Aviation

Aviation
BBA
Airline & Airport Management
(Annual Pattern)
IInd Year
Paper No. 6
School of Distance Education

Bharathiar University, Coimbatore - 641 046
Author: P S Senguttuvan
Copyright © 2014, Bharathiar University

All Rights Reserved
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CONTENTS
Page No.
UNIT I
Lesson 1 The Evolution of Aviation 7
Lesson 2 Aviation Industry in India 21
Lesson 3 Aircraft Manufacturers 41
UNIT II
Lesson 4 World Airlines and Airports 59
Lesson 5 World Aviation Bodies 79
UNIT III
Lesson 6 Airport Layout and Security 99
Lesson 7 Airport Managerial Operations 118
UNIT IV
Lesson 8 Airport Services 143
Lesson 9 Airport Handling 163
UNIT V
Lesson 10 Crisis Management at Airport 187
Model Question Paper 203
AVIATION
SYLLABUS
UNIT I
History of Aviation: The Evolution of Aviation – Growth Drivers – Issues and Challenges – Global Aviation
Industry – Aviation Industry in India – An Overview – Aircraft Types and Structures – Aircraft Manufacturers
UNIT II
World Airlines and Airports, World Aviation Bodies: Airports – Civil , Military – Training – Domestic/
International – Passenger/Cargo Terminals – World Airlines – World’s Major Airports – IATA/ICAO – National
Aviation Authorities & Role of State and Central Governments – Airports Authority of India
UNIT III
General Subjects: Layout of an Airport & Ground Handling – Airport & Aircraft Security – Managerial
Operations – Airline Catering & Various Bodies Handling of Unaccompanied minors and Disabled
Passengers – Handling of Stretcher Passengers and Human Remains – Handling of CIP,VIP &
VVIP-Co-ordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments
UNIT IV
Airport Handling: Airport Services – Standard Operations – Ramp Services & Airside Safety – Freight
Warehouse Management Airline Terminal Management – Flight Information Counter/Reservation and
Ticketing – Check In/Issue of Boarding pass – Customs and Immigration formalities – Co-rdination-Security
Clearance – Baggage
UNIT V
Crisis Management at Airports: Various Crisis at Airport – SOP for Bomb Threat – Mitigating Hijack Crisis
Situation – Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference – Developing Plans
5
The Evolution of Aviation
UNIT 1
UNIT I
6
Aviation
LESSON 7
1
THE EVOLUTION OF AVIATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Growth Drivers
1.2.1 Economic Factors
1.2.2 Political Factors
1.2.3 Government Initiatives
1.3 Issues and Challenges
1.4 Global Aviation Industry
1.4.1 Aviation’s Global Economic Profile
1.5 Let us Sum up
1.6 Lesson End Activity
1.7 Keywords
1.8 Questions for Discussion
1.9 Suggested Readings
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the growth drivers of aviation industry
z Discuss the issues and challenges of aviation sector
z Explain global aviation industry
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The aviation history dates back to over 2,000 years from the earlier time of
kites and gliders power-driven, heavier-than-air, ultrasonic, and hypersonic flight.
Kites were the first airborne man-made object. During the period of 200 BC, it was
noticed in china, when a general flew a kite over enemy territory so as to determine
the length of tunnel needed to enter the enemy territory. Later, gasses like hydrogen
were discovered that led to the invention of hydrogen balloons. Moreover physicists
came up with various theories in mechanics during 17th and 19th centuries,
particularly Newton's laws of motion and fluid dynamics that formed the basis of
modern aerodynamics. During the first half of the 19th century tethered balloons filled
with hot air were used in various mid-century wars, particularly the American Civil
War, where balloons provided observation in the course of the Battle of Petersburg.
8 The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin avis "bird" was coined in 1863
Aviation
by French aviation pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel de La Landelle (1812-1886) in
"Aviation ou Navigation aérienne".
1.2 GROWTH DRIVERS

The factors that contributed towards the growth of aviation can be broadly classified
as:
1. Economic factors, and
2. Political factors.
1.2.1 Economic Factors

z Advent of low cost airlines.
z Average growth in gross domestic product of around 8.9% during the last five
years.
z Corporate showing increasing preference for private jets and air charter services.
z Emergence of service sector.
z Expectation of disposable income to increase at an average of 8.5% p.a. till 2015.
z Increase in inbound and outbound tourists and medical tourism.
z Liberalization and economic reforms undertaken by the government.
z Over 300 million strong middle class.
z Rapid expansion of industries in consonance with economic reforms.
z The organized retail boom that would require the need for timely delivery thus
contributing to the growth in the air cargo segment.
1.2.2 Political Factors

z Approval to acquire new aircrafts.
z Approval to private operators to operate on international sectors.
z City side development of non-metro airports.
z Emphasis on development through public-private-partnership mode.
z Encouraging private investments in airport and airlines infrastructure.
z Helpful FDI norms.
z Liberal bilateral service agreements.
z Modernization and setting up new airports throughout country.
z Open sky policy.
z Policy of license to new scheduled operators.
z Providing international airport status to major tier I and tier II cities.
Entry of low cost carriers, higher house hold incomes, increased cargo movement,
increased FDI inflows, strong economic growth, strong business growth and
supporting government policies surging tourist inflow, are the main drivers for the
development of aviation sector in India. For growth drivers refer the table below:
Table 1.1: Passenger/Cargo Forecast till 2016-17 9
Year Aircraft Movements (in 000) Passenger (in million) Cargo (in 000 tones)
International Domestic International Domestic International Domestic
2005-06 190.89 647.4 22.36 50.98 920.15 483.8
Base
year
Growth 13.2 14.7 15.9 19.9 12.1 10.1
rate (%)
2006-07 216.14 737.94 25.85 60.91 1028.66 531.64
2007-08 243.91 843.1 29.85 72.87 1151.05 584.61
2008-09 275.58 965.54 34.53 87.31 1289.26 643.31
2009-10 311.74 1108.39 40.01 104.75 1445.5 708.39
2010-11 353.09 1275.38 46.45 125.84 1622.33 780.6
2011-12 400.45 1470.99 54.04 151.36 1822.69 860.78
Growth 10.5 9.8 16.2 13.3 12.8 8.4
rate (%)
2012-13 441.58 1653.63 61.04 175.64 1998.45 931.91
2013-14 487.36 1862.08 69.05 203.99 2192.47 1009.47
2014-15 538.38 2100.35 78.23 237.13 2406.81 1094.07
2015-16 595.29 2373.13 88.78 275.9 2643.73 1186.39
2016-17 658.89 2685.9 100.93 321.28 2905.79 1287.18
Source: Airport Authority of India
1.2.3 Government Initiatives

The Government of India is extremely committed for the advancement of the aviation
industry in Indian. The government of India has initiated various regulatory reforms
and numerous policy measures so as to promote participation of private sectors by
way of investment. Also GOI has allowed forty-nine per cent foreign direct
investments by foreign airlines in the sector.
The Government has also given permission on the biggest deal of US$ 900 million-
Jet-Etihad FDI in Indian aviation sector. Although certain changes in the deal were
asked by the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), Etihad will be eligible for
24% ownership stake in Jet for US$ 379 million once the changes in the deal is
approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs. Moreover the aviation
ministry has also allowed Jet Airways to go for code-sharing with five airlines —
American Airlines, Garuda of Indonesia, Malaysian, Kenya Airways and Vietnam
Airlines. This will facilitate Jet expand its footprint all over the world and to become
the biggest Indian carrier in terms of network.
A code-share allows two or more airlines share the same flight. Passengers will buy
ticket from one airline and take a flight operated by another airline, thereby allowing
partners to increase their reach across the global sky. Additionally, 17 new airports
have been proposed for construction during the 12th Five Year Plan by Mr KC
Venugopal, Minister of State for Civil Aviation.
The Indian Government has also been visionary in terms of the talent requirement for
the prospering aviation industry in future. Also, the bill to establish the aviation
university is proposed to the Lok Sabha Secretariat so as to address the dearth of
trained, supervisory and effective workforces in aviation. The university will offer and
endorse education in aviation, instruction, training, research and development work
with focus on emerging trends in aviation management, policies and procedures in
aviation, aviation science and engineering, transportation of dangerous goods and
other related fields, as per the proposal. The Indian Government has estimated the
10 total outlay of project to be approximately ` 202 crore (US$ 31.92 million) for the
Aviation
institution until 2019.
1.3 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

The issues and challenges faced by the aviation sector are addressed as under:
z Reduction in profitability of airlines:
In spite of the 20-25% year-on-year growth in terms of passenger/cargo
volumes, it has been noticed that the airlines have reported losses over the
past three years.
z The new policy of Ground Handling:
Only three agencies are allowed to take up ground handling services at the six
major metro airports as per the new Ground Handling policy, which came into
force from January 2009. These three agencies will also be indulged in
handling passenger baggage and cargo that is carried in the belly-hold of
passenger aircraft and express cargo.
This new policy of ground handling was opposed by airline operators in
addition to the cargo carriers.
z High prices of Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF):
Fuel prices forms the significant portion of operational cost of airlines.
Increase in prices will automatically effect not only the profitability but will
also influence other supporting services of the aviation industry.
z High airport charges:
The airport (aeronautical) charges imposed by the Indian airports are the
second highest amongst the Asian and Gulf countries, after Hong Kong. The
airports/aeronautical charges include:
Landing, Housing and Packing Charges
Route Navigation Facility Charges (RNFC)
Terminal Navigation Landing Charges
User Development Fees (in case of private airports)
X-ray Baggage Charges
The figure given below shows the combined airport charges imposed by Indian
airports vis-a-vis some of its international peers.
Source: IATA Airport and Air Navigation Charges Manual

Figure 1.1: Airports Charges (Landing Charges, Route Navigation Facility Charges and
Terminal Navigation Landing Charges) Levied in Various Countries
z Lack of technical manpower: 11
Shortage of manpower is the significant problem faced by the Civil Aviation
Sector particularly in the technical domain.
Likewise, with increase in the number of flights and new airports the demand
for Aircraft Maintenance Engineers and Air Traffic Controllers will also
increase. The requirement for the technical manpower appears negligible as
compared to the population of more than one.
z Safety and security:
After the 1999 Kandahar hijacking the CISF (Central Industrial Security
Force), a paramilitary organisation is in charge of airport security under the
Bureau of Civil Aviation Security regulation framework and instructions.
Central Industrial Security Force formed an Airport Security Group, which is
committed to protect Indian airports. Each and every airport has now been
given an Airport Security Unit, a highly trained unit so as to mitigate unlawful
interference with civil aviation. Also each airport has a separate security
department in addition to the Central Industrial Security Force.
z There is a need to revise and improve the Indian aviation safety and security
measures because of the high power serial bombings witnessed across various
parts of the country in the past few months, so as to alleviate against any severe
measures planned by any form of terrorism against Indian aviation sector Land
acquisition:
Huge land areas are needed due to the recent initiatives taken by the
government for building greenfield, merchant, cargo and low cost airports and
modernization of existing domestic and international airports.
z Shutting of old airports:
The Government is on the verge of finalisation of the model concession
agreement for public-private partnership concessionaire. It will be vital for the
government to incorporate suitable provisions enabling a smooth land
acquisition process devoid of damage of any concerned stakeholders. The
government should acquire land in advance before the contract is awarded to
the concessionaire.
Check Your Progress 1
Fill in the blanks:
1. The first form of man-made flying objects was ……………………
2. The …………………… cost of an airline significantly depends on the fuel
prices.
1.4 GLOBAL AVIATION INDUSTRY

