love” implies she has to sacrifice her “life” for “love”, thus prioritising her duty to her
husband above her duty to herself. When Othello tells her to “think on [her] sins,” (Act 5
Scene 2), she replies, “They are loves I bear to you”. This means her only sin was loving him
too much; as this line is uttered on her death bed as he prepares to murder her, the Biblical
reference to “sin” amplifies the resemblance to a ritual sacrifice. Furthermore, as Desdemona
“bear[s]” her sins to Othello, Shakespeare depicts a wife as someone who surrenders their
whole being and offers it as a gift to their husband. Desdemona’s devotion is complete and
unconditional; her reward is death.
This ideal of female self-sacrifice extends beyond the husband. Desdemona comforts Cassio,
telling him, “Thy solicitor shall rather die / Than give thy cause away,” (Act 3 Scene 3),
showing how women had to serve all men above themselves. Desdemona sacrifices herself not
just for her own love, but for Cassio’s “cause”. Cassio unknowingly sends her into the path of
Othello’s wrath without protection. This line also foreshadows her murder; it is a cruel irony
that her commitment to Cassio, something she is required to do, is what leads to her death. As
an audience, we know that taking up Cassio’s case will enrage Othello and bolster Iago’s lies,
but we are powerless to stop it. The situational irony creates the sense that Desdemona is
trapped in a rigged system, one designed to see her fail. She is punished by her husband for
following expectations, as Shakespeare highlights the hypocrisy and unreasonable standards
of patriarchal society.
The Female Perspective on Cuckoldry
Shakespeare presents us with a balanced perspective on Desdemona’s alleged adultery. As

Iago’s narrative takes hold and Othello’s nature changes, we witness Desdemona’s confusion,
dismay, and hurt. This serves to humanise the issue, giving a face and name to something that
typically anonymises the women involved; for example, Othello plots his revenge against
Desdemona with Iago rather than confronting her with his suspicions. Therefore, Shakespeare
encourages his audience to sympathise with Desdemona and take her side, although it is
emotionally difficult to watch someone go through such an ordeal.
Desdemona’s thoughts on cuckoldry are naive and optimistic, delivered in contrast to Emilia,
who is cynical and world-weary. Emilia believes, “They are all but stomachs, and we all but
food,” (Act 3 Scene 4), implying jealousy and greed are in a man’s nature, whereas
Desdemona says of Othello, “My noble Moor / Is true of mind and made of no such
baseness / As jealous creatures are,” (Act 3 Scene 4), showing she has faith that he is better
than other men. As we know Othello has succumbed to jealousy, the situational irony implies
Desdemona has bestowed Othello with qualities he doesn’t possess. This suggests women are
taught to see the best in men, even when they are undeserving. After Othello’s outburst about
the handkerchief, Emilia asks, “Is not this man jealous?”, to which Desdemona replies, “I
ne’er saw this before. / Sure there’s some wonder in this handkerchief,” (Act 3 Scene 4).
This shows Desdemona’s denial as she maintains Othello’s virtue in the face of his disrespect.
Desdemona experiences Othello’s jealousy through his anger and cruelty, though she doesn’t
know the reason behind it; this serves to isolate and disorient her. She sees her husband
change into a different person, and she can only blame herself; in the Jacobean period, if a
husband was unhappy, women were taught that the blame fell on them and them alone, not on
their husband. When Othello interrogates her, appearing agitated and harsh, she asks, “Why
do you speak so startingly and rash?” (Act 3 Scene 4), emphasising how she has been left
in the dark. Othello fails to communicate with her. Moreover, the adverbs “startingly and
rash” convey fear and anxiety, showing how Othello has transformed from her husband to a
threat. She tells Cassio, “My lord is not my lord,” (Act 3 Scene 4), as Shakespeare shows
how jealousy has the power to destroy and mutate. In contrast, Desdemona assures Othello
she is his “true and loyal wife,” (Act 4 Scene 2): even when Othello becomes someone else
entirely, Desdemona remains steadfast and committed. Perhaps, Shakespeare is
demonstrating how women weren’t at liberty to follow their emotions or act out of turn. He
shows how Desdemona blames herself for Othello’s unhappiness when she says, “I was [...] /
Arraigning his unkindness with my soul; / But now I find I had suborned the witness /
And he’s indicted falsely,” (Act 3 Scene 4), meaning she believes she judged him harshly.
We must ask at what point Desdemona will stop blaming herself and recognise Othello’s
irrational behaviour. Also, it is interesting that Shakespeare uses a conceit of law and justice
here, as later on we see Othello become the judge and jury in Desdemona’s ‘trial’.
Above all, Shakespeare argues that women are defenseless against the accusation of
adultery because the truth of their innocence is irrelevant to men. Desdemona’s innocence
doesn’t protect her from Othello’s wrath. His abusive treatment of her confounds and tortures
her because she knows she is innocent, and she can’t imagine a world where someone would
be falsely accused. Her apparent ignorance towards male insecurity and the myth of
cuckoldry makes it even more tragic. She laments to Emilia, “I never gave him cause,” (Act 3
Scene 4). As an audience, we know it was Iago that gave him “cause”, as well as Othello’s
own paranoia; the woman’s actions, Shakespeare shows, are removed from the equation.
Even if Desdemona were disloyal, one could argue she still didn’t give “cause” for the violence
and bloodshed that follows. Furthermore, Emilia’s reply, “They are not jealous for the cause,
/ But jealous for they’re jealous,” (Act 3 Scene 4), presents women as passive bystanders or
scapegoats. Men will be “jealous for they’re jealous”, no matter their wife’s actions.
The consequence of cuckoldry for women is entrapment and anguish. After Othello calls her
“that cunning whore of Venice,” (Act 4 Scene 2), Desdemona declares, “I have none [no
lord]” (Act 4 Scene 2). In one way, this declaration suggests she has liberated herself from
Othello by rejecting him. Alternatively, it suggests Othello has disowned her as his wife, leaving
her without the security marriage offered. She asks Emilia to “lay on [her] bed [her] wedding
sheets,” (Act 4 Scene 2), symbolising her bond to Othello through marriage. Even if he is no
longer her lord, he is still her husband. Desdemona is greatly shaken and upset by Othello’s
accusation, saying, “It is my wretched fortune,” (Act 4 Scene 2). “Fortune” connotes
destiny, something that cannot be escaped, thus conveying Desdemona’s imprisonment. The
phrase “wretched fortune” suggests all women are confined to the same treatment. Without
her husband’s favour, two paths lie ahead for Desdemona: to die destitute and alone like her
maid, Barbary, or to become a prostitute like Bianca. She acknowledges these options when
she says, “His unkindness may defeat my life, / But never taint my love. I cannot say
‘whore’: / [...] To do the act that might the addition earn / Not the world’s mass of vanity
could make me,” (Act 4 Scene 2). She loves Othello too much and is too shocked by the word
“whore” to become one, and so she has no choice but to resign herself to a death at her
husband’s hand. Shakespeare demonstrates that an accusation of adultery serves as a death
sentence for women.
Female Solidarity
Shakespeare uses the sororal bond between Desdemona and Emilia to illustrate the
importance of solidarity between women in a patriarchal society. The relationship between the
two of them is the only one in the play to endure until the very end, making it the purest, truest
form of love we see; in addition, their interactions are the only we see between women. Their
relationship has many facets; Emilia comforts Desdemona when Othello is cruel to her, as well
as mentoring her on the harsh reality of the world around them. The only meaningful
relationships open to women that weren’t fraught with danger were those with other women: if
they appeared too close to another man, they would be accused of infidelity. We see this in the
comfort and strength Desdemona draws from Emilia’s company. Though the two women are of
different social classes, their friendship transcends rank; similarly, they both are murdered by
their husbands, showing that women are equal in the face of domestic violence.
Emilia educates Desdemona on male jealousy and cuckoldry, explaining, “They are all but
stomachs, and we all but food; / They eat us hungerly, and when they are full / They belch
us,” (Act 3 Scene 4). The metaphor compares sexual desire to gluttony, insinuating men seek
satisfaction and view women as merely a means to an end. Furthermore, they objectify
women as “food”, and to “eat” them hints at the violence and aggression underlying
male-female relationships. This unequivocal denouncement of masculinity is presented in
contrast to Desdemona’s unshakable love, as she explains, “My love doth so approve him /
That even his stubbornness, his checks, his frowns [...] / Have grace and favour in them,”
(Act 4 Scene 3). Her unwavering love, her ability to take Othello for better and for worse, may
appear romantic and gracious - particularly in the eyes of a Shakespeare’s contemporary,
Christian audience - but in this context, the “grace and favour” she sees in him puts her at
serious risk. She loves her oppressor. Because of this, Emilia’s down-to-earth cynicism and
wisdom aim to protect Desdemona from the men in her life. Shakespeare argues the only
people who can save women from male violence are other women.
When all the men have abandoned Desdemona to her fate, believing Othello’s word over hers
or simply choosing not to interfere in marital affairs, Emilia advocates for her friend and, in the
end, exonerates her of guilt. Desdemona’s bond with Emilia is the only thing protecting her from
complete loneliness or slander. When Iago tells Desdemona to stop crying, Emilia protests,
“Hath she forsook [...] her father, and her country, and her friends, / To be called whore?
Would it not make one weep?” (Act 4 Scene 2). This depicts Emilia as the only person
capable of empathising with Desdemona and understanding the great sacrifice she has made
in order to be with Othello. Moreover, Shakespeare demonstrates how the only reward women
were given for their devotion to men was abuse. Emilia also hints at the hypocrisy behind
Othello’s accusation: Desdemona defied her father to be with Othello, and now he is using that
same deceit against her, as proof that she could deceive him, too. When Othello murders
Desdemona, Emilia confronts him with her innocence, “she was heavenly true,” (Act 5 Scene
2) and bravely accuses him of murder: “The Moor hath killed my mistress” (Act 5 Scene 2).
Similarly, she decides to defy her husband even though “‘tis proper [she] obey him,” (Act 5
Scene 2), and says, “Let heaven, and men, and devils, let them all [...] / Cry shame against
me, yet I’ll speak,” (Act 5 Scene 2). Shakespeare shows a woman willing to risk her
reputation and her marriage for her friend’s good name. Her duty to Desdemona is stronger
than her duty to her husband, the one she is supposed to “obey”.
The unerring bond between the two women is embodied in their deaths. When Emilia is
stabbed by Iago, she tells the onlookers, “Lay me by my mistress’ side,” (Act 5 Scene 2). As
it was tradition for husband and wife to be buried together, Emilia’s decision to lie next to
Desdemona in death - for eternity - symbolises her commitment to her over her husband. She
pledges loyalty to her friend and rejects her husband, finally liberating them both from marital
violence. Her dying words once more attest to Desdemona’s innocence: “She was chaste;
she loved thee, cruel Moor; / [...] As I speak true; / So speaking as I think, I die, I die,” (Act
5 Scene 2). This presents female solidarity as the whole, uncorrupted truth. The cost,
Shakespeare demonstrates, of female solidarity and advocacy in the face of male reproach is
death. The image of the two women dead on the marital bed carries profound meaning; it
symbolises the way women are treated equally in death and in oppression, while also displaying
female friendships as the ultimate bond, the safe haven from male violence, the union that
survives longer than marriage.
The Private vs the Public Spheres
Unlike many of Shakespeare’s tragedies and histories, Othello is a domestic tragedy. This
means the characters are middle-class or working-class (as opposed to kings, heads of state, or
nobility), and the tragedy is a personal matter (in classical tragedies, the tragedy typically
involves both a state matter and a personal matter). This is particularly interesting because of
the military context within which the tragedy is presented to us. Othello is called off to war in
Cyprus, giving the impression the play will centre around this warfare; the threat is quickly
subverted, however, and the characters are left to play out domestic disputes while surrounded
by an isolated military outpost.
This juxtaposition between domesticity and international affairs provides the background for
the problems experienced by Desdemona’s character. She is a civilian in a soldier’s world,
exposed to politics and traditions she hasn’t encountered before. This leaves her isolated and
alone; some argue her naivety regarding Othello’s military responsibilities provokes him further,
as she is unable to recognise the stress he is under. As his wife, she occupies his private
sphere; by accompanying him to Cyprus, she is pulled into military affairs, for instance lobbying
for Cassio’s reinstatement or becoming the target of Iago’s vendetta. Shakespeare depicts a
character attempting to navigate the line between the public and the private, combining two
worlds that aren’t designed to coexist so closely.
We see the colliding of these two worlds when Desdemona demands that she follow Othello to
Cyprus, saying, “That I did love the Moor to live with him, / My downright violence and
storm of fortunes / May trumpet to the world [...] / If I be left behind / A moth of peace, and
he go to war, / The rites for which I love him are bereft me,” (Act 1 Scene 3). She is
adamant that she remain with Othello wherever he goes, and her vehemence challenges the
notion that women are meek and compliant - “a maiden never bold,” (Act 1 Scene 3).
Furthermore, her demand defies the convention that a wife should never accompany her
husband to war. The imagery in “downright violence”, “storm of fortunes,” and the fanfare of
a “trumpet” alludes to the army and warfare, implying Desdemona fits in with Othello’s
lifestyle. Shakespeare illustrates how Desdemona is challenging both the divide between
soldier and civilian and the divide between the private and public spheres; women were
expected to occupy the private sphere and not meddle with the public sphere, where their
husbands were in charge. The metaphor “a moth of peace” symbolises the oppression of
women, as they are denied autonomy and identity. Shakespeare implies they are used as an
emblem of “peace” and must sit around waiting, pointlessly, until their husbands’ return.
Desdemona is granted her wish, as Othello calls her his “fair warrior” (Act 2 Scene 1): this
argues there is a place for women in the public sphere.
Shakespeare uses Desdemona’s

