AUTOMATIC RAILWAY TRACK CRACK

DETECTING VEHICLE
CONTENTS
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO PARTICULARS

PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. SYNOPSIS

2. INTRODUCTION

3. NEED FOR NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

4. UTILISATION OF SOLAR ENERGY

5. DESCRIPTION OF THE VEHICLE

6. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

7. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

8. ARRANGEMENTS

9. WORKING PRINCIPLE

10. ADVANTAGED

11. APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

12. LIST OF MATERIAL

13. COST ESTIMATION

14. CONCLUSION

15. BIBLIOGRAPHY

16. PHOTOGRAPHY
SYNOPSIS
 AUTOMATIC RAILWAY TRACK CRACK
DETECTING VEHICLE

SYNOPSIS

In our project “AUTOMATIC RAILWAY TRACK CRACK DETECTING

VEHICLE” beings with an introduction to railway track Inspection and it’s various
applications. The sensors are used to detect the crack in the railway track automatically
and this signal is given to FM transmitter unit.

FM receiver unit is fixed to the nearest railway station. The transmitted signal is
received by the receiver unit, and gives the information to the station master by alarm
with indication. This is a very efficient method of checking the cracks in the railway track
and this is to be used in modern engineering industries. The manual efforts can be
completely avoided by using this modern equipment
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of manual

effort by mechanical power in all degrees of automation. The operation remains an
essential part of the system although with changing demands on physical input as the
degree of mechanization is increased.
Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.
Semi automation.
In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is
required whereas in full automation human participation is very negligible.

Need for Automation:

 Reduction of labour and material cost

 Higher Accuracy
 Reduction of work load to the labour
 Increased safety
 To reduce the inspection time
 Reduction in fatigue
 Improved personnel comfort
BLOCK DIAGRAM
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block diagram consist of following three parts.

1. SENSOR:-

OPTICAL RECEIVER
OPTICAL CIRCUIT
TRANSMITTER
CIRCUIT

2. TRANSMITTER:-

FREE RUNNING AF OSCILLA

OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER DRIVER
TOR

3. RECEIVER:-

AF
DETECTOR AMPLIFIER RELAY ALARM
CONTROL UINT:-
IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

IR TRANSMITTER

Infrared emitting diodes are solid-state gallium arsenide devices that emit

a beam of radiant flux when forward biased. When the junction is forward biased,

electron from the N region will recombine with excess holes of the P material in

specially designed recombination region sandwiched between the P and N type

materials.

During this recombination process, energy is radiated away from the

device in the form of photons. The generated photons will either be Re absorbed

the structure or leave the surface of the devices include card and paper tape

readers, shaft encoder, data transmission systems and intrusion alarms.

In the IR transmitter, emitting diode is used as an IR Transmitter. From the

IR emitting diode we can generate IR signals. In the circuit transistor Q1 acts as a

switch.

IR RECEIVER
 At the transmitting side, when the IR emits a beam of radiant flux, a

voltage will be developed in one input of the comparator. Let the voltage be V1. A

reference voltage V2 is developed across the other input. The comparator

compares these voltages (V1 and V2). The output of the comparator is positive and

negative going pulses. These pulses are given to the switching circuit to get logic 1

and logic 0. The IR receiver receives the IR beam from the emitting diode. The op-

amp LM741 acts as a comparator.

6.5 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Infrared transmitter is one type of LED, which emits infrared rays generally

called as IR Transmitter. Similarly IR Receiver is used to receive the IR rays

transmitted by the IR transmitter.

IR Transmitter and Receiver - Circuit Diagram

One important point is both IR transmitter and receiver should be

placed straight line to each other. The transmitted signal is given to IR transmitter

whenever the signal is high, the IR transmitter LED is conducting it passes the IR

rays to the Receiver. The IR receiver is connected with comparator. The

comparator is constructed with LM741 operational amplifier.