Global aviation industry caters to virtually every corner of the world, and has been an
essential part of the creation of a world economy. The airline industry is a main
economic factor, both in terms of its own operations and its influences on related
industries for instance tourism and aircraft manufacturing. Few other industries make
the amount and greatness of attention given to airlines, not only among its participants
but also from the policy makers of the government, the media, and almost anyone who
has a story about specific air travel experience.
During much of worldwide development, the global airline industry carried on with
major innovations in terms of technological development for instance introduction of
jet airplanes for commercial use in the 1950s, followed by the development of wide-
12 body “jumbo jets” in the 1970s. During the similar period, airlines were heavily
Aviation
regulated all over the world, creating an environment in which government policy and
technological advances took preference over competition and profitability. During the
period of economic deregulation of airlines in the US in 1978 that questions of
operating profitability, cost efficiency and competitive behaviour have become the
central issues faced by airline management.
At present, the global airline industry account for over two thousand airlines operating
more than twenty thousand aircraft, rendering service to over thirty seven hundred
airports. In the year 2006, the world’s airlines flew nearly twenty eight million
scheduled flight departures and carried over two billion passengers. The world air
travel growth has averaged almost five per cent per year over the past thirty years,
with significant yearly disparities because of the varying economic conditions and
differences in economic growth in diverse regions of the world. In general, the annual
growth in air travel has been about twice the annual growth in gross domestic product.
Even with relatively traditional expectations of economic growth over the next ten to
fifteen years, a continued four to five per cent annual growth in global air travel will
tend to a doubling of total air travel during this period.
The economic significance of the airline industry and, consecutively, its consequences
for aircraft manufacturers, makes the volatility of airline profits and their dependence
on good economic conditions a severe apprehension for both industries. Since airline
deregulation this concern has grown intensely, as even profits and/or government
assistance were the rule rather than the exception for most international airlines
proceeding to the 1980s. Over the past 15 years the total net profits of world airlines
have shown remarkable volatility. Four consecutive years of losses amounting to
approximately over $22 billion from 1990 to 1993 were reported because of the Gulf
War and following economic recession, it resumed to record profitability in the late
1990s, with total net profits in excess of twenty five billion dollars being reported by
world airlines from 1995 to 1999. Even more dramatic was the industry’s plunge into
record operating losses and a financial crisis between 2000 and 2005, with cumulative
net losses of $40 billion.
Global Airport Market Overview

z Customer-Focused Approach – Result in Diversification of Airport Revenue
Sources: The air transport industry, one of the world’s fastest growing industries,
is assuming greater importance in the economic and social development of
countries worldwide. The growing diversification of airports’ revenue sources is
an indicator of an embryonic amalgamation of airports into the economies in
which they operate. Accordingly, airports are becoming striking business centres,
which aid in boosting urban economic growth; the trend is ensuing in enhanced
focus on customer-driven profiles and the quality of airport facilities. In recent
times, airport traffic in big hubs has exhibited a noticeable increase. Accordingly,
a remarkable level of consolidation of air traffic away from secondary hubs and
towards big ones has emerged and an anticipated consolidation of the hub system
is expected to drastically transform the distribution of air traffic among airports.
Airports across the world are seeking to limit their reliance on aeronautical
revenues to generate resources to meet rising infrastructure demands. As a result,
the market is witnessing greater focus on commercial revenues from “retailing,
advertisements, ground transport and property development to generate profits”.
The importance of non-aeronautical revenues is a superior gauge to measure the
new model of business-oriented airport operators entering into the industry and
developing a significant value added in providing customer service. Hence,
multiple commercial opportunities are being used to exploit the airports business
and are viewed as more than air service providers.
z Long-term Success - Development of Core Airport Operations: “Success in the 13
global and competitive airport industry will require marketing and new business The Evolution of Aviation
development skills beyond those that currently exist,” remarks by the Airport
Economic Analysts. Thus, airport operators will need to demonstrate key
competencies in core airport operations such as technical operations, facility
management and safety as well as the management of traditional airport activities
such as airport planning. Future development of the airline industry will be
determined by an enhanced commercial approach, urgent intensification of capital
expenditure and deregulation of the value chain.
The deregulation of the industry will further segregate this value chain, creating
opportunities for new operators to make a foray into the industry, thereby
fostering efficiency gains as a result of intensifying competition. Moreover,
airport operators would do well to enhance process efficiency by reducing airport
costs and the charges levied on airlines. Further, the strategic location of airports,
their size as well as the catchment areas are crucial factors that will assist in
attracting investments, and contributing to passenger growth.
z Emergence of Airports as Attractive Business Centres – New Business
Approach: Airports are flattering profitable business enterprises based on the
mounting revenues generated by non-aeronautical activities, in particular,
Retailing, Car parking and Catering. This trend is expected to create opportunities
for airport management firms and other companies keen on intensifying their
businesses in the catchment areas of airports. Currently, due to the demand from
air carriers for the reduction of charges and the aversion of governments to offer
subsidies, airports can no longer rely exclusively on aeronautical revenues to
generate the resources needed for infrastructural improvements. Therefore, to
overcome this trend, airport professionals are looking to boost the commercial
revenues from retailers, advertisements, ground transport and property
development which offer a huge increase in the infrastructural investments and
even to directly generate profits (Frost & Sullivan).
The growing diversification of airports’ revenue sources reflects their stronger
integration with the economies in which they operate. Airports have turn out to be
attractive business centres and are sustaining economic growth in the areas where
they are located. “The importance of non-aeronautical revenues is a good
indicator of the new model of business-oriented airport operators entering the
industry and the growing importance being given to the customer service”. As a
result, ‘airports are now increasingly seen not only as air-service providers but
also as potential providers of multiple commercial opportunities such as shopping
and entertainment’. However, airport operators who are eager to succeed in the
marketplace will have to demonstrate competencies in core airport operations,
such as technical operations, facility management or safety, besides the
management of traditional airport activities such as airport planning. Ultimately,
the challenge would help in building an organization to achieve better economic
returns. Success in a globalized and highly competitive airport industry would
require marketing and new business development skills beyond those that
currently exist in the industry.
1.4.1 Aviation’s Global Economic Profile

Aviation is an important portion of the increasingly globalized world economy, aiding
the growth of tourism and international investment, international trade, and
connecting people across landmasses.
14 Direct Impacts
Aviation
The aviation industry itself is a major direct contributor in terms of occupation and
fiscal activity, in airline and airport operations, air traffic management, aircraft
maintenance, head offices and undertakings directly aiding air passengers, for instance
check-in, handling of baggage, on-site retail and catering services. Direct impacts also
take account of the activities of aerospace manufacturers selling aircraft and
components to airlines and related businesses.
Each year approximately over 2.6 billion passengers are carried by world’s airlines
and forty eight million tonnes of freight. Rendering these services produces 8.4
million direct jobs within the air transport industry and adds $539 billion to global
Gross domestic product. Compared with the Gross domestic product contribution of
other sectors, the global air transport industry is larger than the pharmaceuticals ($445
billion), the textiles ($236 billion) or the automotive industries ($484 billion) and
around half as big as the global chemicals ($977 billion) and food and beverage
($1,162 billion) sectors. In fact, if air transport were a country, its Gross domestic
product would rank it nineteenth in the world, roughly equal to that of Switzerland or
Poland.
Of the 8.4 million jobs directly generated by the air transport industry:
z 0.5 million are employed by airport operators, in airport management,
maintenance and security.
z 0.8 million people work in the civil aerospace sector, involved in the manufacture
of aircraft systems, frames and engines.
z 2.2 million jobs for airlines or handling agents, including flight crew, check-in
staff and maintenance crew.
z 4.9 million people have other jobs on-site at airports — for example, in retail
outlets, restaurants, hotels and government border agencies.
Air transport also has significant ‘multiplier’ effects, which mean that its whole
contribution to global employment and Gross domestic product is much larger than its
direct impact alone.
Indirect Impacts
The indirect impact includes:
z Employment and activities of suppliers to the air transport industry — for
instance, aviation fuel suppliers; construction companies that build airport
facilities; manufacturers of goods sold in airport retail outlets; suppliers of sub-
components used in aircraft; and a wide variety of activities in the business
services sector for example information technology, call centres and accountancy.
z Over 9.3 million indirect jobs world-wide are backed by purchase of goods and
services by companies in the air transport industry. These indirect jobs contributed
approximately six hundred and eighteen billion dollars to global gross domestic
product in 2010.
Induced Impacts
It takes account of:
z The spending of those directly or indirectly employed in the air transport sector
supports jobs in industries such as retail outlets, companies producing consumer
goods and a range of service industries (such as banks and restaurants).
z Globally, approximately 4.4 million induced jobs world-wide are backed through
employees in the air transport industry using their income to purchase goods and
services for their own consumption.
z In the year 2010 the induced contribution to world Gross domestic product is 15
estimated at $ 288 billion. The Evolution of Aviation
Wider Catalytic (spin-off) Benefits

Transportation by air is the most far-reaching economic contribution is by means of its
contribution to the performance of other industries and as an enabler of their growth.
These ‘catalytic’ or ‘spin-off’ gains of aviation affect industries across the whole
spectrum of economic activity.
z Transportation by air is crucial for tourism, which is a most important engine of
economic growth across the globe, especially in growing economies.
z Transportation by air eases world trade; aiding countries participate in the global
market by increasing access to international markets and allowing globalization of
production.
z Transportation by air helps in increasing productivity; improve business operation
and efficiency, by encouraging investment and innovation; and allowing
companies to attract high-quality employees due to better country’s connectivity
and reach.
Air Transport Stimulates Tourism

z It directly contributed $1.8 trillion to world Gross domestic product in 2011 and
supported over 99 million direct jobs world-wide — 3.4% of total employment.
z By 2021, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) anticipates direct
employment in the tourism industry to be more than one hundred twenty million
people globally.
Aviation plays a central role in supporting tourism. Over fifty-one per cent of
international tourists now travel by air. Tourism is especially significant in many
developing countries, where it is a fundamental part of economic development
strategies. For example, in Africa, the jobs of an estimated 2.5 million people directly
employed in tourism are supported by overseas visitors coming by air, constituting
thirty-four per cent of all tourism jobs in Africa.
The contribution of air transport to tourism employment and Gross Domestic Product:
z Direct: 14.4 million direct jobs in tourism globally are projected to be backed by
the outlay of foreign visitors arriving by air. This take account of jobs in
industries for example hotels, visitor attractions, restaurants, local transport and
car rental, but it does not consist of air transport industry jobs.
z Indirect: A further 13.2 million indirect jobs in industries supplying the tourism
industry are reinforced by visitors arriving by air.
z Induced: These direct and indirect tourism jobs backed by air transport generate a
further 6.9 million jobs in other parts of the economy, by employees spending
their earnings on other goods and services.
Air transport supports 34.5 million jobs within tourism, adding around $762 billion a
year to world Gross domestic product.
Contribution to World Trade

The aviation industry encourages global economic growth and development by way of
international trade. According to the predictions, it is believed that world’s economies
will become more dependent on international trade over the next decade. Global trade
is projected to nearly double, growing at more than twice the rate of global gross
domestic product growth, with China, India and other emerging markets leading the
way.
16 Air freight is fast and reliable over great distances as compared to other modes of
Aviation
transportation. Though, these benefits come at a cost. Accordingly, air freight is
customarily used to transport goods that are light, compact, consumable and have a
high unit value.
Nowadays, air transport is the main constituent of many industries’ global supply
chain, used primarily for the transfer of time sensitive goods. Rapid delivery is
especially significant to businesses whose customers are running efficient production
processes or who need urgent delivery of spare parts for machinery and equipment.
High-value, lightweight and sensitive electrical components are transported by air
from manufacturing facilities all over the world to be assembled.
Exporters of perishable products for instance food and flowers (can only reach export
markets by air, rendering secure employment and economic growth to regions that
gain from such trade. For example, it is projected that 1.5 million livelihoods in Africa
depend upon such exports to the United Kingdom market alone.
These fundamental features of air freight are most seeming in the data on the modes of
transport used in global trade. While accounting to a lesser extent than 0.5% of the
tonnage of world trade, air freight makes up over a third of the value of international
trade.
Passenger Air Services’ Role in International Trade