character to demonstrate that
women are confined to the
private sphere, and that this
confinement enables pain and
violence. In the Jacobean era
and in Venetian society, what
went on between husband and
wife was believed to be private,
not to be interfered with. This
mindset is made manifest in
Othello’s decision to murder her
himself: Iago suggests he
“stranger her in her bed, even the bed she hath contaminated,” (Act 4 Scene 1), confining
her in death to the marital “bed”, the symbol of the most private of places and, in Othello’s
mind, a symbol of her guilt. Othello replies, “The justice of it pleases,” (Act 4 Scene 1),
portraying him as the judge and jury in her trial; he is able to take the law into his own hands
because consensus agrees it is his business, and his alone, to deal with as he sees fit. Iago’s
involvement in her murder, providing ideas for how to kill her, represents the way in which all
men were complicit in domestic abuse. Shakespeare argues that men believed a husband was
justified in his crime and even took sadistic pleasure from the act themselves. When Othello
“strikes” her in public (Act 4 Scene 1), Lodovico doesn’t interfere or try to protect Desdemona.
He only objects verbally, “This would not be believed in Venice, / Though I should swear I
saw’t,” (Act 4 Scene 1), implying he is more shocked by the public setting than the act itself.
He continues, “I do beseech your lordship, call her back,” (Act 4 Scene 1), asking that
Desdemona be brought back into danger. Shakespeare shows that no one helped rescue
Desdemona from Othello, condemning her to death.
When Emilia asks Desdemona, “Who hath done this deed?” (Act 5 Scene 2), she replies,
“Nobody; I myself,” (Act 5 Scene 2), embodying the burden of guilt and blame women were
taught to bear when faced with their husbands’ discontent. In death, Desdemona is isolated and
restrained to the private sphere, as she has “nobody” with her. Contrary to Desdemona’s
deathbed confession, the audience knows she is innocent; furthermore, Shakespeare implies
that all her peers are responsible for her death. While Othello was the one who smothered her,
everyone else bore witness to his cruelty and abuse but stood by and allowed it to happen.
Shakespeare argues that a society who believes marriage is a private business perpetuates
violence; marital affairs are so private that civil law doesn’t apply, allowing husbands to execute
death warrants as they please. A different “justice” (Act 4 Scene 2) is permitted to operate in
the private sphere, and this “justice” is dedicated to the abuse of women.
Race, Culture & Otherness
Out of all the characters in Othello, Desdemona is probably the one who makes the fewest
comments about his race. We hear objections to her marriage with Othello on the basis of race,
but these always come from others and not from her, implying she doesn’t share the same
opinions. People fear Othello has somehow seduced or manipulated her, with Brabantio
accusing him of “enchantment” (Act 1 Scene 2) and “witchcraft” (Act 1 Scene 3). The
association of black people with the occult was a pervasive, enduring stereotype of the time,
and Shakespeare demonstrates its use as a scaremongering tactic, designed to portray
Desdemona’s weakness and vulnerability. We see this, likewise, in how Othello’s blackness
and Desdemona’s whiteness are juxtaposed to insinuate her innocence is jeopardised by his
malignance; for example, in the imagery of “an old black ram / Is tupping your white ewe,”
(Act 1 Scene 1), where “white” connotes purity and youth whereas “black” represents
corruption and malevolence.
Shakespeare shows how Desdemona’s personality undermines these objections. While