In the comparator circuit the reference voltage is given to inverting input

terminal. The non-inverting input terminal is connected to the IR receiver. When

interrupt the IR rays between the IR transmitter and receiver, the IR receiver is not
conducting. So the comparator non-inverting input terminal voltage is higher than

inverting input.

Now the comparator output is in the range of +12V. This voltage is given to

the base of the transistor Q1. Hence the transistor is conducting. Here the transistor

acts as switch so the collector and emitter will be closed. The output is taken from

the collector terminal. Now the output is zero.

When IR transmitter passes the rays to receiver, the IR receiver is conducting

due to that non-inverting input voltage is lower than inverting input. Now the

comparator output is –12V, so the transistor is cut off region. The 5v is given to

7404IC, which is the inverter with buffer. The inverter output is given to micro

controller. This circuit is mainly used for counting applications, intruder detector

etc.

APPLICATIONS OF INFRARED
 Night vision.
 Thermography
 Heating
 Communications
 Spectroscopy

D.C. MOTOR:
DESCRIPTION OF DC MOTOR

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical

energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is

placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is given by

Fleming’s left hand rule.

When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce

mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt wound or

series wound or compound wound motors.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually

perpendicular to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field

and middle finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb indicates

the direction of the motion of conductor.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR:

 Figure I show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no

current is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away from the viewer, but

the field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is no movement of the

conductor during the above two conditions. In figure III the current carrying conductor is

placed in the magnetic field. The field due to the current in the conductor supports the

main field above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the

conductor and to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor. It is

found that a force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor downwards as
shown by the arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of flux

lines occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards (figure-IV).

Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in the above figure. in

view of the reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move downwards,

whereas the coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil

sides A and B will be of same magnitude. But their direction is opposite to one another.

As the coil is wound on the armature core which is supported by the bearings, the

armature will now rotate. The commutator periodically reverses the direction of current

flow through the armature. Therefore the armature will have a continuous rotation.

A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors are wound

over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for producing flux. The

conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes

The conductors are wound over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles

for producing flux. The conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes let’s

start by looking at the overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A simple motor

has 6 parts, as shown in the diagram below.

 An armature or rotor

 A commutator

 Brushes
  An axle

 A field magnet

 A DC power supply of some sort

BATTERY:

INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess

solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine

load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small

units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only technically and

economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries

are high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect

to available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage

of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life

(3) High reliability

(4) High overall efficiency

 (5) Low discharge

(6) Minimum maintenance

(A) Ampere hour efficiency

(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for

lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most

commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In the

application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load

current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of

2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery

and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.

The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage,

as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge

and discharge currents short ends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile
battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest

output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.
CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group

of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte,

consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid

or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active

material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a

forming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process,

the active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative

electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the

plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal

service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding

water.

CHEMICAL ACTION:

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell

discharges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to

form water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the negative
plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. Therefore, the net result of discharge is

to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead sulfate on the

plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding

circulation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the

outside terminals of old batteries. When the combination of weak electrolyte and

sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary.

On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The

reversed direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical

reactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate

ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the positive plates

and makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.

 At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react

with hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative

plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full

output, with lead peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and

the required concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.

The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge

Pb + pbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ 2pbSO₄ + 2H₂O

Discharge

On discharge, the pb and pbo₂ combine with the SO₄ ions at the left side of the

equation to form lead sulfate (pbSO₄) and water (H₂O) at the right side of the equation.

One battery consists of 6 cell, each have an output voltage of 2.1V, which are

connected in series to get an voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is connected in

series, to get an 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof iron casing box.
CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES:

Always use extreme caution when handling batteries and electrolyte. Wear

gloves, goggles and old clothes. “Battery acid” will burn skin and eyes and destroy

cotton and wool clothing.