For international trade development passenger air services are also important. While
technologies for example video conferencing can be very helpful, many companies
still consider that face-to-face meetings are important for developing client
relationships and making new business tie-ups. A recent survey of over twenty two
business people found that 87% rate face-to-face meetings as necessary factor for
‘sealing the deal,’ and approximately all (95%) agreed that such meetings are
important for building and ensuring long-term relationships. Approximately fifty two
per cent people said that restrictions on the numbers of flights they take for work
would hurt their business.
As per some other survey it is estimated by corporate executives that 28% of existing
business would be lost without in-person meetings. Additionally, they estimate that
roughly 40% of potential customers are converted to new customers with an in-person
meeting compared to 16% without.
Paying Our Way

Unlike other modes of transportation the aviation transport industry pays a huge bulk
of its own cost of infrastructure comprising of airport terminals, runways and air
traffic control, instead being financed through taxation and public investment or
subsidies like road and railways. Furthermore, companies in the air transport industry
make significant tax payments to national treasuries. Aviation infrastructure costs are
funded through passengers and airlines charges and airport commercial revenue. In
2008 user charges, which totalled $64.1 billion, are in general included in the price of
the airline ticket.
To recover the costs of providing facilities and services for civil aviation user charges
are designed and applied u. User charges include:
z the costs of providing airports and air navigation services, including appropriate
amounts for cost of capital and depreciation of assets,
z costs of maintenance, operation, management and administration.
z in some cases, airport user charges are offset by airport commercial revenues that
result from the provision of airport facilities.
In 2010, globally airports spent around twenty-six billion dollars on capital 17
expenditure including new infrastructure, improving existing facilities to increase The Evolution of Aviation
efficiency, building new capacity to meet demand growth, and building energy-
efficient terminals.
In contrast, while road users pay fuel duties and vehicle excise taxes, most
governments invest in new highways and in road maintenance. While some countries
have different approaches, user charges are typically not applied except in the form of
a toll charge on some highways.
In many parts of the world, rail services are also heavily subsidized by local, regional
or national governments. Between 2007 and 2009 in Europe, state aid for rail services
totalled to almost $58 billion a year, compared to $440 million for aviation (funds
used in most cases for commercially unviable services to remote communities). The
cost of rail infrastructure is also state funded. For example, the latest high speed rail
line in the United Kingdom is anticipated to cost taxpayers some $50 billion when
fully completed.
Air Transport: A Stimulus for Greater Productivity

Perhaps, the major economic advantage of better connectivity emanates through its
influence on the long-term performance of the wider economy by improving the
overall level of productiveness. A rise in productivity in firms outside the aviation
sector comes through two main channels:
1. through the effects on domestic firms of increased access to foreign markets and
increased foreign competition in the home market; and
2. through the freer movement of investment capital and workers between countries.
Improved connectivity:
z opens up new markets and encourages exports while simultaneously gains
competition and choice in the home market from foreign-based producers,
promoting firms to specialize in areas where they have a comparative advantage;
z can drive down costs and prices for firms that have a relative advantage for
example innovative services and products , profiting domestic consumers in the
process;
z opens domestic markets to foreign competitors, which can also be an significant
driver for falling unit production costs, either by forcing domestic firms to adopt
best international practices in production and management methods or by
encouraging innovation;
z can benefit domestic customers through competition by decreasing the mark-up
over cost that firms charge their customers, particularly where domestic firms
have so far liked some shelter from competition.
Economic performance can also be increased by improved connectivity by enabling
firms to invest outside their parent country, which is known as Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI). Foreign direct investment essentially means some movement of
staff: either for servicing and meeting customers, technical know-how or management
oversight.
Passenger traffic and trade can also be increased by way of improved connectivity
which in turn, can lead to a more favourable atmosphere for foreign firms to operate
in greater links to the outside world often drive a more favourable global business
environment. In a survey of 625 businesses in five countries, respondents considered
the absence of good air transport links to be one of the major determining factors in
not making an investment. On average, 18% of firms reported that the lack of good air
transport links had affected their past investment decisions. Of the investments that
were affected, 59% were made in other locations with better air services, 18% went
18 ahead anyway, but with significantly higher costs, while in 23% of cases no
Aviation
investment was made.
Measuring the Impact on Productivity

According to various studies and research, it is proved that improvement in
connectivity affects the long term impact on the gross domestic product of the
country. This is not straightforward. Given that the supply-side benefits of
connectivity come through encouraging international trade and inward investment,
any impact is likely to manifest itself progressively over time. This prolonged
adjustment makes it very stimulating to unravel the impact that improved connectivity
has had on long-term growth from the many other factors that affect an economy’s
performance. This issue is reflected, however, in the wide range of estimates that
studies have reached for connectivity’s impact on long-term growth.
Based on a conservative estimate, a 10% improvement in global connectivity (relative
to gross domestic product) would see a 0.07% per annum increase in long-run gross
domestic product. Given the increase in global connectivity due to air transport over
the last couple of decades Oxford Economics figure this impact to be worth over $200
billion to global gross domestic product.
There is a strong positive relationship between higher connectivity to the global
network as per the analysis — as a proportion of gross domestic product — and labour
productivity. Growing and transitional economies typically have low connectivity
relative to their gross domestic product and also relatively low labour productivity.
Innovation
Aviation industry is a technology-advanced industry deeply involved in the creation of
high-specification products which drives development & D in a number of areas. The
innovations and research in the aviation industry leads to more efficient aircraft
technology and operational practices — with associated environmental benefits — but
also helps build research capacity at universities and skills across society. The
advantages of R&D by the aerospace industry to society are projected to be much
higher than in manufacturing as a whole — every hundred million dollars of
investment into research ultimately produces additional seventy million dollar in gross
domestic product y-a-y.
Leaders from aviation industry express concern regarding the future threat of a lack of
science, technology, engineering and mathematics graduates entering the labour pool.
This is motivating resources to be engrossed on encouraging the next generation of
engineers.
Research conducted for the Aerospace Industries Association (AIA) proposes that
aerospace contributes almost $100 billion in export sales to the United States’
economy and every dollar invested in aerospace yields an extra $1.50 to $3 in
economic activity. The influence that aerospace has on the rest of the USA’s high-tech
economy is also considerable.
This explains why organizations like Aerospace Industries Association actively
highlight initiatives to recruit and retain high quality workers, both to create new
aerospace-centric jobs and as maintain the current levels of activity.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Passenger air services are also vital for international …………………
development.
2. Today, air transport is a vital component of many industries’ global supply
chain, used primarily for the transfer of ………………… sensitive goods.
19
1.5 LET US SUM UP The Evolution of Aviation
Aviation services are vital to the economic and social development of any economy.
They are a symbol of wealth and a generator of business in the surrounding region and
help the economy to expand business, leisure, technology, recreational and trade.
There is a determination for having the several types of commercial planes, with their
characteristics reflecting their particular use in the regional, national and international
markets. An airport is an inter-modal transfer facility between ground and air
transportation. One of the most significant functions of an airport is to render the
processing facilities for passengers, baggage and freight, servicing facility for aircraft
and entry and exit for the clearance of international aircraft, passenger, baggage and
freight.
The world airline industry has always been an essential part of the world economy as
it is a main economic force for transportation, manufacture, technology and many
other sectors in modern society, therefore it contributes a huge profit to global
economy growth.
1.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Prepare a project on the evolution of aviation and the major issues and challenges
faced by the industry nowadays.
1.7 KEYWORDS
Aviation: It relates to design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft,
especially heavier-than-air aircraft.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): It is a direct investment into production or
business in a country by an individual or company of another country, either by
buying a company in the target country or by expanding operations of an existing
business in that country.
Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF): It is a type of aviation fuel designed for use
in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines.
Aerospace Industries Association (AIA): It is an American trade association
representing manufacturers and suppliers of civil, military, and business aircraft,
helicopters, UAVs, space systems, aircraft engines, missiles, material, and related
components, equipment, services, and information technology in the United States.
1.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the factors contributing to the air traffic growth?
2. Discuss government initiatives towards development of aviation sector.
3. What are the issues and challenges faced by the aviation industry in India?
4. How air transport stimulates tourism?
5. What is the role of passenger air services in international trade?
Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Kites
2. operational
Contd…
20 CYP 2
Aviation
1. Trade
2. Time
1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Senguttuvan. P S (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books,
New Delhi.
Senguttuvan. P S (2007). Principles of Airport Economics, Excel Books, New Delhi.
21
LESSON Aviation Industry in India
2
AVIATION INDUSTRY IN INDIA
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Indian Aviation
2.2.1 Size of the Industry
2.2.2 Modernization of Airports
2.3 Aircraft Types and Structures
2.3.1 Major Structural Stresses
2.4 Flight Control Surfaces
2.4.1 Primary Flight Control Surfaces
2.4.2 Secondary or Auxiliary Control Surfaces
2.5 Let us Sum up
2.7 Keywords

z Explain Indian aviation industry
z Discuss aircraft types and structures
z Describe flight control surfaces
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The Aviation industry of Indian is one of the quickest developing airline industries
across the globe. Historically in December 1912 Indian Aviation Industry started with
its first local air route between Karachi and Delhi. This airline was opened by the
Indian Air Services in association with Imperial airways of the United Kingdom as an
extension of London-Karachi flight. After three years Tata Sons Ltd., started a regular
airmail service between Karachi and Madras without any assistance from the Indian
government.
Nine air transport companies started carrying both air cargo and passengers in the
Indian Territory during the period of independence. In 1948, Air India International a
joint sector company of the Indian Government and Air India was to promote and
support Indian Aviation Industry. In 1953 Indian Airlines (IA) brought the domestic
22 civil aviation sector under the horizon of Indian Government as part of
Aviation
nationalization. Later till the mid 1990's Indian aviation industry was dominated by
government-owned airlines. In the year 1990, when the government adopted the
Open-sky policy and other liberalization policies the Indian Aviation industry
experienced a speedy and dramatic revolution.
Several private airlines entered the aviation business during the year 2000 in line and
many more were about to enter into the arena. Today, Indian aviation industry is
dominated by private airlines and low-cost carriers for instance GoAir, Deccan
Airlines, and Spice Jet, and so on. And the enormous Indian air travel industry -
Indian Airlines, slowly lost its market share to these private airlines.
2.2 INDIAN AVIATION

The Aviation industry of Indian is one of the quickest developing airline industries in
the world with more than 75% share of private airlines in the entire domestic aviation
market. With 18% CAGR (compound annual growth rate) and four hundred fifty-four
airports and runways in place in the country, of which sixteen are labelled as
international airports.
According to the latest figures released by the Ministry of Civil Aviation, the AAI
(Airports Authority of India) seems set to accrue better margins in 2009-10, due to
upsurge in traffic movement and growth in revenues by almost US$ 21.4 million in
2009. The credit for this upsurge goes to Delhi International Airport Limited (DIAL)
and Mumbai International Airport Limited (MIAL) because of increase in share of
revenue by these two airports. As per the report by the Ministry of Civil Aviation,
passengers carried by Indian domestic airlines from January-February 2010 stood at
8,056,000 as against 6,761,000 in comparison to the period of 2009 − a growth of
19.2%.
According to the annual Airport Service Quality (ASQ) passenger survey, Currently
Hyderabad International Airport has been ranked amongst the world's top five
together with airports at Seoul, Singapore, Hong Kong and Beijing. Hyderabad
International Airport is managed by a public-private joint venture comprising of the
GMR Group, Malaysia Airports Holdings Berhad and both the State Government of
Andhra Pradesh and the AAI (Airports Authority of India).
The main categories in which the Indian aviation sector can be broadly classified are:
1. Scheduled air transport service consisting of domestic and international airlines.
2. Non-scheduled air transport service consisting of air taxi operators and charter
operators.
3. Air cargo service that takes care of air transportation of cargo and mail.
Scheduled air transport service: It is an air transport service that is operated as per
the printed timetable and fly between two or more places. It takes account of:
1. Domestic airlines, which provide scheduled flights within India and to select
international destinations. Some of the domestic airlines in the aviation industry in
India are Air Deccan, Spice Jet, Kingfisher Airline and IndiGo.
2. International airlines operate from scheduled international air services to and from
India.
Non-scheduled air transport service: In this type of service the operator is not
allowed to issue tickets to passengers and publish the timetable as it dose not operate
on scheduled basis but may be on charter basis and/or non-scheduled basis.
Air cargo services: This type of service takes care of transportation of cargo and mail
by air. It may or may not be on scheduled or non-scheduled basis. This type of service
functions within India. In case of operation abroad, an operator has to take specific 23
permission from Directorate General of Civil Aviation proving his capacity for Aviation Industry in India
carrying such an operation.
2.2.1 Size of the Industry