Brabantio portrays her as a “maid so tender, fair, and happy,” (Act 1 Scene 2), Desdemona
speaks to her “downright violence and storm of fortunes,” (Act 1 Scene 3) and sees herself
as a “warrior” (Act 3 Scene 4). Brabantio doesn’t understand his daughter at all: she is not the
“tender”, agreeable damsel he wants her to be. Therefore, Shakespeare argues that the racist
prejudices of her community are being projected onto her. Brabantio resents the idea of a black
man marrying into his family and so pushes the same suspicions onto his daughter;
Desdemona, as Othello’s wife, becomes a blank canvas for the opinions of others. This idea is
developed further when Iago takes advantage of her position in his plot against Othello,
convincing him that her “nature [is] erring from itself” and will seek out “matches / Of her
own clime,” (Act 3 Scene 3). Even Othello starts ascribing her with opinions she doesn’t
possess. Because of this, Shakespeare presents the myth of the defenseless, white woman
and the menacing black man as a narrative written as propaganda. The narrative is used by
Brabantio (unsuccessfully) and Iago (successfully) to push their own agenda.
Although Desdemona resists the ubiquitous racism of her society, Shakespeare shows such
ideologies are so endemic that she can’t help but absorb some of them. She declares to the
Senate, “I saw Othello’s visage in my mind,” (Act 1 Scene 3); initially, this appears to be a
brave revelation, suggesting she was blind to the colour of his skin and instead saw his true
“visage” to be who he was on the inside. However, it implies she loves Othello in spite of his
race; the metaphor of seeing his “visage” in her “mind” implies a type of cognitive
dissonance, as though Desdemona is picturing him as a white man, holding the two views in
her mind simultaneously. Shakespeare hints that her society’s prejudices force her to hold
conflicting views and put her under stress.
In a similar fashion, Desdemona’s love

for Othello can be interpreted as an
example of fetishisation. She refers to
Othello’s “honours and valiant parts,”
(Act 1 Scene 3), implying she has
idealised him as a hero or warrior.
Othello recalls how Desdemona
“devour[ed] up [his] discourse” and
“wished / That heaven had made her
such a man,” (Act 1 Scene 3);
Shakespeare presents Othello as
Desdemona’s ideal husband, conjured
from stories and exotic tales rather
than reality. We hear of Othello’s
“battles” and “sieges” and how he was
“sold to slavery” (Act 1 Scene 3); he
says of Desdemona, “She loved me for
the dangers I had passed,” (Act 1
Scene 3). Shakespeare portrays
Desdemona’s romanticisation of Othello’s heritage and hardship. His stories closely resemble
the sensationalised tales of adventurers returning from abroad in Shakespeare’s time; this
could mean she is most fascinated by the romance and thrill of it, so that she is in love with an
idea rather than a person. Furthermore, you could argue that because Desdemona, living as a
woman in Venetian society, is so restrained by rules and convention that the far flung places
and scandals of Othello’s past appeal to her desire for escape. In contrast to the reproach and
hostility that defines others’ reactions to Othello’s race, Shakespeare offers in Desdemona an
inverted version of their racism: her perspective is equally reductive and naive, as she glorifies
his past and idealises his Other status.
SYMBOLISM
Shakespeare uses the construct of Desdemona to explore the different archetypes, myths, and
narratives that surround femininity and womanhood. Desdemona is subjected to symbolism
and surmise as much by the men in the play than by Shakespeare or his audience; to Othello,
she symbolises lost female purity, while to Iago, she acts as a physical manifestation of his
victory over Othello. Both men use her as a trophy for their regained manhood. As Desdemona
is defined by the people around her, Shakespeare argues femininity is socially constructed in
the same way. Femininity comes from the meanings and expectations fabricated by others and
enforced on you, rather than coming from your own identity and self expression. In this way, he
examines the very use of symbolism itself: he presents different facets of womanhood through
Desdemona’s character while actively questioning and challenging that same practice.
In the text, we see how Desdemona’s individuality is lost to the opinions and perspectives of
others. She becomes an ideal or concept rather than a real person; this dehumanisation allows
Othello to distance himself from her and, ultimately, to kill her. She is a victim of her society and
to the patriarchal culture permeating it. The audience watch in silence, like the passive
bystanders on stage, as she is demeaned, slandered, and murdered. This symbolically makes
us complicit in the same crimes as the men in Othello, as Shakespeare argues all members of a
patriarchal society are guilty of turning a blind eye. You could even interpret Desdemona as a
martyr for womanhood, except instead of being killed for holding a particular religious belief, she
is killed for merely existing.
While a lot of Shakespeare’s characters are given more depth through his use of symbolism and
imagery, for Desdemona, symbolism serves to deny her individuality. She is reduced, by the
other characters, to an oversimplified emblem of the ideal woman. Symbolism allows the
playwright to take the play out of the realm of reality and into another playing field, as it appeals
to our emotions and memories more than plain dialogue can. Shakespeare’s exploration of the
human condition is strengthened by it.
Purity & Chastity
Through the course of the play, we see Desdemona ‘fall’ in the eyes of her community, going
from a paragon of virtue to a “cunning whore” (Act 4 Scene 2). Her innocence is only proven
after her death - when it is too late. The audience knows throughout that she is innocent, and
this situational irony serves to demonstrate how a woman’s reputation can be ruined by
rumour and gossip alone. Shakespeare shows that a woman’s purity is a product of her
reputation, designated by her peers, and so can be taken away by them as easily as it is given.
There is no such thing as ‘female purity’ because the concept is not established in truth.
At the beginning of the play, Shakespeare portrays Desdemona as the embodiment of purity
through the judgements of the men in her life. Brabantio describes her as “a maid so tender,
fair, and happy,” (Act 1 Scene 2) and accuses Othello of “abus[ing] her delicate youth,”
(Act 1 Scene 2), depicting Desdemona’s innocence as a tangible thing that will be corrupted by
him. Likewise, Cassio calls her “a maid / That paragons description” and “the riches of the
ship” (Act 2 Scene 1), objectifying her and her innocence. The metaphor “the riches of the
ship” implies her purity is something that must be protected, else it will be stolen by other men.
Also noteworthy is the repeated use of “maid” when referring to Desdemona; the noun refers to
her virginity and chastity, demonstrating the link between a woman’s innocence and her
sexuality. Desdemona is the ideal woman because she hasn’t been ‘corrupted’ by sex.
Shakespeare may be arguing that men only cared about a woman’s innocence because of its
significance for faithfulness in marriage. In keeping with this, when Othello asks, “She is
protectress of her honour too. / May she give that?” (Act 4 Scene 1), we understand that
women were charged with maintaining their reputations and preventing themselves from
becoming ‘fallen women’. Desdemona’s “honour” has serious consequence for Othello, as it
determines his own reputation and also guarantees she has been faithful to him. Shakespeare
emphasises that women were symbols of a man’s virility, meaning they made men vulnerable.
A ‘pure’ woman was sought for this reason.
Desdemona’s purity is forced upon her by
others and she is expected to uphold it.
Though Shakespeare illustrates female