The quickest way of ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave

them stand “dead” for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a

chemical change in the positive plates of the battery. They change from lead oxide when

charge out lead sulfate when discharged. If they remain in the lead Sulfate State for a

few days, some part of the plate dose not returns to lead oxide when the battery is

recharged. If the battery remains discharge longer, a greater amount of the positive plate

will remain lead sulfate. The parts of the plates that become “sulfate” no longer store

energy. Batteries that are deeply discharged, and then charged partially on a regular basis

can fail in less than one year.

Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they are getting charged. Use a

hydrometer to check the specific gravity of your lead acid batteries. If batteries are

cycled very deeply and then recharged quickly, the specific gravity reading will be lower

than it should because the electrolyte at the top of the battery may not have mixed with

the “charged” electrolyte.

 Check the electrolyte level in the wet-cell batteries at the least four times a year

and top each cell of with distilled water. Do not add water to discharged batteries.

Electrolyte is absorbed when batteries are very discharged. If you add water at this time,

and then recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow and make a mess.

Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tighten

or remove cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause a

hydrogen explosion inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you.

On charge, with reverse current through the electrolyte, the chemical action is

reversed. Then the pb ions from the lead sulfate on the right side of the equation re-form

the lead and lead peroxide electrodes. Also the SO₄ ions combine with H₂ ions from the

water to produce more sulfuric acid at the left side of the equation.

CURRENT RATINGS:

Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currents

they can supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintained

above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours

(A.h.) based on a specific discharge time, which is often 8h. Typical values for

automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.

 As an example, a 200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, used

on 8h discharge. The battery can supply less current for a longer time or more current for

a shorter time. Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold cranking power”, which is

related to the job of starting the engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperature

of 0 degree F.

Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance, 200

A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). the equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs.

One ampere-second is equal to one coulomb. Then the charge equals 720,000 or

7.2*10^5ºC. To put this much charge back into the battery would require 20 hours with a

charging current of 10A.

The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80ºF.

Higher temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110ºF shortens

the battery life.

Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The ampere-

hour capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F below normal

temperature rating. At 0ºF the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour battery

rating.
 In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have an automobile battery unto

full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when diluted by water in the

discharged condition.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte generally checks the state of

discharge for a lead-acid cell. Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a

substance with the weight of a substance with the weight of water. For instance,

concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume.

Therefore, its specific gravity equals 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1, since it is

the reference.

In a fully charged automotive cell, mixture of sulfuric acid and water results in a

specific gravity of 1.280 at room temperatures of 70 to 80ºF. as the cell discharges, more

water is formed, lowering the specific gravity. When it is down to about 1.150, the cell is

completely discharged.

Specific-gravity readings are taken with a battery hydrometer, such as one in

figure (7). Note that the calibrated float with the specific gravity marks will rest higher in

an electrolyte of higher specific gravity.

 The decimal point is often omitted for convenience. For example, the value of

1.220 in figure (7) is simply read “twelve twenty”. A hydrometer reading of 1260 to

1280 indicates full charge, approximately 12.50 are half charge, and 1150 to 1200

indicates complete discharge.

The importance of the specific gravity can be seen from the fact that the open-

circuit voltage of the lead-acid cell is approximately equal to

V = Specific gravity + 0.84

For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 = 0.84 = 2.12V, as an

example. These values are for a fully charged battery.

CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY:

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is

necessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be more

than the battery e.m.f. Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the cell e.m.f. so

that the charging voltage can produce current opposite to the direction of discharge

current.
 Note that the reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery VB and

charging source VG with + to + and –to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is

reversed because the battery effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher

than VB. In this example, the net voltage available to produce charging currents is 15-

12=3V.

A commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply,

rectifying input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always

connected to each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the charger provides

current for the load and the current necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The

battery here is an auxiliary source for D.C. power.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge

circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driver

by a belt from the engine. When you start the Vehicle, the battery supplies the cranking

power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges he battery. It is not necessary

for the Vehicle to be moving. A voltage regulator is used in this system to maintain the

output at approximately 13 to 15 V.
 The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the charge

controller so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery are

connected in series.