The AAI (Airport Authority of India) comprise a total of 127 airports in the country,
which consist of 13 international airports, 7 custom airports, 80 domestic airports and
28 civil enclaves. Currently there are about 450 airports and 1091 registered aircrafts
in India.
Top Leading Companies

The Indian aviation industry can be broadly classified into three types of players:
z Public players: It includes Air India, Indian Airlines and Alliance Air.
z Private players: It include Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Paramount airways, Go Air
Airlines, Kingfisher Airlines, Spice Jet, Air Deccan and many more.
z Start up players: It includes Omega Air, Magic Air, Premier Star Air and MDLR
Airlines. Basically these are those players that are planning to enter the aviation
market.
Employment Opportunities
Currently India Aviation Industry has need of nearly 7,500-8,000 pilots and an equal
number or more air cabin crew. Heavy pay packages are awaiting pilots with a
Commercial Pilot License (CPL). An amateur pilot can begin his career with a salary
of ` 2.5-3 lakh a month with a commercial airline. With the rapid increase in the
number of airlines, pilots are in great demand.
Aviation sector provides the following types of opportunities:
z Air cargo pilot
z Air traffic controller
z Cabin crew
z Cabin safety instructor
z Cabin services instructor
z Cargo officers
z Commercial pilot
z Co-pilot
z Expert cabin crew
z Ground staff
z Guest service agent
z In-flight base managers
z In-flight managers
z Licensed aircraft maintenance engineering
z Maintenance controllers
z Quality control manager
z Training instructor
24 Latest Developments
Aviation
z Jet has become the first Indian airline to place an order of fuel-efficient 737 Max
aircraft with the plane-maker Boeing. Boeing and Jet have recently inked a
purchase agreement wherein Jet has agreed to buy 50 such planes at a cost of
around US$ 5 billion. The agreement is still under negotiation (for discounts).
The service of 737-Max is expected to commence by 2017.
z India's first ever aviation university, the Rajiv Gandhi National Aviation
University at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh, will start imparting training to aspiring
pilots, aircraft engineers and cabin crew in September 2014. The educational
entity is a Government organisation that has been developed to acknowledge the
industry's chronic talent shortage. The university will induct 1, 000 students by
2018 and eventually, all flying schools in India will get affiliated to this
university.
z The Government of Haryana plans to establish a cargo airport in the state by
taking up Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode for the green-field project at
Meham in Rohtak. The Haryana State Industrial and Infrastructure Development
Corporation (HSIIDC) will be the equity partner for bearing the cost of land
acquisition for the project.
z In August 2013, India's first Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC), being developed
at the Cochin Shipyard, has been launched. It is expected that the 40, 000 tonne-
warship machinery will be operational by 2018. It is done with major fittings and
underwater work. Now the superstructure, the upper decks and out-fittings are to
be worked upon.
2.2.2 Modernization of Airports

Airports Authority of India (AAI) manages the development and modernization of all
35 non-metro airports in the country simultaneously and work is due to be completed
by the year end of 2010. Wholly owned subsidiaries of AAI are being created for
betterment of these airports. According to the AAI there are work orders for terminal
buildings at 13 airports, and for airside development, including runway, taxiway,
apron, fire station, control tower and isolation bay, at 19 airports.
Policy on Merchant Airports
Indian Aviation Industry will allow 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the
development of airport infrastructure, the Government is fast moving towards
finalizing a policy on merchant airports. Under this new concept, merchant airports
will be built entirely by private parties with their own resources, without any
government funding.
Growth in MRO Segment
Indian Aviation with the advent of low-cost airlines and ever-increasing passenger
traffic there is a fleet expansion. There is an Initiation of the whole new business
avenue for global aircraft companies in Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO).
This MRO facility provides major and minor maintenance, refurbishment and repairs
of aircraft. The giant players like Boeing and Airbus have announced their plans for
MRO facilities in India.
Foreign Equity Participation in Air Transport Services

Recently the Government in India has approved the Domestic Air Transport Policy
which provides for foreign equity participation up to 49% and also investment by
Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) up to 100% in the domestic air transport services. As the
government plans to fix a higher foreign direct investment (FDI) ceiling for five sub-
sectors of the industry in days to come the flow of foreign investment into aviation is
likely to get smoother.
25
2.3 AIRCRAFT TYPES AND STRUCTURES Aviation Industry in India
A device used for, or is meant to be used for flight in the air is known as aircraft. The
various categories of aircraft includes (Figure 2.1):
z airplane,
z rotorcraft,
z glider, and
z lighter-than-air vehicles.
Each of these categories can be further bifurcated according to their individual
features for instance airships and balloons. Both are lighter-than-air aircraft but have
distinguishing features and are operated in a different way.
Fixed-wing aircraft is the most common aircraft. As the name entails, the wings on
this type of aircraft are attached to the fuselage and are not meant to move
independently in a fashion that results in the creation of lift. One, two, or three sets of
wings have all been successfully utilised. (Figure 2.2) Rotary-wing aircraft for
example helicopters are also widespread.
Figure 2.1: Examples of Different Categories of Aircraft, Clockwise from top left:
Lighter-than-air, Glider, Rotorcraft and Airplane
The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft comprises of five principal units:
1. the fuselage,
2. wings,
3. stabilizers,
4. flight control surfaces, and
5. landing gear.
(Figure 2.3) Helicopter airframes consist of the fuselage, main rotor and related
gearbox, tail rotor (on helicopters with a single main rotor), and the landing gear.
A wide variety of materials are used for the construction of airframe structural
components. Wood was basically used for the construction of earlier aircrafts along
with steel tubing and aluminium. Moulded composite materials were used many
newly certified aircraft such as carbon fibre. Structural members of an aircraft’s
fuselage include stringers, longerons, ribs, bulkheads, and more. Wing spar forms the
basic structural member in a wing.
TA wide variety of materials can also be used for the making the skin of aircraft,
ranging from impregnated fabric to plywood, aluminium, or composites. There are
many components that support airframe function below the skin and attached to the
structural fuselage. The whole airframe and its components are joined by rivets, bolts,
screws, and other fasteners. Welding, glues, and special bonding procedures are also
applied.
26
Aviation
Figure 2.2: A Monoplane (top), Biplane (middle), and Tri-wing Aircraft (bottom)
2.3.1 Major Structural Stresses

Structural members of Aircraft are made to hold a load or to withstand stress. In
planning an aircraft structure, every square inch of wing and fuselage, spar, every rib,
and even each metal fitting ought to be taken into account in relation to the physical
features of the material of which an aircraft is made. Each part of the aircraft should
be designed to withstand the load to be enforced upon it.
Figure 2.3: Principal Airframe Units

Stress analysis is the term used for the determination of such loads. Though planning
the design is not the function of the aircraft technician, it is, however, vital that the
technician recognize and appreciate the stresses involved in order to avoid changes in
the original design through improper repairs.
The terms “stress” and “strain” often used interchangeably, are not the same thing. 27
Stress is caused due to the external load of external force. It is a material’s internal Aviation Industry in India
resistance or counterforce that opposes distortion, whereas strain is the level of

distortion of a material. When a force or load is applied on a material, that material is
distorted, irrespective of how robust the material is or how light the load is.
There are five major stresses (Figure 2.4) to which all aircraft are subjected:
z Bending
z Compression
z Shear
z Tension
z Torsion
Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart. (Figure
2.4A) The aircraft is pulled forward by the engine, but air resistance tries to hold it
back resulting in tension, which stretches the aircraft. The material’s tensile strength is
valued in Pounds Per Square inch (PSI) and is calculated by:
load (in pounds) required to pull the material apart
cross-sectional area (in square inches)
The stress that resists a crushing force is Known as Compression. (Figure 2.4B) The
material’s compressive strength is also measured in PSI. Compression is the stress
that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft parts.
The stress that produces twisting is known as torsion. (Figure 2.4C) While moving the
aircraft forward, the engine also tends to twist it to one side, but other aircraft
components hold it on course. As a result, torsion is created. The material’s torsion
strength is its resistance to twisting or torque. The stress that resists the force tending
to cause one layer of a material to slide over an adjacent layer is known as shear.
(Figure 2.4D) Two riveted plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing force.
Typically, the shearing strength of a material is either equal to or less than its tensile
or compressive strength. The parts of the aircraft are often subject to a shearing force
particularly screws, bolts, and rivets. The combination of compression and tension is
known as bending stress. The rod in Figure 2.4E has been compressed on the inside of
the bend and stretched on the outside of the bend.
Figure 2.4: The Five Stresses that may act on an Aircraft and its Parts
28 A single member of the structure may be exposed to multiple stresses. In a number of
Aviation
cases, the structural members are designed to carry end loads rather than side loads.
They are designed to be exposed to tension or compression rather than bending.
The principal requirement in certain structures is the resistance or strength to the
external loads enforced during operation. Though, there are many other features
besides designing to control the 5 major stresses that engineers should account for.
For instance, cowling, fairings, and similar parts may not be subject to significant
loads requiring a high degree of strength. However, these parts must have streamlined
shapes to meet the requirements of aerodynamic, for example directing airflow or
reducing drag or.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
1. Fuselage: The main body or structure of fixed – wing aircraft is the fuselage. It
offers space for various equipment, passengers, accessories, controls, cargo and so
forth. The fuselage houses the power plant in single-engine aircraft plant while in
multiengine aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to the
fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure. There are two general types of
fuselage construction: truss and monocoque.
(a) Truss Type: A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, like bars,
struts and beams, to protest distortion by applied force or loads.
The truss-framed fuselage is usually covered with fabric.
The truss-type fuselage frame is generally constructed of steel tubing welded
together in such a manner that all members of the truss can carry both
compression loads and tension (Figure 2.5). In some aircraft, principally the
light, single engine models, truss fuselage frames may be constructed of
aluminium alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-
bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.
Figure 2.5: A Truss-type Fuselage. A Warren Truss uses Mostly Diagonal Bracing
(b) Monocoque Type: The monocoque (single shell) fuselage depends basically
on the strength of the skin or covering to carry the primary loads. The design
may be divided into two classes:
Monocoque: Various portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of
the two classes, but most modern aircraft are well thought-out to be of semi-
monocoque type construction.
29
Aviation Industry in India
Figure 2.6: An Airframe using Monocoque Construction

Formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads are used in true monocoque
construction to give shape to the fuselage as shown in Figure 2.6.
Semi-monocoque Type:
A modern semi-monocoque was developed to overcome the load/strength problem of
monocoque construction.
In addition to frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers that were used in the
monocoque design, in semi-monocoque the skin is reinforced by longitudinal
members called longerons. Longerons generally extend across a number of frame
members and help the skin support primary bending loads. Longerons are typically
made of aluminium alloy either of a single piece or a built-up construction.
Semi-monocoque fuselage also uses stringers. These longitudinal members are usually
more numerous and lighter in weight as compared to longerons. They come in a
variety of shapes and are generally made from single piece aluminium alloy
extrusions or formed aluminium. Stringers have some rigidity but are primarily used
for giving shape and for attachment of the skin. Longerons and Stringers collectively
prevent tension and compression from bending the fuselage. (Figure 2.7)
Figure 2.7: The Most Common Airframe Construction is Semi-monocoque