purity’s invention by men as a way to
assuage their own ego, he still shows that
Desdemona has taken on these duties.
She tells Othello, “If to preserve this
vessel for my lord / From any other foul unlawful touch / Be not to be a strumpet, I am
none,” (Act 4 Scene 2), conveying her willingness to please him and her loyalty to him. The
phrase “preserve this vessel for my lord” presents her body as Othello’s property, and her
objectification of herself further demonstrates how deeply instilled the narrative of female
purity is. Moreover, the imagery alludes to the sanctity of life, presenting the female form as
something sacred, created by God for each woman’s “lord”. Shakespeare implies that while
women don’t choose to be “vessel[s]” of purity, they obediently take on the responsibility.
Consequently, all women rise to meet the expectations put upon them, regardless of justice or
choice.
To Othello, the tragedy of Desdemona’s deceit is her contaminated innocence. He mourns her
purity, saying, “The fountain from the which my current runs / [...] To be discarded thence /
Or keep it as a cistern for foul toads / To knot and gender in!” (Act 4 Scene 2). The
metaphor depicts Desdemona as the “fountain” that supplies Othello’s “current”, illustrating a
man’s stake in his wife’s chastity. Desdemona’s purity holds grievous consequences for
Othello’s manhood; this is why a woman’s virginity and chastity were held to such high
esteem in society. The imagery of “foul toads” evokes disgust, implying he is physically
repulsed by the concept of an impure wife. He goes on to ask, “Was this fair paper, this most
godly book, / Made to write ‘whore’ upon?” (Act 4 Scene 2); again, Shakespeare shows how
women were viewed as perfect objects, vulnerable at all times to corruption. The conceit of
“paper” and writing conveys the importance of reputation in a woman’s purity; alternatively,
Shakespeare may once more be arguing that female purity is a narrative conjured by men.
Othello’s response to Desdemona’s lost innocence is to restore it through her murder. To him,
she becomes not just a symbol of her own lost innocence, but a symbol for all fallen women; as
such, killing her will symbolically kill all impure women, liberating men from adultery for good.
He calls her murder a “sacrifice” and an “honourable murder” (Act 5 Scene 2), implying her
life must be lost for the good of a greater cause. Shakespeare portrays women as
“sacrifice[s]” to male ego, as they are subjected to violence and oppression at the mercy of
men. That her murder takes place on the marital bed, “the bed she hath contaminated” (Act
4 Scene 1) adds to the ritualistic elements of her death. Othello believes the murder is
justified because of the affront to his own pride. The bed is a symbol for her deceit, in his
opinion; killing her there reduces her to her infidelity, as Shakespeare implies a woman’s worth
was reduced to her chastity.
Tokens of Love
Shakespeare constructs Othello and Desdemona’s marriage around various tokens: most
notably, the handkerchief and the wedding sheets. These items trace the journey of their
relationship and serve as a symbol for Desdemona’s reputation. In Jacobean society, a
woman’s reputation was all she had, and her reputation could make or break her. A woman’s
reputation could easily be ruined by the word of a man, and fallen women could not regain their
reputations. A woman’s reputation was given to her by society, and so defined her by how she
appeared or how people wanted to view her, not by who she was; this is reflected in
Shakespeare’s use of trivial objects to symbolise Desdemona’s reputation. Equally, the use of
tokens in a marriage symbolises confinement and the ownership of one by the other;
Desdemona is charged with serving Othello, and the handkerchief ties her to this duty.
The handkerchief is a pivotal part of

Iago’s plan: when Othello sees Cassio
with it, he is convinced once and for
all that Desdemona has been
unfaithful to him. He places all trust
in the handkerchief, a physical token
of his love for Desdemona, rather than
having faith in his wife’s word. He tells
her, “Our new heraldry is hands,
not hearts,” (Act 3 Scene 4) and to
Iago says, “He had my handkerchief,” (Act 4 Scene 1). Shakespeare shows how marriage is
a superficial construct, based in tokens and appearances rather than “hearts”. Similarly,
Cassio having Othello’s “handkerchief” is equivalent to him having his wife: Desdemona is just
another object to be exchanged between people, like the handkerchief. Shakespeare shows
how men objectify women by illustrating how Desdemona’s faithfulness is symbolically
transmuted into the handkerchief. Equally, the fixation on the handkerchief hints at a
materialistic, one-dimensional society.
Furthermore, because Othello takes Cassio’s possession of “[his] handkerchief” as proof of

Desdemona’s deceit, Shakespeare uses the handkerchief as a symbol for Desdemona’s loyalty
and purity. Othello tells Desdemona, “To lose’t or give’t away were such perdition / As
nothing else could match,” (Act 3 Scene 4), suggesting giving away the handkerchief is the
same as giving away her body or honour through promiscuity. The handkerchief is an emblem
for female chastity in the same way that a woman’s own body is a testament to her purity. With
this comparison in mind, the handkerchief’s possession at different times by Emilia, Iago, Cassio
and Bianca becomes a metaphor for the way a woman’s reputation is shaped by those around
her. Alternatively, it can be interpreted as a symbolic ‘adultery’, for her good name and
innocence are touched and so defiled by each individual. The audience knows Desdemona is
faithful and so the handkerchief’s symbolism is distorted or inverted; this situational irony
emphasises the errors and lies in reputation, portraying it as slander.
The significance of rumour to a woman’s perceived purity is supported when Emilia says, “I’ll
have the work tane out,” (Act 3 Scene 3) and Cassio requests of Bianca, “I would have it
copied,” (Act 3 Scene 4). The handkerchief’s pattern is duplicated in the way a rumour
spreads, and each time it is “copied” it loses its individuality. Desdemona no longer has
control over her own reputation. Moreover, the handkerchief links the three women of the play
together: they are all of different classes, but they share common experiences. Shakespeare
demonstrates that all women are subjected to objectification and the commodification of their
bodies.
In the same way that the handkerchief

draws parallels between the three
women, Desdemona’s wedding sheets
commemorate the unbreakable bond
between her and Emilia. In death, the
two women lie next to each other on the
sheets, illustrating that domestic abuse
and the murder of women transcends
class divides. Desdemona views her
sheets as proof of her innocence,
asking Emilia, “Lay on my bed my wedding sheets,” (Act 4 Scene 2) and “If I do die before
thee, prithee shroud me / In one of those same sheets,” (Act 4 Scene 3). One can argue
the wedding sheets represent a transmutation or transferral of the handkerchief; now it is in the
possession of Desdemona and so is hers to control. She trusts Emilia with her reputation,
conveying female solidarity. The symbolism of her “wedding sheets” acting as her “shroud”
suggests Desdemona maintains her loyalty to Othello even in death, such that her loyalty to him
overrules her identity; alternatively, Shakespeare presents marriage as a death sentence.
Presenting the women’s dead bodies on the wedding sheets implies all women are innocent and
pure: it is male violence that corrupts them. Shakespeare shows that women are cursed to
take their innocence to the grave; while alive, their virtue is at the mercy of reputation, and the
truth of their guiltlessness isn’t enough to save them from slander.
Power of Speech
Language and communication are a significant part of Othello’s plot, with Shakespeare using
it to identify which characters hold power and status at any one time. Othello successfully
convinces the Senate - and Brabantio - to accept his marriage to Desdemona through his
eloquence and articulacy; Iago manipulates everyone around him by employing euphemism
and inflammatory imagery to provoke them. Moreover, language is the conduit for civility and
respectability, separating high society from the violence and barbarity stereotypically associated
with more primitive culture. Therefore, when Desdemona is given her own voice, Shakespeare
gives her access to power and society. He suggests women can only feel belonging when they
are allowed to speak for themselves. Because women weren’t allowed to participate in
government or be heard in the public sphere, Shakespeare subverts convention by depicting
an assertive, strong willed woman who has a place in society.
We first meet Desdemona when she is summoned to give her account of her relationship with
Othello; it was unusual to listen to a woman’s perspective on her marriage, thus setting a
precedent regarding a woman’s place in discourse. However, Desdemona must depend on
Othello to make this space for her in the conversation: he asks the Senate, “I do beseech you /
Send for the lady [...] Let her have your voice,” (Act 1 Scene 3). Though Othello respects
Desdemona’s “voice”, he must still defer to his superiors; Shakespeare examines how men
control access to power and authority, hence controlling the conversation. The Senate is in a
position of passive privilege, conveyed through the passive verb “let”. Women have a voice,
Shakespeare demonstrates, but they are at the mercy of men whether they are permitted use
of it.
Desdemona and Othello’s relationship is established in communication, portraying them as