It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a variation of

0.05 specific gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge, bringing the

battery to a gassing or bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel type batteries.

With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work very

well in almost any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-acid battery

life will be very short.

 ALARM

Buzzer:
A buzzer or beeper is a signalling device, usually electronic, typically used

in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven, or game shows. It

most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control

unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed,

and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and

sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping

sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was
identical to an electric bell without the metal gong (which makes the ringing

noise).

Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or

wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-connected

devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud

enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to a cheap 8-ohm speaker.

Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder like a

Sonalert which makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to

"driver" circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.

Circuit description:

The circuit is designed to control the buzzer. The buzzer ON and OFF is

controlled by the pair of switching transistors (BC 547). The buzzer is connected in

the Q2 transistor collector terminal.

When high pulse signal is given to base of the Q1 transistors, the transistor

is conducting and close the collector and emitter terminal so zero signals is given

to base of the Q2 transistor. Hence Q2 transistor and buzzer is turned OFF state.

When low pulse is given to base of transistor Q1 transistor, the

transistor is turned OFF. Now 12v is given to base of Q2 transistor so the transistor

is conducting and buzzer is energized and produces the sound signal.

ADVANTAGES
 ADVANTAGES

 The auto crack detection method is more efficient in the technical field
 Quick response is achieved
 Simple in construction
 Easy to maintain and repair
 Cost of the unit is less when compared to other
 No fire hazard problem due to over loading
 Comparatively the operation cost is less
 Continuous operation is possible without stopping
 Automatic alert system to the station master
 The signal transmission is wireless transmission.

LIMITATIONS

The signal transmission is bellow 50 feet

The vehicle operated in battery power, so rechargable battery is used
to drive the vehicle.
 APPLICATIONS

Automatic crack checking:-

The vehicle draws power from the battery. The optical sensor is used to detect the
crack in the railway track. Suppose any crack in the track, the vehicle automatically stop
and activates the FM transmitter circuit.

Cordless identification to the station master:-

This unit can also be used to intimate the nearest railway station. The FM
receiver circuit is fixed in the room of the station master.
DRAWING
COST ANALYSIS
 COST ANALYSIS

 TRANSMITTER – 1200

 PROJECT REPORT – 1150

 PCB DESIGN AND FABRICATION – 900

 RECEIVER – 400

 LCD – 250

 MOTOR AND SETUP – 1150

 TRANSFORMER – 200

PROGRAMING _ 1350

 RELAY – 50

 RELAY ULN 2003 – 50

 MISCELLANOUS – 1300
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION

Nowadays fire accident in trains is causing frequently and secured travelling

is not possible sometimes due to such accidents. So in this project we are

implementing a special method for fire detection in order to provide a secured

transport.

Transmitter section consists of keypad, Encoder and RF Transmitter when

any one keys pressed the corresponding information signals are encoded with help

of encoder and transmitted along with carrier signal through the RF Transmitter.

Receiver section consists of RF Receiver, Decoder, Microcontroller, LED

Display and Alarm Circuit. It received the corresponding signal and remove the

carrier signals and given to decoder in which the signals are decoded in to original

signal and given to microcontroller. Here the microcontroller may Atmel or PIC

microcontroller both are flash type reprogrammable in which we have

programmed. So it receives the signal from decoder and display the corresponding

information on LED display. At the same time microcontroller activates the alarm

driver circuits. So the alarm makes sounds to indicating to train driver.

REFERENCES
 REFERENCES

 Microcontroller8051 and its application

Author: KENNATH AYYALLA
Publication: PHI Publications
 Electro Optics
Author : Joseph J. Carr
Publication : PROMPT Publications
 Electronic Circuits Handbook
Author : Michael Tooley
Publication : BPB Publications
 Audio IC Circuits Manual
Author : R.M. Marston
Publication : BPB Publication
 ON Semiconductor Data Manual Book
Published by : Literature Distribution center For
ON semiconductor