30 Pressurisation
Aviation
Many aircraft are pressurised. This means that after take-off air is pumped into the
cabin and a difference in pressure between the air inside and outside the cabin is
established. This difference in pressure is maintained and regulated. Thus in this way
enough oxygen is made available for passengers to breathe normally and move around
the cabin without making use of any special equipment at high altitudes.
Significant stress is built up by the pressurisation on the fuselage structure and adds to
the complexity of design. Besides withstanding the difference in pressure between the
air inside the cabin and the air outside the cabin, cycling from unpressurised to
pressurised, and back again, each flight causes metal fatigue. Nearly all pressurised
aircraft are semi-monocoque in design so as to deal with such impacts and the other
stresses of flight. Pressurised fuselage structures undergo extensive periodic
inspections to make sure that any damage is discovered and repaired. Repeated
weakness or failure in an area of structure may need that section of the fuselage be
redesigned or modified.
Wings
Wing Configurations: Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through the air,
create lift. Wings are built in many shapes and sizes. Wing design can differ to furnish
certain necessary flight features. The shape of the wings is influenced by the control at
various operating speeds, balance, the amount of lift generated and stability. Both the
trailing edge and the leading edge of the wing may be curved or straight, or one edge
may be straight and the other edge may be curved. One or both edges may be tapered
for the reason that the wing is narrower at the tip than at the root where it joins the
fuselage. The wing tip may be pointed, rounded or in square shape. The Figure 2.8
shows a number of typical wing leading and trailing edge shapes.
The wings of an aircraft can be attached to the fuselage at the top, mid-fuselage, or at
the bottom. They may extend perpendicular to the horizontal plain of the fuselage or
can angle up or down slightly. This angle is called as the wing dihedral. The dihedral
angle affects the lateral stability of the aircraft. A number of common wing attach
points and dihedral angle are shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.8: Various Wing Design Shapes yield Different Performance

Wing Structure: The structure of the wing is designed in such a way so as to lift it 31
into the air. There are number of factors on which the design of any general aircraft Aviation Industry in India
depends upon. Some of these factors are as under:

z size,
z weight,
z use of the aircraft,
z desired speed in flight and at landing, and
z desired rate of climb.
The wings of aircraft are designated left and right, corresponding to the left and right
sides of the operator when seated in the cockpit.
Often wings are of full cantilever design. This means they are built so that no external
bracing is needed. Figure 2.10 shows samples of wings using external bracing, also
known as semi-cantilever wings. The figure also shows the cantilever wings built with
no external bracing. They are supported internally by structural members assisted by
the skin of the aircraft. Wing support cables and struts are usually made from steel.
Numerous struts and their attach fittings have fairings to decrease drag. Short, nearly
vertical supports called jury struts are found on struts that attach to the wings a great
distance from the fuselage. This serves to subdue strut movement and oscillation
caused by the air flowing around the strut in flight.
Figure 2.9: Wing Attach Points and Wing Dihedrals

The most common material used for the construction of wings is aluminium. Wood
covered with fabric can also be used. In the rarer case an alloy of magnesium was also
used in the construction of wings. Furthermore, modern aircraft are now more inclined
to use stronger and lighter materials all over the airframe and in the construction of
wing. Wings made completely of carbon fibre or other composite materials exist, in
addition to wings made of a combination of materials for maximum strength to weight
performance.
Figure 2.10: Externally Braced Wings, also called Semi-cantilever Wings,

have Wires or Struts to Support the Wing. Full Cantilever Wings have no
External Bracing and are Supported Internally
32 Pars and stringers running span wise and ribs and formers or bulkheads running chord
Aviation
wise are used in the internal structures of most wings. The principle structural
members of a wing are spars. Spars support all distributed loads, along with
concentrated weights for instance landing gear, the fuselage, and engines. The skin,
which is attached to the wing structure, carries part of the loads levied during flight. It
also transfers the stresses to the wing ribs. The ribs, in turn, transfer the loads to the
wing spars. (Figure 2.11)
Generally, there are three fundamental designs on which wing construction is based
upon:
1. Monospar: The monospar wing includes only one main span wise or longitudinal
member in its construction. The required shape or contour to the airfoil is
provided by the ribs or bulkhead supply. Although the strict monospar wing is not
common, this type of design modified by the addition of false spars or light shear
webs along the trailing edge for support of control surfaces is sometimes used.
2. Multispar: The multispar wing takes into account more than one main
longitudinal member in its construction. Ribs or bulkheads are often included to
give shape to the wing contour.
3. Box Beam: The box beam type of wing construction (Figure 2.12) uses two main
longitudinal members with connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength
and to give contour to the wing. A corrugated sheet may be placed between the
bulkheads and the smooth outer skin so that the wing can better carry tension and
compression loads. In some cases, heavy longitudinal stiffeners are substituted for
the corrugated sheets. A combination of corrugated sheets on the upper surface of
the wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is sometimes used. Air transport
category aircraft often utilize box beam wing construction.
Various manufacturers can adopt modifications to these fundamental wing designs.
Figure 2.11: Wing Structure Nomenclature
Figure 2.12: Box Beam Construction

Wing Spars: As discussed earlier, spars are the fundamental structural members of the
wing. They correspond to the longerons of the fuselage. Spars run parallel to the
lateral axis of the aircraft, from the fuselage toward the tip of the wing, and are
generally attached to the fuselage by a truss, plain beams or wing fittings.
At present, there are number of manufactured aircraft that have wing spars made of 33
solid extruded aluminium or aluminium extrusions rapt together to form the spar. The Aviation Industry in India
increased use of composites and the combining of materials should make airmen
vigilant for wings spars made from a variety of materials.
Wing Ribs: Ribs are the structural crosspieces that combine with spars and stringers to
make up the structure of the wing. They generally extend from the wing leading edge
to the rear spar or to the trailing edge of the wing. The ribs give the wing its curved
shape and transmit the load from the skin and stringers to the spars. Likewise ribs are
also used in stabilizers, rudders, elevators and ailerons.
Wood or metal is used to manufacture wing ribs. Aircraft with wood wing spars may
have wood or metal ribs while most aircraft with metal spars have metal ribs. Wood
ribs are commonly manufactured from spruce. The 3 most common types of wooden
ribs are the plywood web, the lightened plywood web, and the truss types. Among
these three, the truss type is the most efficient for the reason that it is strong and
lightweight, on the other hand it is also very complex to construct.
Wing Skin: Often, to carry part of the flight and ground loads in combination with the
spars and ribs the skin on a wing is designed. This is known as a stressed-skin design.
The all-metal, full cantilever wing section illustrated in Figure 2.13 shows the
structure of one such design. The lack of extra internal or external bracing entails that
the skin shares some of the load. Notice the skin become rigid to support with this
function.
Figure 2.13: The Skin is an Integral Load Carrying Part of a Stressed Skin Design
The stressed-skin aircraft is often used to carry fuel inside the wing. A special fuel
resistant sealant enabling fuel to be stored directly inside the structure is used to seal
the joints of the wings. This is known as wet wing design. In turn, a fuel-carrying
bladder or tank can be fitted inside a wing. The Figure 2.14 given below shows a wing
section with a box beam structural design such as one that might be found in a
transport category aircraft. This structure escalates the strength while decreasing
weight. Proper sealing of the structure allows fuel to be stored in the box sections of
the wing.
Figure 2.14: Fuel is Often Carried in the Wings

A wide variety of materials for example fabric, wood, or aluminium are used to make
the wing skin of an aircraft.
Nacelles: Nacelles also sometimes referred as “pods” are streamlined enclosures that
are basically used to house the engine and its components. They usually present a
34 round or elliptical profile to the wind thus reducing aerodynamic drag. On most
Aviation
single-engine aircraft, the engine and nacelle are at the forward end of the fuselage.
On multiengine aircraft, engine nacelles are built into the wings or attached to the
fuselage at the empennage (tail section). Occasionally, a multiengine aircraft is
designed with a nacelle in line with the fuselage aft of the passenger compartment.
Irrespective of its location, a nacelle encompasses the engine and accessories,
structural members, engine mounts, a firewall, and skin and cowling on the exterior to
fare the nacelle to the wind.
There are number of aircraft having nacelles that are designed to house the landing
gear when retracted. Retracting the gear to decrease wind resistance is standard
procedure on high-performance/high-speed aircraft. The wheel well is the area where
the landing gear is attached and stowed when retracted. Wheel wells can be located in
the wings and/or fuselage when not part of the nacelle. An engine nacelle
incorporating the landing gear with the wheel well extending into the wing root is
shown in Figure 2.15.
Figure 2.15: Wheel Wells in a Wing Engine Nacelle with Gear Coming Down (Inset)
The structure of a nacelle typically is made up of structural members similar to those
of the fuselage. Lengthwise members, such as longerons and stringers, together with
horizontal/vertical members, for instance rings, formers, and bulkheads, to give the
nacelle its shape and structural integrity. A firewall is incorporated to isolate the
engine compartment from the rest of the aircraft. This is fundamentally a stainless
steel or titanium bulkhead that comprises a fire in the confines of the nacelle rather
than letting it spread all through the airframe.
Empennage: The tail section of the aircraft is known as empennage. The design of
empennage generally comprises tail cone, fixed aerodynamic surfaces or stabilizers,
and movable aerodynamic surfaces. The tail cone serves to close and streamline the
aft end of most fuselages. The cone is made up of structural members like those of the
fuselage; though, cones are usually of lighter construction as they receive less stress in
comparison to the fuselage.
Figure 2.16: Components of a Typical Empennage

The other components of the typical empennage are of heavier construction than the 35
tail cone. These members consist of fixed surfaces that help stabilise the aircraft and Aviation Industry in India
movable surfaces that help to direct an aircraft during flight. The horizontal stabilizer
and vertical stabilizer are the fixed surfaces. The movable surfaces are generally a
rudder situated at the aft edge of the vertical stabilizer and an elevator located at the
aft edge the horizontal stabilizer.
State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. The stress that produces twisting is known as rudder.
2. The tail section of the aircraft is known as empennage.
2.4 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

The directional control of a fixed-wing aircraft takes place around the lateral,
longitudinal, and vertical axes by means of flight control surfaces designed to create
movement about lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes. These control devices are
hinged or movable surfaces through which the attitude of an aircraft is controlled
during take-off, flight, and landing. Flight control surface is usually divided into two
major groups:
1. Primary or main flight control surfaces, and
2. Secondary or auxiliary control surfaces.
2.4.1 Primary Flight Control Surfaces

The primary flight control surfaces on a fixed-wing aircraft consist of:
z Ailerons: These are attached to the trailing edge of both wings and when moved,
rotate the aircraft around the longitudinal axis.
z Elevators: This is attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer. When it
is moved, it alters aircraft pitch, which is the attitude about the horizontal or
lateral axis.
z The rudder: It is hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. When the
rudder changes position, the aircraft rotates about the vertical axis (yaw).
The primary flight controls of a light aircraft and the movement they create relative to
the three axes of flight is shown in Figure 2.17.
The construction of primary control surfaces is generally similar to one another and
differs only in methods of attachment, shape and sixe. On aluminium light aircraft,
their structure is often similar to an all-metal wing. This is suitable for the reason that
the primary control surfaces are simply smaller aerodynamic devices. They are
typically made from an aluminium alloy structure built around a single spar member
or torque tube to which ribs are fitted and a skin is attached. The lightweight ribs are,
in many cases, stamped out from flat aluminium sheet stock. Holes in the ribs lighten
the assembly. Rivets are used to attach an aluminium skin.
36
Aviation
Figure 2.17: Flight Control Surfaces move the Aircraft Around the Three Axes of Flight
Ailerons
The primary control surfaces that move the aircraft along the longitudinal axis is
known as ailerons. To put it differently, movement of the ailerons in flight tends the
aircraft to roll. Ailerons are normally located on the outboard trailing edge of each of
the wings. They are built into the wing and are calculated as part of the wing’s surface
area. Figure 2.18 shows aileron locations on various wing tip designs.
Figure 2.18: Aileron Location on Various Wings