equals in marriage. Othello stands up for her voice, which indicates he respects her point of
view greatly. When Othello told stories of his life, Desdemona “devour[ed] up [his]
discourse,” (Act 1 Scene 3), presenting her with an active role in discussion. The exchange
of words is equivalent to the exchange of power; Othello recalls Desdemona saying “she
wished / That heaven had made her such a man,” (Act 1 Scene 3), indicating she took the
initiative in their courtship. Once Desdemona is summoned to address the Senate, she doesn’t
shy from her wishes, telling her father, “I challenge that I may profess / Due to the Moor my
lord,” (Act 1 Scene 3). The verbs “challenge” and “profess” connote authority and
confidence, as Desdemona is able to advocate for herself with language.
In contrast, Othello becomes the person actively denying Desdemona her voice. At first, he
silences her temporarily in the course of conversation, interrupting her plea for Cassio’s
reinstatement, “Prithee no more,” (Act 3 Scene 3) and, later, cutting her off once more to
demand she show him “the handkerchief!” (Act 3 Scene 4). Soon, he resorts to violence,
“strik[ing] her” (Act 4 Scene 1). This indicates his lost respect for her voice because she is
now a ‘fallen woman’, and is paralleled by the breakdown in their communication: Desdemona
tells him, “I understand a fury in your words, / But not the words,” (Act 4 Scene 2). Their
shared lines, which once were used to convey romantic poetry, are in conflict: “What, not a
whore?” “No, as I shall be saved,” (Act 4 Scene 2). Othello no longer listens to Desdemona
and has restricted her access to his “words”, excluding her from the conversation.
Shakespeare implies Desdemona doesn’t have the tools to defend herself or protest her
innocence because her voice has been denied her.
When Othello murders Desdemona, he silences her permanently. He accuses her of

“perjury” and mocks her for “pray[ing]” (Act 5 Scene 2), indicating her words have become
meaningless to him. Shakespeare argues that, in patriarchal society, a woman’s voice is at the
whim of men. A woman is allowed access to her voice only as long as what she has to say is
deemed acceptable by men; in this way, men can gate-keep political discourse and ensure
power remains within their own ranks. Shakespeare draws comparisons between Desdemona’s
death and the silencing of her voice; in this play, where words are social currency and can
sculpt truth, being denied your voice is a metaphorical death in its own right.
As she dies, Desdemona’s deathbed confession maintains her innocence: “Falsely

murdered! [...] A guiltless death I die,” (Act 5 Scene 2). Typically, deathbed confessions
concern repressed guilt and are trusted as true. Thus, Desdemona’s proclamation symbolises
a lost testimony, a truth restrained and repressed until now. Shakespeare inverts the typical
‘confession’ by making it about innocence rather than guilt, perhaps reflecting that the most
unexpected thing in the eyes of Othello was for Desdemona to be innocent. Furthermore,
Shakespeare presents death as a type of liberation for her; in death she is able to defend
herself because she is removed from the discourse entirely. Her voice is no longer subjected to
the same scrutiny and restriction. The only way for women to have their voice respected and
heard is to create a new discourse.
Barbary & the Willow Song
There are only three women featured in Othello, but Shakespeare introduces us to a fourth
through the childhood remembrances of Desdemona. While Emilia helps her prepare for bed,
Desdemona informs her, “My mother had a maid called Barbary: / She was in love, and he
she loved proved mad / And did forsake her. She had a song of willow; / [...] And she died
singing it,” (Act 4 Scene 3). Shakespeare emphasises the narrative of tragic femininity,
where a woman’s life is dependent on the success of her romance and ultimately dies alone
and ashamed. Barbary never appears on stage and her death precedes the events of the play;
this choice can be interpreted as a way to accentuate the mythic, archetypal quality of
Barbary’s life. She loses her identity, and only fellow women remember her and carry on her
memory. Alternatively, her mythic status makes tragedy feel like an inevitable destiny for
women. Shakespeare welcomes the comparison between Desdemona and Barbary, as the
former says, “That song tonight / Will not go from my mind,” (Act 4 Scene 3),
foreshadowing her murder. We are confronted with the uncomfortable undeniability of her
fate. Barbary is a symbol for female oppression and tragedy, while symbolising Desdemona’s
future.
This scene is constructed around female intimacy and understanding. Emilia helps
Desdemona get ready for bed, while Desdemona shares this sentimental detail from her past.
She mentions dying “before” Emilia and asks whether the itch in her eyes “bode[s] weeping”
(Act 4 Scene 3), thus entrusting Emilia with her darkest fears. The dramatic irony of Emilia
helping Desdemona prepare for her murder adds another layer of tragedy to the ensemble:
women can only support and console each other in the face of male violence, and only women
can carry on their sisters’ memories. By singing the song herself, Desdemona symbolically
takes on Barbary’s voice; this brings all women together in love and in death.
In addition, the scene contrasts the two women’s opinions on adultery. The Willow Song
introduces the concept, with the lines “Let nobody blame him; his scorn I approve -” and “If I
court moe women, you’ll couch with moe men,” (Act 4 Scene 3) embodying the culture
surrounding cuckoldry. It is suggested that a woman is solely responsible for her failing
marriage, just as Desdemona accepts the guilt for her death; yet, equally, the song echoes
Emilia’s sentiment that “The ills we do, their ills instruct us so,” (Act 4 Scene 3). This
contradiction may be because the two lines represent the perspectives of the woman and
man, respectively. Alternatively, the song conveys the conflict and torture associated with
jealousy, the force that drives the play forward. Desdemona asks, “Wouldst thou do such a
deed [as adultery] for all the world?”, to which Emilia replies, “It is a great price / For a
small vice,” (Act 4 Scene 3). Faced with her impending death (which she suspects) and the
deadly truth of male jealousy, Desdemona remains loyal to her husband, calling a woman’s
adultery an “abuse” of “such gross kind” that she will never commit, “by this heavenly
light,” (Act 4 Scene 3). There is no doubt that Desdemona is faithful and steadfast in her love,
and so she accepts the fate of Barbary as her own.
On a structural level, the inclusion of song introduces a false sense of calm and balance
before the chaos of Act 5. Desdemona’s vehement rejection of infidelity adds to this; unlike
Emilia, she takes the ‘proper’ path and swears allegiance to traditional conventions of morality.
The song portrays Desdemona’s gentleness and vulnerability; alternatively, it implies she has
made peace with her fate. Despite the calming influence of the song, there is tension
accompanying the sense there is no way out. That she must die so soon after pledging
allegiance to her husband, in spite of his abuse of her, is so tragic as to imply she dies a
martyr for her cause - killed for her naive faithfulness and unchanging love. Shakespeare
argues these qualities have no place in patriarchal society, where sexual jealousy and
masculine virility rule.
Property, & The ‘Merchant’ of Venice
In the Jacobean era, Venice was a symbol for culture and civilisation, known for its thriving
early capitalism. It was a Republic, where the wealthier merchant classes controlled the state,
and dominated trade links with the East and North Africa; in comparison, England had only just
begun trading overseas. As such, Shakespeare examines the influence of trade and economy
on social relations, as a new type of
social class emerges. In the context of
women’s bodies being the legal
property of their fathers and husbands,
the play can be read as a dispute
between rival merchants for the
ownership of Desdemona. At first, the
dispute is between Othello and
Brabantio: her father asks Othello
“Where hast thou stowed my
daughter?” (1.2) and claims “[she] is
stol’n from me” (1.3). Shakespeare
portrays Desdemona as a valuable possession and Othello a thief. Later, the dispute is
between Othello and all other men in the play - everyone becomes a rival in his eyes.
As Iago’s accusations and conspiracies take hold, Othello’s investment in Desdemona becomes
solely physical. He is overly concerned with her body - how pure it is and who has access to it.
He is dismayed by the “curse of marriage, that we can call these delicate creatures ours /
and not their appetites!” (3.3). Shakespeare shows Othello desiring total control over
Desdemona, the way one might have total control over property or a trade. Men require
constant assurance that they are in charge. They need a guarantee, made physical by a
woman’s body. Therefore, women’s free will is at odds with men’s lust for power, putting the
two in constant conflict.
The symbolism of women as economic property often intersects with the theme of cuckoldry.
As women were viewed as their husbands’ property, cuckoldry, in Jacobean society and within
the culture of the play, would be a crime akin to theft. Women were prizes and trophies;
sleeping with another man’s wife was the ultimate insult because you were removing the visible
symbol of his virility. Othello refers to Desdemona as the place “where [he has] garnered up
[his] heart, where either [he] must live or bear no life, / The fountain from the which [his]
current runs or else dries up,” (4.2). The physicality of this imagery emphasises how he has
invested himself in her body, the way a tradesman invests in a share of land. While the
allusions to death - “or bear no life”, “or else dries up” - may suggest his love for her sustains
his life, it likely also refers to the issue of having an heir. Shakespeare implies Desdemona’s
value to Othello is dependent on her ability to carry his child and thus carry on his legacy. If
she has slept with Cassio, Othello cannot be certain the child is his, thus threatening his
manhood and his societal power.
CHARACTER IN CONTEXT
The central conflict in the play of ‘Othello’ combines two defining issues of the Jacobean era:
the treatment of women and the treatment of outsiders. In this case, ‘outsiders’ refers to
people of colour, though the same themes can be applied to another big controversy of the
time - the conflict between Catholics and Protestants. Simultaneously, Shakespeare brings the
spotlight to a new system of hierarchy and class, embodied by the city of Venice. This
foreshadows the direction England’s economy was starting to take at the time of writing.
As such, ‘Othello’ is more of a social commentary than a morality play. This genre places
Shakespeare with his contemporaries, as the Jacobean era saw a prominent use of satire and
politics in its literature. That said, the play is not lacking in morals and messages for
Shakespeare’s audience; though ‘Othello’ is set some decades before, its themes and
depictions convey Shakespeare’s perspective on the time he was writing in, the early 1600s.
Shakespeare uses the setting of wartime Cyprus as a lens through which to view his own
‘modern’ time (meaning we can do the same thing!).
Moors
The term ‘Moor’ has historically been used by Christian Europeans to refer to people from
Somalia, Ethiopia, the Middle East, the Berber coast, North Africa in general, and even India - in
short, its use to specify a person’s ethnicity is ambiguous. It was often used as a derogatory
term so accuracy wasn’t important to its user.
Originally, the Moors were a group of Muslims from what is now North Africa who captured the
Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) in 711 A.D. The peninsula became a cultural and
economic capital, but Moorish rule was opposed by European Christians. Eventually, in 1492,
the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand II and Isabella I triumphed in a war against the Moors of the
Iberian Peninsula. This led to the Moors being expelled from Spain, though small communities
still resided throughout Western Europe - including in Italy, where the play is set.
Where others, such as Iago, call Othello “Moor”, Desdemona addresses him with “my lord”,
indicating she respects him as a person and isn’t a deliberate participant in her culture’s
racism. As the term “lord” bestows power and authority on Othello, Shakespeare implies
Desdemona accepts Othello’s position in the social structure. The name “Moor” is used to
alienate Othello, insinuating he is an outsider without a rightful place in society, whereas
Desdemona integrates him into the hierarchy the same way any other man would be.
Desdemona’s whiteness and femininity is exploited by her fellow Venetians to perpetuate the
myths surrounding Moors. Brabantio declares that Othello has “stowed” her away and
“enchanted” her in “chains of magic” (Act 1 Scene 2). This depicts Othello as Desdemona’s
captor and draws on the stereotype that Moors were in league with the Devil or the occult.
Furthermore, it implies Desdemona isn’t capable of making decisions for herself because she is
under the influence of “witchcraft” (Act 1 Scene 3). In the same vein, Othello is depicted as a
sexual predator, with Iago torturing Brabantio with the images, “The Devil will make a
grandsire of you,” and “your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two
backs,” (Act 1 Scene 1). This is in keeping with the stereotype that Moors were sexually
perverted, lustful, and barbaric. Brabantio fabricates a narrative wherein Othello holds great
power over Desdemona because he is a black male: “To fall in love with what she feared to
look on?” (Act 1 Scene 3). Shakespeare illustrates that Desdemona’s identity is capitalised
on by her peers as a political tool.
Venice
The Venice of the Jacobean era was close to a cultural utopia in many ways. It was a symbol
of beauty, culture, and civilisation. With its numerous trade links with the Eastern World and
North Africa and its thriving economy, it was the poster child of early Modern Capitalism. At
this time, England was only just beginning to trade abroad. Furthermore, Venice was a
Republic: the wealthier merchant classes controlled the state and bought powerful military
forces to protect colonial exploits.
A consequence of this was the emergence of a new ruling class that hadn’t been seen before.
The city had laws that dictated people dress according to their social standing, but these were
rarely enforced and the emerging mercantile class dressed according to financial, not social,
status. In addition, Venice was viewed as a ‘pleasure capital’, known for a higher sexual
tolerance than other places.
Its status as a symbol for progress makes Venice the perfect opening for this play. Shakespeare
explores what it means to be civilised rather than primitive, ultimately exposing societies such
as Venice for being hypocritical and insidious.
Though we, the audience, know of Iago’s lies, Shakespeare still takes the opportunity to
introduce a shadow of doubt into Desdemona’s intentions. Iago calls her a “super-subtle
Venetian” (Act 1 Scene 3) and Othello entitles her as “the cunning whore of Venice,” (Act 4
Scene 2), associating Venice with feminine wiles and conspiracy. Equally, Brabantio warns
Othello, “She has deceived her father and may thee,” (Act 1 Scene 3), a sentiment that is
later echoed by Iago, “She did deceive her father, marrying you,” (Act 3 Scene 3).
Desdemona’s loyalty to Othello is manipulated and used against her, viewed instead as proof
of her duplicity. She is resented for her class and culture. Othello laments, “I do but say what
she is: so delicate with her needle, an admirable musician,” and Iago replies, “She’s the
worse for all this,” (Act 4 Scene 1): Shakespeare shows that Desdemona’s civility becomes
proof of her wickedness. This character of the “cunning”, deceitful Venetian “whore” is
created by Othello and Iago, and overwrites Desdemona’s true personality.
Cyprus
Crusades against Islam brought