Ailerons are controlled by a side-to-side motion of the control stick in the cockpit or a
rotation of the control yoke. When the aileron on one wing deflects down, the aileron
on the opposite wing deflects upward. This amplifies the movement of the aircraft
around the longitudinal axis. On the wing on which the aileron trailing edge moves
downward, camber is increased and lift is increased. On the other hand, on the other
wing, the raised aileron decreases lift (Figure 2.19). The result is a sensitive response 37
to the control input to roll the aircraft. Aviation Industry in India
Figure 2.19: Differential Aileron Control Movement. When One Aileron is Moved
Down, the Aileron on the Opposite Wing is Deflected Upward
Upon the request of the pilot’s for aileron movement and roll are transmitted from the
cockpit to the actual control surface in different ways depending on the aircraft. A
system of control cables and pulleys, hydraulics, push-pull tubes, electric, or a
combination of these can be engaged.
Elevator
The primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the horizontal or
lateral axis is known as elevator. Elevator causes the nose of the aircraft to pitch up or
down. It is attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer and typically spans
most or all of its width. Elevator is controlled in the cockpit by pushing or pulling the
control yoke forward or aft. A system of control cables and pulleys or push pull tubes
is used by light aircraft in order to transfer cockpit inputs to the movement of the
elevator. Large aircraft and High performance aircraft normally employ more complex
systems. Hydraulic power is particularly used to move the elevator on these aircraft.
On aircraft equipped with fly-by-wire controls, an arrangement of electrical and
hydraulic power is used.
Rudder
The primary control surface that causes an aircraft to yaw or move about the vertical
axis is known as rudder. The directional control is provided by the rudder, it also
points the nose of the aircraft in the desired direction. Most aircraft have a single
rudder connected to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. It is controlled by a pair
of foot-operated rudder pedals in the cockpit. When the right pedal is pushed forward,
it deflects the rudder to the right which moves the nose of the aircraft to the right. The
left pedal is set up to simultaneously move aft and when the left pedal is pushed
forward, the nose of the aircraft moves to the left.
As with the other primary flight controls, the transfer of the movement of the cockpit
controls to the rudder differs with the intricacy of the aircraft. Many aircraft include
the directional movement of the nose or tail wheel into the rudder control system for
ground operation. This permits the operator to steer the aircraft with the rudder pedals
during taxi when the airspeed is not high enough for the control surfaces to be
effective. Some large aircraft have a split rudder arrangement. This is actually two
38 rudders, one above the other. At low speeds, both rudders deflect in the same direction
Aviation
when the pedals are pushed. At higher speeds, one of the rudders becomes inoperative
as the deflection of a single rudder is aerodynamically sufficient to manoeuvre the
aircraft.
2.4.2 Secondary or Auxiliary Control Surfaces

Table 2.1: Secondary or Auxiliary Control Surfaces and Respective
Locations for Larger Aircraft
Secondary/Auxiliary Flight Control Surfaces
Name Location Function
Flaps Inboard trailing edge of wings Extends the camber of the wing for greater lift
and slower flight.
Allows control at low speeds for short field

take-offs and landings.
Trim tabs Trailing edge of primary Reduces the force needed to move a primary
flight control surfaces control surface.
Balance tabs Trailing edge of primary Reduces the force needed to move a primary
Anti-balance tabs Trailing edge of primary Increases feel and effectiveness of primary
Servo tabs Trailing edge of primary Assists or provides the force for moving a
flight control surfaces primary flight control.
Spoilers Upper and/or trailing edge of Decreases (spoils) lift. Can augment aileron
wing function.
Slats Mid to outboard leading edge Extends the camber of the wing for greater lift
of wing and slower flight.

Slots Outer leading edge of wing Directs air over upper surface of wing during
high angle of attack.
forward of ailerons
Lowers stall speed and provides control during
slow flight.
Leading edge flap Inboard leading edge of wing Extends the camber of the wing for greater lift
and slower flight.


Fill in the blanks:
1. The primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the
horizontal or lateral axis is known as ………………………...
2. The ………………………... section of the aircraft is known as empennage.
2.5 LET US SUM UP

The Aviation industry of Indian is one of the quickest developing airline industries
across the globe with more than 75% share of private airlines in the entire domestic
aviation market.
The AAI (Airport Authority of India) comprise a total of 127 airports in the country, 39
which consist of 13 international airports, 7 custom airports, 80 domestic airports and Aviation Industry in India
28 civil enclaves. A device used for, or is meant to be used for; flight in the air is
known as aircraft. The various categories of aircraft include airplane, rotorcraft,
glider, lighter-than-air vehicles.

Prepare a project report on the Aircraft types and structures. (Give figures wherever
necessary to support the text).
2.7 KEYWORDS
Bending Stress: It is a combination of compression and tension.
Compression: The stress that resists a crushing force is known as compression.
Shear: It is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to
slide over an adjacent layer.
Stress: It is a material’s internal resistance, or counterforce, that opposes distortion.
Tension: It is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart.
Rudder: It is the primary control surface that causes an aircraft to yaw or move about
the vertical axis.
Elevator: It is the primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the
horizontal or lateral axis.
Ailerons: They are the primary flight control surfaces that move the aircraft about the
longitudinal axis.

1. Explain in brief about the Indian Aviation industry.
2. What are the main categories in which the Indian aviation sector can be broadly
classified? Discuss each in brief.
3. What are the latest developments in Indian aviation industry?
4. What are the various categories of aircraft? Discuss.
5. Describe the general types of fuselage construction.
6. Explain wing structure.
7. Write a brief note on flight control surfaces.

CYP 1
1. False
2. True
CYP 2
1. elevator
2. tail
40
Aviation 2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
Jaroslav J. Hajek, Jim W. Hall, David K. Hein, (2011), Common Airport Pavement
Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board
Antonín Kazda, Robert E. Caves, (2007), Airport Design and Operation, Emerald
Group Publishing
Knippenberger, Ute, (2010), Airports in Cities and Regions: Research and Practise;
1st International Colloquium on Airports and Spatial Development, Karlsruhe, KIT
Scientific Publishing
41
LESSON Aircraft Manufacturers
3
AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURERS
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Airbus Industries
3.2.1 Civilian Products
3.2.2 Competition with Boeing
3.3 New Generation Aircraft – A380
3.3.1 Know About the Airbus A380
3.4 The Boeing Company
3.4.1 Boeing is Organized into Four Business Units
3.4.2 Boeing Technology
3.5 Airline Market Projection – Airbus Industries and the Boeing Company
3.6 Let us Sum up
3.8 Keywords

z Explain airbus Industries
z Describe new generation aircraft
z Discuss about the Boeing company
z Identify the airlines market projections
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Boeing, Airbus, Cessna, Grumman, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, Rakwell,
Northrop, Polikarpov, Strearman, Fokker, Illusion are the few aircraft manufacturers
producing the aircraft for commercial as well as for general aviation purposes. Among
these few aircraft manufacturing companies, the common known aircraft producers
are Airbus, Boeing, Lockheed and McDonnell Douglas. This lesson deals with two
bravura aircraft manufacturers (Airbus and Boeing), who supply aircraft globally to
the airlines and leasing companies for the benefit of the economic and social
communities.
42
Aviation 3.2 AIRBUS INDUSTRIES
Airbus S.A.S., known as simply Airbus, based in Toulouse, France is the world’s
largest commercial aircraft manufacturer. It was incorporated in 2001 under French
law as a simplified joint stock company or “S.A.S.” (Société par Actions Simplifiée).
Airbus is formerly known as Airbus Industries and is commonly named Airbus.
Airbus is jointly held by European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS)
(80.0%) and BAE System (20.0%), Europe’s two largest military suppliers and
manufacturers. Airbus employs around 52,000 people in several European countries.
Final assembling of aircraft is carried out in Toulouse, France and Hamburg and
Germany, although construction occurs at a number of plants across Europe. The main
competitor of Airbus is Boeing.
Airbus Industries began as a consortium of European aviation firms to compete with
American companies such as Boeing and McDonnell Douglas. In the 1960s, European
aircraft manufacturers competed with each other as much as the American giants. In
the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative
approach. In September 1967, the British, French and German governments signed a
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to start development of the 300-seat Airbus A
300. This was the second major joint aircraft programme in Europe, following the
Concorde, for which no ongoing consortium was devised. An earlier announcement
had been made in July 1967 but this had been complicated by the British Aircraft
Corporation (BAC). The British government refused to back its proposed competitor,
a development of the BAC 1-11 and instead supported the Airbus aircraft. In
December 1968, the French and British partner companies, Sud Aviation and Hawker
Siddeley proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250. Renamed the
A300B, the aircraft would not require new engines, reducing development costs. In
1969 the British government shocked its partners by withdrawing from the project.
Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to that point, France and Germany
were reluctant to take over their wing design. Thus the British company was allowed
to continue as a major subcontractor.
Airbus Industry was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between
Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) CASA, (joined by CASA
of Spain in 1971). Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready
to fly items. The name “Airbus” was taken from a non-proprietary term used by the
airline industry in the 1960s to refer to a commercial aircraft of a certain size and
range, for this term was acceptable to the French linguistically. In 1972, the A300
made its maiden flight and the first production model, the A300B2 entered service in
1974. Initially, the success of the consortium was poor but by 1979 there were 81
aircraft in service. It was the launch of the A320 in 1981 that guaranteed Airbus as a
major player in the aircraft market - the aircraft had over 400 orders before it first
flew, compared to 15 for the A300 in 1972. It was a fairly loose alliance but that
changed in 2000 when DASA, Aerospatiale and CASA merged to form EADS and in
2001 when BAE and EADS formed the Airbus Integrated Company to coincide with
the development of the new Airbus A380, which will seat 555 passengers and be the
world’s largest commercial passenger jet when it enters service in 2006. On 26 April
2005, the A380 successfully completed its maiden flight in Toulouse, France. The
flight lasted almost four hours, the plane taking off from Toulouse Blagnat Airport at
08:29 UTC (10:29 a.m. local time), going west towards the Atlantic Ocean, turning
around above the ocean, flying above the Pyrenees mountains and landing at Toulouse
Blagnac Airport at 12:23 UTC (2:23 p.m. local time).
3.2.1 Civilian Products

The Airbus product line started with the A300, the world’s first twin-aisle, twin-
engined aircraft. A shorter variant of the A300 is known as the A310. Building on its
success, Airbus launched the A320 with its innovative fly-by-wire control system. The 43
A320 was a great commercial success. The A318 and A319 are shorter derivatives Aircraft Manufacturers
with some of the latter under construction for the corporate biz-jet market. A stretched
version is known as the A321 and is proving competitive with later models of the
Boeing 737. The longer range products, the twin-jet A330 and the four-jet A340, have
efficient wings, enhanced by winglets. The Airbus A340-500 has an operating range
of 16,700 kilometers (9000 nautical miles), the second longest range of any
commercial jet after the Boeing 777-200LR (range of 17,446 km or 9420 nautical
miles). These are competing strongly with the equivalent Boeing products and may
partly explain the cessation of airliner production at Lockheed in 1983 and the take-
over of McDonnell Douglas by the surviving US builder of long-distance airliners,
Boeing in 1996-1997. The company is particularly proud of its use of fly-by-wire
technologies and the common cockpit and systems in use throughout the aircraft
family, which make it much easier to train crew.
3.2.2 Competition with Boeing

In 2003, for the first time in its 33-year history, Airbus delivered more jet-powered
airliners than Boeing. Boeing states that the Boeing 777 has outsold its Airbus
counterparts, which include the A340 family as well as the A330-300. The smaller
A330-200 competes with the 767, outselling its Boeing counterpart, but it is
speculated that the introduction of the 787 may improve Boeing’s market share in this
segment. The A380 is anticipated to further reduce sales of the Boeing 747, gaining
Airbus a share of the market in very large aircraft.
Currently there are around 3,800 Airbus aircraft in service, with Airbus winning more
than 50 per cent of aircraft orders in recent years. But Airbus products are still
outnumbered 6 to 1 by in-service Boeings (there are over 4,000 Boeing 737s alone in
service, for example). This however is indicative of historical success - Airbus made a
late entry into the modern jet airliner market (1972 vs. 1958 for Boeing). Airbus won
a greater share of orders and delivered more aircraft in 2003 and 2004. At the aircraft
show in Le Bourget in June 2005, Airbus outperformed Boeing in aeroplane sales.
Airbus has contracted for the sale of 280 airliners with a contract price of 34 billion
dollars, whereas Boeing received orders for 146 aero planes priced in total with 15
billion dollars.
North America is an important region to Airbus in terms of both aircraft sales and
suppliers. 2,000 of the total of approximately 5,300 Airbus jetliners sold by Airbus
around the world, representing every aircraft in its product line from the 107-seat
A318 to the 565-passenger A380, are ordered by North American customers. US
contractors supporting an estimated 120,000 jobs earned estimated $5.5 billion (2003)
worth of business. For example, the A380 has 51% American content in terms of
work share value.
3.3 NEW GENERATION AIRCRAFT – A380