Europeans to Cyprus, and the
island became a Christian
military base for operations in
the Levant (the countries of
West Asia that border the
Meditarranean, such as
modern-day Israel and
Lebanon). The conflict
between the Christian Republic
of Venice and the Islamic
Ottoman Empire had been an on-off affair since the mid-fifteenth century; by the time the play
premiered, four wars between the two nations had already taken place. The most recent of
these was known as the War of Cyprus, which took place between 1570 and 1573. This round
of violence was precipitated by a Turkish invasion of the isle between 1570 and 1571 that
consolidated Ottoman control.
Choosing to set his play during a crisis of living memory amplifies the tensions within the play,
as well as the play’s significance as a piece of political commentary. This choice is also a
noteworthy divergence from Shakespeare’s source material, Giraldi Cinthio’s ‘Hecatommithi’,
which lacked any clear historical anchor.
Its position within the Ottoman empire made Cyprus singularly vulnerable to Turkish threat, and
the island was dangerously isolated from the rest of the Christian world. The country’s identity
was torn between the two warring religions; this duality is reflected in Iago’s own character, as
his exterior is so deeply embroiled in conflict with his interior. You could argue the conflict
parallels the battle between Iago and Desdemona for Othello’s trust and respect. Cyprus’
isolation reflects the psychological conditions Othello and Desdemona are thrown into under
Iago’s manipulations - a fitting setting to intensify the feelings of claustrophobia and
helplessness they experience.
The play is likely set during the Battle of Lepanto, a year after the Turks conquered Cyprus.
The battle marked a decisive triumph for the Christian Venice and its allies ‘the Holy League’.
This tense atmosphere pervades the play, amplifying the claustrophobia and confusion
experienced by Desdemona. Just as she is a stranger to the warfare of Cyprus and Othello’s
military lifestyle, she is oblivious of the psychological warfare occurring between Iago and
Othello. With military precision and strategy, Iago is waging a battle against Othello to regain
his masculinity, but Desdemona is unaware of this feud. It’s impossible for her to understand
what is happening and why Othello is so angry with her.
This choice of setting and time period evokes another example of typically Shakespearean
dramatic irony. It was believed that victory over the Turks came ‘too late’ to help Cyprus; the
Venetians left Cyprus in 1573, and the island fell to the Turks once more. Shakespeare’s
audience would have known this, making the apparent peace celebrated in Act 2 feel uncertain
and falsely comforting. The characters are lulled into a false sense of security as Iago
prepares to strike. The Venetian government has only temporarily avoided the threat, and
Othello has only temporarily avoided the wrath of his close friend. Desdemona, like Cyprus, is
an ‘easy target’; Cyprus was vulnerable to Turkish threat because it was so isolated and
removed from the Christian empire, and Desdemona is vulnerable to Iago because she is
alienated, far from home, and a woman.
The significance of Cyprus as a setting doesn’t end here. Its reputation for savagery and
barbarity, alongside its identity as a military bastion, makes it the antithesis of Venetian calm
and order. Having Venetians in Cyprus brings the conflict between the civil and the primitive to
the fore, just as we witness Othello’s character wrestle with those same ideals. Desdemona, the
fair and gentle maiden, represents the corruption of Venetian calm and order by Cyprus’
savagery.
Cyprus was denied its own autonomy and sovereign identity because it was continually
occupied by one empire or other. This makes it a symbol for submission, mirroring
Desdemona’s loss of autonomy and identity in the play. According to myth, Cyprus is the
birthplace of Aphrodite, goddess of love; in contrast, we are presented with an island engulfed
by war and violence. The island has become a figurehead for male power and conflict: the
symbol of love is dominated by warfare. This dichotomy is mirrored in the plot, as Othello and
Desdemona’s romance is overtaken by Iago’s violence and hatred.
The relocation to Cyprus marks the point where everything turns on its head. Iago’s plans start
to take hold, and nothing is as it seems. The island’s chaotic identity and renowned ‘primitive’
behaviour take hold. What’s more, the characters never return to Venice. The transition to
Cyprus and everything it represents is irreversible and final.
Religion
Religion was a huge part of Jacobean life, and as such plays an important role in all of
Shakespeare’s plays. The Church was influential in the subject of morality as well as the
subject of politics: the Church had the ear of the monarch, who was the symbolic head of the
Church and the government, meaning there was none of the separation between Church and
State that we have today. Because of this, Christian ideology was the foundation of many
aspects of life, and people used it as a touchstone or guide in more ways than one. It’s
important to remember the ubiquity of the Church in everyday life, because Shakespeare
explores its significance as a political force in addition to its moral consequence.
Islam vs. Christianity
The subject of religious conflict takes a main role in ‘Othello’. As mentioned above, the rise of
the Ottoman empire exacerbated tensions between the Muslim and Christian worlds. This
motivated a lot of foreign policy at the time, as a lot of resources and manpower were devoted
to this religious war. Venice and Cyprus were at the epicentre of this battle. It was the position
of the Church that Islam threatened Christianity and its values, and this was the motivation
behind the Crusades. At the same time, the Ottoman Turks had launched campaigns against
the Christian world, capturing many non-European countries including Constantinople, causing
the fall of Greece and the Balkans. In the period when the play is set, these tensions were a fact
of life, but this didn’t lessen any of the stakes or bad feelings between the two sides.
The semantic field of religion representing Desdemona and Othello’s marriage functions as a
point of tension within this context of Christianity vs. Islam. Othello is a “Moor”, someone who
typically is Muslim, though he has shown allegiance to the Christian faith while serving Venice.
Desdemona dedicates herself to him: “To his honours and his valiant parts / Did I my soul
and fortunes consecrate,” and “the rites for which I love him,” (Act 1 Scene 3).
“Consecrate” and “rites” hold significant ecclesiastical meaning, presenting a Christian
woman worshipping a man who, to many, represents heresy, heathenism, and non-Christian
faith. Desdemona’s faithfulness to Othello would be controversial and may seem like betrayal
of her Christian faith, and Shakespeare uses religious imagery to emphasise this. On the other
hand, the religious imagery used challenges the paganism and occult implied in Brabantio’s
accusations of “witchcraft” (Act 1 Scene 3): witchcraft is forbidden in Christianity, but
Desdemona likens her love to a Christian act, restoring their relationship’s decorum in the eyes
of society.
Religion: Protestantism vs. Catholicism
Under the rule of King James I, England was a Protestant state, but this hadn’t always been
the case. Since Henry VIII’s separation
from the Catholic Church the century
before (part of the movement known as
the Reformation), England had
oscillated between the two
denominations depending on who was
on the throne. Both Catholics and Protestants had suffered violence and oppression at the
hands of the other. Because of this, the conflict and controversy religion brought with it was
very close to home for Shakespeare’s contemporary audience. This likely made the religious
conflict in the play - between the Islamic Turks and the Christian Venetians - easier to
empathise with, and so amplified the messages behind it.
Protestantism of the time encouraged a preoccupation with the self. Introspection was
important when practising and maintaining your faith, as there was a movement towards
self-improvement. Similarly, the idea of repentance and confession are fundamental principles
in the Christian faith.This is reflected in the play’s focus on sin and guilt, particularly the alleged
sin of Desdemona. The accusation of her aberrant sexuality condemns her to being a devil;
she is demonised by her husband, “You, mistress, / That have the office opposite to Saint
Peter, / And keeps the gates of hell!” (Act 4 Scene 2). Shakespeare implies the pedagogy of
the Christian Church is exploited with the goal of controlling and oppressing women. In
contrast, Desdemona epitomises forgiveness and repentance. When Othello tells her, “Think
on thy sins,” she responds, “They are loves I bear to you,” (Act 5 Scene 2). This exchange
resembles a Catholic confession, and shows Desdemona serving Othello in all she does.
Religion: Jealousy
Jealousy and rational thought are

integral to the play’s main message, so
it’s helpful to know how Jacobean
culture viewed them. You can see
evidence of how these cultural beliefs
shaped Shakespeare’s portrayal of
human nature; at the same time, you
may find instances where Shakespeare challenges these perspectives.
In accordance with the Chain of Being, it was believed that the ability to think rationally was
what separated humans from animals. A failure of reason was the cause of the fall of man:
allowing passion to overtake reason meant you had lost what made you human, reducing you
to the animalistic state of being. This state was defined by appetite and instinct. It makes
sense, then, that to act irrationally and impulsively made you a monster in the eyes of others,
because you had fallen below the level of man and become bestial.
Desdemona’s character acts as spokesperson for these views. She tells Emilia, “My noble
Moor / Is true of mind and made of no such baseness / As jealous creatures are,” (Act 3
Scene 4). This depicts the dehumanisation of those who act on jealous thoughts. Desdemona
naively believes Othello is superior to the “baseness” of such a wretched emotion as
jealousy, but dramatic irony contrives to prove her wrong. Jealousy is an inevitable part of
human nature: even the “noble” Othello succumbs to it. Desdemona says, “Alas the day, I
never gave him cause,” (Act 3 Scene 4), as she learns the harsh lesson that jealousy is
irrational and unjust.
Cuckoldry
Saying that ‘Othello’ is a play about jealousy is certainly a simplistic perspective. You could
argue that the play is less about jealousy itself and more about male ownership of women’s
bodies, and the role this plays in the emotion of jealousy. Desdemona is stripped of autonomy
and identity as she becomes a trophy for men to fight over. Othello is convinced her existence
threatens masculinity, meaning she must die. Shakespeare ultimately argues that these
arbitrary, man made constructions of virginity and faithfulness are irreconcilable with true
love.
In the Jacobean era, when a woman married, any property she owned became the property of
her husband. Equally, the security of societal order and a husband’s peace of mind were
dependent on a woman’s virginity prior to marriage and her faithfulness within it. This was
because it was a woman’s duty to bear
her husband’s rightful heir - the inheritor
of his property, reputation, and identity.
Inheritance passed down the family line,
so men needed to be sure a son was
theirs. Illegitimate children couldn’t be
assimilated in family structures, so were viewed as threats to the fabric of society. Therefore,
a guarantee of a woman’s fidelity was paramount if the hierarchy of society was to be kept
intact.
Cuckoldry signalled the breakdown of these ideologies. A cuckold is a married man whose wife
was unfaithful, and holds connotations of mockery and derision (as noted by the characters of
the play). As such, being cuckolded challenges beliefs that were highly protected in Jacobean
society, concerning a woman’s sexuality and the issue of succession. Becoming a cuckold was
a prevalent male fear because it meant becoming an object of ridicule: you were a man who
couldn’t control his own wife, and had married a woman with unnatural sexuality.
Murder as punishment for adultery wasn’t technically legal in Jacobean England, but common
consensus accepted a cuckolded husband’s right - or duty - to slay his promiscuous wife and
her lover. Moreover, in Venice at the time the play is set, it was legal to kill for adultery. These
popular notions of justice are reflected in Othello’s approach to the murder, declaring “the
justice of it pleases,” (Act 4 Scene 1), calling Desdemona a “perjured woman,” and
accusing her, “[You] mak’st me call what I intend to do / A murder, which I thought a
sacrifice,” (Act 5 Scene 2). Othello sees himself as an executioner acting on behalf of the
law; furthermore, he believes the act is an honourable one. However, when Desdemona cries
out, “O, falsely, falsely murdered!” (Act 5 Scene 2), Shakespeare calls into question this
violent aspect of culture. Her exclamation may refer to her innocence, or it can be interpreted
to mean that the justification itself - that a woman deserves death for infidelity - is “false”. He
argues that giving a man authority over life and death forms a system that is vulnerable to pride
and ego. If an innocent woman can die at the hands of this ‘justice system’, then the whole
thing is corrupt and invalid.
Archetypes of Femininity
Plentiful tropes and myths surrounded what it meant to be a woman in Jacobean times.
Generally, there were four archetypes of femininity, within which all women were categorised:
the maiden, the wife, the widow, and the whore. These classifications, as you may have already
identified, revolve around the ‘stage’ of a woman’s sexuality; the maiden is a virgin, whereas
the widow has lost her sexual identity and is unanchored in society. Men wanted to marry
virgins - the maiden - but used whores for their own pleasure. The fifth category of ‘witch’ was
reserved for those women deemed too masculine, ugly, or barren to be ‘real’ women.
Additionally, there was the archetype of the fallen woman, someone who had lost her innocence
in the eyes of others; fallen women couldn’t regain their reputations, were the prey of gossips,
and were ostracised from society.
Masculinity drew from these categories of womanhood. They served as goals or

benchmarks. For example, virgins, newly-weds, and demure widows were ‘sexual targets’:
men wanted to sleep with them because the conquest of the apparently unattainable was an
irresistible challenge to their masculinity. Brides and betrothed women were seen as being in a
state of transition between the categories, making them vulnerable to assault or slander.
Young, beautiful wives were both desired and feared, because they could captivate their
husbands and other men with their ‘feminine wiles’.
Desdemona begins as a “maiden” (Act 1 Scene 2) in the eyes of all around her, but by the
play’s end is given the allotted role of “whore” (Act 4 Scene 2). Shakespeare implies these
archetypes say more of the men who bestow them on others, than of the women themselves;
they are narratives constructed to serve a man’s needs, or to serve a wider political motive.
Othello justifies Desdemona’s death by saying, “She must die, else she’ll betray more men,”
(Act 5 Scene 2). This shows that the “whore” was perceived as a threat to masculinity and
manhood as a whole; because of this, women seen as “whore[s]” were punished accordingly,
thus eradicating the threat.
Desdemona’s descent from “maiden”

to “whore” typifies the narrative of the
‘fallen woman’. Shakespeare challenges
this narrative, though, by blaming men
for the fall of women. Emilia tells
Desdemona, “It is their husbands’
faults / If wives do fall,” (Act 4 Scene
3). This idea is recalled in the final
scene, as upon Emilia’s death Gratiano
says, “The woman falls; sure he hath
killed his wife,” (Act 5 Scene 2). Shakespeare has twisted the meaning of a fallen woman to
replace the myth with the truth of domestic abuse and wife-killing. The ‘fallen woman’
archetype places precedence on a woman’s chastity, while Shakespeare’s depiction here
places it on a woman’s life and freedom. The metaphorical death a woman faced for losing her
respectable reputation in society parallels the literal death experienced by Desdemona and
Emilia at the hands of their husbands; the ‘fallen woman’ is a myth of men’s making in
numerous, fatal ways.

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Edexcel English Literature A-level

Othello: Character Profiles

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

● The Ingenue: A prominent quality of Desdemona’s characterisation is her innocence

● The Mediator: Desdemona is as much of a wordsmith as her husband. Her character

● The Strong Female Protagonist: Despite Brabantio characterising her as a “maiden

● The Doting Wife: In the character of Desdemona, Shakespeare shows us someone

Ultimately, through Othello

In addition to his perpetuation of domestic violence, Iago perpetuates the objectification of

Because Desdemona is a female character written by Shakespeare to serve a purpose, every

The purpose of Desdemona’s character as a construct goes beyond a commentary on

Love & Marriage

In Desdemona, we see love to be something fearless, unyielding, and unapologetic. She

Shakespeare uses a semantic field of religious allusions to portray Desdemona’s love as

Loyalty & Devotion to Men

Desdemona’s commitment to Othello is unwavering, even when he becomes abusive towards

A consequence of Desdemona’s devotion, Shakespeare illustrates, is a loss of her individuality.

Shakespeare presents us with a balanced perspective on Desdemona’s alleged adultery. As

The Private vs the Public Spheres

Shakespeare uses Desdemona’s

Race, Culture & Otherness

Shakespeare shows how Desdemona’s personality undermines these objections. While

In a similar fashion, Desdemona’s love

Purity & Chastity

Though Shakespeare illustrates female

The handkerchief is a pivotal part of

Furthermore, because Othello takes Cassio’s possession of “[his] handkerchief” as proof of

In the same way that the handkerchief

Desdemona and Othello’s relationship is established in communication, portraying them as

When Othello murders Desdemona, he silences her permanently. He accuses her of

As she dies, Desdemona’s deathbed confession maintains her innocence: “Falsely

Barbary & the Willow Song

Property, & The ‘Merchant’ of Venice

Crusades against Islam brought

Islam vs. Christianity

Religion: Protestantism vs. Catholicism

Jealousy and rational thought are

Masculinity drew from these categories of womanhood. They served as goals or

Desdemona’s descent from “maiden”

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