Airbus A380 Superjumbo Twin-deck, Twin-aisle Airliner, Europe Airbus has
announced the development of an all-new design Super jumbo, the A380, which is the
world’s first twin-deck, twin-aisle airliner. Advantages of the A380 include lower fuel
burn per seat and lower operating costs per seat. The 555-seat A380-800, with a non-
stop range of 8,000 nautical miles, was launched in December 2000. The aircraft
entered production in January 2002. Final assembly of the first airframe started in
May 2004. First flight (with the Rolls-Royce engines) took place from Blagnac
Airport, Toulouse, in April 2005 and first deliveries are scheduled for Singapore
Airlines in the second half of 2006 and Qantas in April 2007. First flight with the
General Electric/Pratt & Whitney Engine Alliance GP7200 is scheduled for
November 2005.
44 14 Airline Customers including Singapore Airlines (launch customer with an order for
Aviation
ten aircraft), Lufthansa (15), Emirates (43), Air France (10), Qantas (12), Malaysia
Airlines (6), Virgin Atlantic (6), International Lease Finance (10), Qatar Airways (2),
Federal Express (10), Korean Air (5), Thai Airways (6), Ethiad Airways (4), China
Southern Airlines (5) and UPS (10), have announced firm orders for 154 A380
airliners. 27 of these are for the cargo version.
Flight Deck
The A380 is a member of the Airbus Flight Operational Commonality family with
similar flight decks and operating procedures in the A320, A330 and A340 aircraft,
providing easy crew transition training, cross crew qualification and mixed fleet
flying.
Construction
In order to minimize the unladen weight, the Airbus 380 structures incorporate a range
of new materials as used on the A318 and A340 families of aircraft. Carbon fibre
reinforced plastic is used for the central box of the wings, the horizontal stabilizers
(which are the same size as the Airbus A310 wing), for the fin and the rear fuselage
section and also for ceiling beams. A new material, Glare that is highly resistant to
fatigue is used in the construction of the panels for the upper fuselage. The aluminium
and fiberglass layers of Glare do not allow propagation of cracks; it is much lighter
than conventional materials and represents a weight saving of about 500kg in the
construction. Impact resistant thermoplastics are used on the wing leading edge. The
aircraft has 16 wing spoilers supplied by Patria of Finland. The A380 incorporates two
rather than three Eaton Corporation hydraulic systems with an increased hydraulic
pressure of 5000lb/in² instead of a standard 3,000in2.
Upper and Lower Decks
The A380 has twin-aisle cabins on the upper and lower decks; with 49% more floor
space for 35% higher seating capacity. A three-class layout provides 555 seats. A
typical upper deck layout provides 96 business and 103 economy class seats. The
main deck provides 22 first class seats and 334 economy class seats. Two stairwells
link the passenger decks. A lifting system between passenger decks provides access
for passengers with limited mobility. There is also a cargo hoist linking the two
passenger decks. The size of the A380 makes possible a number of configurations and
passenger facilities.
There are eight full size doors on both sides of the aircraft. On either side, there are
two doors on the main deck and one door on the upper deck forward of the wing that
can be used simultaneously for embarking or disembarking passengers. For speedy
baggage transfer, two hold loading belts, one at the forward end and one at the rear
end under the fuselage can be used simultaneously.
Engines
The aircraft is equipped with four 70,000lb thrust engines, either with the Rolls-Royce
Trent 900 or the General Electric/Pratt & Whitney Engine Alliance GP7200. The take-
off length is 2,900m at maximum weight at sea level, ISA +15° conditions and the
initial cruise altitude is 35,000ft. The aircraft complies with the noise emission limits
of ICAO (Chapter 3, Schedule 16) for over fly, approach and side-on manoeuvres and
stricter regulations of London’s Heathrow airport concerning take-off and landing.
This enables aircraft operations at night. There are ten fuel tanks with a combined
capacity of 131,000l of fuel. Refuelling can be carried out in 40mins.
Landing Gear
The 22 wheels Goodrich landing gear consists of two under-wing struts, each with
four wheels, two central under-fuselage struts each with six wheels and a twin nose
wheel. Each landing gear supports about 167 tons. Messier-Dowty supplies the nose 45
landing gear with 350bar hydraulic pressure and Messier-Bugatti the braking and Aircraft Manufacturers
steering systems. The aircraft can complete a 180° turn within a width of 56.5m,
which is within the 60m-width dimension of standard runways.
Performance
Maximum operating speed is Mach 0.89 and the range is 15,000km or 8000 nautical
miles with the maximum number of passengers. The turnaround time at the airport
terminal, including passenger disembarking, cleaning, restocking and embarking the
passengers for the next flight is a minimum of 90 minutes.
Freighter Version
The A380 is the first major commercial airliner program with a freighter version being
co-developed as part of the new aircraft launch. The A380-800F will transport
150tons of freight using standard, interlineable containers and pallets. The full
payload range of the A380-800 F is 5,600 nautical miles. Launch customers are FedEx
(10 aircraft) and Emirates (2) and first deliveries are scheduled for 2008.
Pictures of A380 (New Generation Aircraft – 2006)
Figure 3.1: A380 Parked at Airport
Figure 3.2: A380 Interior Bed

46
Aviation
Figure 3.3: A380 Aircraft Interior
Figure 3.4: A380 Staircase
3.3.1 Know About the Airbus A380

Why create wide body aircraft such as the A380?
Air travel is expected to continue growing; the A380's ability to carry more
passengers and freight and this will help to ease airport congestion by transporting
more people and freight without additional aircraft movement.
Is the A380 aircraft a welcome change for passengers?
The new aircraft (A380) is a real transformation for the user communities (airlines,
airports, passengers and airport retail traders). A380 will provide more comfort in
every class; it offers 50 per cent more floor space and will typically carry 35 per cent
more passengers. Some of the benefits will come as wider seats even for Economy
class, some as more spacious aisles and galleys areas to stretch one's legs. Regardless
of how airlines plan their seats and services, the design of the A380 cabin ensures low
noise level throughout and up to 15 per cent more stowage space for carry-on luggage.
In addition, the cabin will benefit from advanced lighting systems and new standards
of in-flight entertainment, which will greatly enhance the overall travel experience.
These advances in cabin comfort are particularly important for the long haul routes
such as London-Singapore and Los Angeles-Sydney.
How many passengers can the A380 accommodate?
A380 is designed to carry 555 passengers in a typical seating configuration, including
an Economy, a Business and a First class. However, most airlines have indicated that
they may have fewer seats than this. In any case, there will not be any sensation of 47
being cramped, thanks to the width of the two separate wide body decks, as each will Aircraft Manufacturers
provide more space for everyone.

Will the economy class also benefit from more space or will it be only for the
business and first classes?
The main deck of the A380 is wider than that of any commercial jetliner in operation
today. Its extra floor space will benefit everyone aboard and will give airlines new
opportunities to create innovative cabin arrangement for the greater comfort for all
passengers. Regardless of how airlines arrange their seats and services, even the
economy class will be wider. High capacity overhead bins and the latest generation of
in-flight entertainment will also significantly enhance passenger comfort.
Will it take longer to board and to retrieve luggage?
The innovative cabin of the A380 includes a wide dual-lane staircase, which will
allow you to board the aircraft in the same time as any other large aircraft, using two
standard bridges. Many airports are planning direct passenger access to the upper deck
of the aircraft. The use of longer or linked baggage belts and those carrousels will
ensure that your baggage is delivered in times comparable to obtaining today.
Passenger convenience for embarking and disembarking has been carefully considered
early on in Airbus Industries' consultation with both the airports, which will
accommodate the aircraft, and the airlines which will operate it.
How far can this aircraft fly and how many airports are prepared for operation?
The A380 is designed for long-haul travel and can fly up to 15,000km/8,000 nm non-
stop. It will mostly fly on those routes which see the heaviest concentration of large
aircraft flights today. Currently, 60 major airports around the world are ready for the
A380, or are preparing to receive it.
Are fares going to be more expensive on an A380?
The A380's efficiency and advanced technology will yield 15-20 per cent lower seat
mile costs for the airlines. Therefore, for the same level of comfort and service, on the
same route and with the same airline, the ticket fares should be equivalent or possibly
less expensive than on any other aircraft.
What impact will a bigger aircraft have on the environment?
The A380 will be an environmentally friendly aircraft, which will produce half as
much noise on take-off as its nearest competitor and consume less than 3 litres of fuel
per passenger over 100 km, a rate comparable to that of an economical family car.
With its greater capacity and unprecedented environmental friendliness, the A380
provides the most economical and socially responsible solution to growing air traffic
on key trunk routes.
When will commercial operations begin, and by which airlines?
Singapore Airlines will be the first airline in the world to introduce the A380 into
commercial service, in 2006. The carrier has already launched a 'first to fly A380'
logo, which − for maximum effect − has been placed between the aircraft's twin row
of windows, one of the new aircraft's most recognizable features.
Which airlines have so far announced firm orders and commitments for the
operation of the A380?
Till date, Airbus has received 154 orders and commitments from 15 customers. These
are (in alphabetical order): Air France, China Southern Airlines, Emirates, Etihad
Airways, Federal Express, International Lease Finance Corporation, Korean Air
Lines, Lufthansa, Malaysia Airlines, Qantas Airways, Qatar Airways, Singapore
Airlines, Thai Airways International, UPS and Virgin Atlantic Airways.
48 Is the A380 the most technologically advanced aircraft to date?
Aviation
The A380 combines the very latest technologies for materials, systems and industrial
processes. It meets the most stringent international certification requirements. The
A380 is not only the most spacious civil jetliner ever built, it is also the most
advanced, representing a unique technology platform from which all future
commercial Airbus aircraft will evolve. Each new technology developed, tested and
adopted for the A380 has been carefully studied to determine its effects over the
lifetime of the aircraft, and has been selected for its proven reliability and long-term
benefits.
Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………….. industries began as a consortium of European aviation
firms to compete with American companies such as Boeing and McDonnell
Douglas.
2. The ………………….. efficiency and advanced technology will yield
15-20 per cent lower seat mile costs for the airlines.
3.4 THE BOEING COMPANY

Boeing is the world’s leading aerospace company and the largest combined
manufacturer of commercial jetliners and military aircraft. The company’s reach
extends to customers in 145 countries. In terms of sales, Boeing is one of the largest
U.S. exporters. Boeing has a long tradition of aerospace leadership and innovation.
The company continues to expand its product line and services to meet emerging
customer needs. The broad range of capabilities includes creating new, more efficient
members of its commercial airplane family; integrating military platforms, defence
systems and the war fighter through network-centric operations; creating advanced
technology solutions; providing broadband connectivity on moving platforms
including airplanes; and arranging innovative customer-financing solutions.
Headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, USA, Boeing employs approximately 151,000
employees in 48 American states and 67 countries, with major operations in the Puget
Sound area of Washington State, southern California and St. Louis. Total company
revenues for 2004 were $52.5 billion.
3.4.1 Boeing is Organized into Four Business Units

Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Integrated Defence Systems, Boeing Capital
Corporation and Connexion by Boeing (SM). Supporting these units is the Shared
Services Group, which provides a broad range of services to Boeing worldwide, and
Boeing Technology, which helps develop, acquire, apply and protect innovative
technologies and processes.
Boeing Commercial Airplanes
Boeing has been the premier manufacturer of commercial jetliners for more than 40
years. With the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in 1997, Boeing’s legacy
of leadership in commercial jets, joined with the lineage of Douglas airplanes, gives
the company a combined 70-year heritage of leadership in commercial aviation.
Today, the main commercial products are the 737, 747, 767 and 777 families of
airplanes and the Boeing Business Jet. New product development efforts are focused
on the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, a super-efficient airplane that is expected to be in
service in 2008.
Total Global Fleets 49
Aircraft Manufacturers
The company has nearly 12,000 commercial jetliners in service worldwide, which is
roughly 75 per cent of the world fleet. Through Boeing Commercial Aviation
Services, the company provides unsurpassed, round-the-clock technical support to
help operators maintain their airplanes in peak operating condition, and Commercial
Aviation Services, which offers a full range of world-class engineering, modification,
logistics and information services to its global customer base, which includes the
world’s passenger and cargo airlines, as well as maintenance, repair and overhaul
facilities. Boeing also trains maintenance and flight crews in the 100-seat-and-above
airliner market through Alteon, the world’s largest and most comprehensive provider
of airline training.
Boeing Integrated Defence Systems
Being recognized as a commercial airplane producer, Boeing is also the world’s
second-largest defence company. Boeing Integrated Defence Systems provides end-
to-end services for large-scale systems that combine sophisticated communication
networks with air-, land-, sea- and space-based platforms for global military,
government and commercial customers. The company offers an extraordinary range of
defence and space systems products and services. It designs, produces, modifies and
supports fighters, bombers, transports, rotorcraft, aerial refuelers, missiles and
munitions and is on the leading edge of military technology through its unmanned
systems development efforts. Integrated Defence Systems also supports the U.S.
government on several programs of national significance, including the Missile
Defence Agency’s Ground-Based Midcourse Defence program, the National
Reconnaissance Office’s Future Imagery Architecture, the Air Force’s Evolved
Expendable Launch Vehicle program and NASA’s International Space Station. The
company has become the systems integrator for several new programs, including the
U.S. Navy’s Multi-Mission Maritime Aircraft Program, the U.S. Army’s Future
Combat Systems and Joint Tactical Radio Systems, the Family of Advanced Beyond
Line-of-Sight Terminals for the Department of Defence, and the Explosive Detection
Systems for the Department of Transportation.
Boeing Capital Corporation
Boeing Capital Corporation is a global provider of financing solutions. Working
closely with Commercial Airplanes and Integrated Defence Systems, Boeing Capital
Corporation arranges, structures and/or provides financing to facilitate the sale and
delivery of Boeing commercial and military aircraft, satellites and launch vehicles.
With a portfolio of approximately $10 billion, Boeing Capital Corporation combines
Boeing’s financial strength and global reach, detailed knowledge of Boeing customers
and equipment, and the expertise of a seasoned group of financial professionals.
Connexion by Boeing
Connexion by Boeing is a mobile information services provider revolutionizing the
way people on the move communicate, inform and entertain themselves. It does so by
providing high-speed, two-way Internet-based connectivity to aircraft in flight.
Connexion by Boeing currently serves two important market segments: commercial
aircraft operators and their passengers as well as executive aircraft, including
operators of private and government executive jets. Using laptops or personal digital
assistants (PDAs), passengers can use secure high-speed access to the Internet,
personal and business e-mail accounts and company intranets. They will also be able
to send and receive attachments and view entertainment − all at DSL-like speeds. The
service also brings value to aircraft operators, enabling them to use Connexion by
Boeing’s extraordinary bandwidth to obtain operational efficiencies, improve
customer service and enhance security. Leading commercial airlines including
Lufthansa German Airlines, Japan Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS),
50 ANA and Singapore Airlines are currently introducing the Connexion by Boeing
Aviation
service on major international routes. In addition, Korea Airlines and Asiana have
announced plans to equip their long-range fleets with the service. The revolutionary
service is also available to the executive services market in the United States,
including operators of private and government aircraft. A service offering for the
maritime market is also under consideration.
Shared Services Group
Shared Services Group allows business units to focus on profitable growth by
providing the infrastructure services required to run their global operations. The group
provides a broad range of services worldwide, including computing and network
operations, e-business, facilities services, employee benefits and programs, security,
transportation, and the purchase of all non-production goods and services. It also gives
direction to safety, health and environmental planning and offers comprehensive
travel services to Boeing employees and corporate customers through the Boeing
Travel Management Company. In addition, Shared Services Group manages the sale
and acquisition of all leased and owned property through the Boeing Realty Company.
By integrating services, Shared Services Group delivers greater value, creates “lean”
processes and operations, leverages buying power and simplifies access to services.
3.4.2 Boeing Technology

Boeing Technology supports Boeing’s business units and growth strategy by
providing the right people, technologies, processes and performance at the right time
and in the right place across the company worldwide. This strategy is delivered in
various ways by Boeing Technology’s primary organizational groups − Phantom
Works, Intellectual Property Business, and Information Technology − its Chairman’s
Innovation and Technical Excellence initiatives, and its leadership role in the
Engineering, Operations, Quality, and Information Technology process councils.
Through all its activities, Boeing Technology helps ensure the future success of
Boeing by winning strategic new programs, providing innovative technology and
process solutions, transforming Boeing into a global network-centric enterprise,
enhancing and protecting the company’s intellectual capital, and fostering a culture of
innovation.
Figure 3.5: The Boeing B747 Jumbo Airliner

51
3.5 AIRLINE MARKET PROJECTION – AIRBUS Aircraft Manufacturers
INDUSTRIES AND THE BOEING COMPANY
Projection – (2000-2020) – Pre 11th September 2001 – Boeing Industries
The rapid fragmentation of air transportation will tend to increase demand for aircraft
such as the Sonic Cruiser that are capable of flying long distances at high speed. The
proportion of aircraft the same size or larger than the B747-400 will shrink, while the
intermediate size aircraft required by fragmentation will be the fastest-growing
segment. Boeing says the share of very large aircraft in the world fleet will decline
from 7 per cent to 5 per cent. There will be a demand for 1,091 such aircraft in the
next 20 years, and only 310 of this total will be aircraft larger than the 747-400,
Boeing believes. In addition, almost all of this demand will be generated in the second
decade of its forecast. The forecast predicts that the percentage of intermediate-sized
planes in the market will increase from 19 per cent to 22 per cent for a total of 4,875,
and the share of single-aisle and regional jets will decrease slightly from 74 per cent to
73 per cent.
The Europe-Asia market also has a high degree of potential for increased city pairs.
Currently, only major European gateways are well linked to Asian cities, with many
not offering daily service. Boeing believes that by 2020, more than 170 city pairs will
be linked by nonstop service in the Europe-Asia market, including Geneva-Bangkok
and Stockholm-Shanghai. Two-thirds of these city pairs will not have been in
existence in 1998, according to Boeing.
In contrast, Airbus believes that the average size of the world aircraft fleet will rise
dramatically, and that there will be a huge demand for super jumbos. In its 2000
market forecast, Airbus projects that the average aircraft size will increase from 179
seats currently to 191 in 2009 and 217 in 2019. At an International Air Transport
Association event held in New York in April, Airbus Vice President for Market
Forecasts Adam Brown highlighted the differences in data and philosophy between
the Boeing and Airbus predictions for super jumbo demand. Airbus estimates that by
2009 there will be a demand for 360 aircraft capable of carrying more than 500
passengers, and that this demand will have risen to 1,235 aircraft 10 years later.
Airbus' views of future trends in air transportation diverge markedly from those
proposed by Boeing. While admitting that route fragmentation will occur on long-
range markets, Brown said it is “becoming more and more evident that there are limits
to the extent to which the existing route network can continue to fragment.”
Increasing globalization will lead to intensified competition, and coupled with
increasing price-sensitivity of demand, this will drive airlines to continue to reduce
fares to sustain demand and growth. “We’re convinced that the airlines will have no
choice but to restructure their route networks so as to progressively replace point-to-
point systems [with] lower-cost, lower-fare hub systems, exploiting the lower unit
costs of large aircraft like the A380". Airbus has also stated that demand for super
jumbos will be driven by increasing congestion at hub airports, which could be
reduced through the introduction of larger aircraft. An example of this trend is
contained in the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration’s recent demand management
options for LaGuardia Airport. Some of these options would act as incentives for the
use of large aircraft.
World Fleet Will Double in Next Two Decades (Boeing Company)
In its latest forecast, Boeing predicts that the world fleets will more than double by
2020, from 14,548 in 2000 to 32,954 in 2020. The increase will consist of 5,053 new
jets to replace retired aircraft, and an additional 18,406 to fill increased capacity
demand. The total market potential is 23,460 new aircraft, worth US$1.7 trillion using
today’s dollar value. The market potential for aviation support services such as aircraft
servicing, modification, and re-marketing, as well as crew training, and infrastructure
52 services will increase to US$3.1 trillion. Boeing has previously announced that it
Aviation
intends to expand its emphasis on these areas.
According to the Boeing forecast, the mix of aircraft types most in demand varies by
region. For example, North America will require the most aircraft deliveries over the
next 20 years, driven by the large number of passengers and the need to replace an
aging fleet. This region will require a larger proportion of regional jets compared to
other regions, Boeing believes. In Europe, almost 80 per cent of deliveries will be
single-aisle aircraft and regional jets, and Asia-Pacific nations will take delivery of the
most 747- and-larger aircraft. Airlines will add 3,019 new or converted freighters to
their fleets, the Boeing forecast says. The North America, Europe, and Asia-Pacific
regions will require many larger wide body freighters, while the Middle East, Africa,
and Latin America regions are likely to prefer medium wide bodies.
Boeing forecasts that world air traffic, measured in revenue passenger kilometres
(RPK) will grow 4.8 per cent annually over the next 20 years. The Europe, South
America, and Northeast Asia regions will have the largest growth of air traffic in
excess of GDP. Europe is expected to “experience the continuing positive aspects of
liberalization,” while South America will recover from present economic slowdowns
and will increase air traffic through liberalization, international trade, and tourist
development. The traffic projection for Northeast Asia is lower than in past forecasts
to better reflect a slower pace of economic development in Japan. However, Japanese
and Koreans currently travel less than their wealth would indicate, so future RPK rates
will still be high.
Traffic in Southwest Asia and Africa is expected to grow faster than the world
average as their economies and airline industries modernize. Because of its maturity,
the North America market share of world traffic will decline from 25 per cent to 19
per cent over the next 20 years, Boeing forecasts. Less developed markets will grow
faster: for example, the combined market share for the Asia-Pacific region will grow
from 14 per cent to 19 per cent. The North Atlantic market will fall from 12 per cent
overall market shares to 10 per cent, and the South Atlantic will remain steady at 4 per
cent. Europe will maintain a 13 per cent market share. The Europe to Central America
market is a mature, mostly leisure market, and will grow at 4.2 per cent annually
through 2020. The Europe to South America market, however, has untapped potential
and will grow at 5.8 per cent. Latin America, a small region with only 2 per cent
market share, will increase share to 4 per cent because of a high 7.7 per cent growth
rate fuelled by liberalization and increased world trade.
Short-haul markets will continue to dominate world departure figures, the Boeing
forecast says, representing 96 per cent of total departures. Domestic travel in Europe
and North America alone will constitute almost 40 per cent of additional available seat
kilometres (ASK) and will absorb more than two-thirds of single-aisle aircraft
deliveries over the next 20 years. A major share of added capacity will be caused by
travel within, and to, the Asia-Pacific region. Markets serving this region will account
for 90 per cent of large aircraft deliveries, according to Boeing.
Regional Jets Expected To Increase Dominance in U.S., Europe
Looking at the North American market specifically, Boeing predicts that air travel
growth for the region’s airlines should average 3.5 per cent annually. Regional jets
will play an increasingly a larger role in the North American market, and their
capacity share − measured in ASK − will increase from 4 per cent to 12 per cent by
2020. The total North American fleet will increase to 11,757 by 2020, up considerably
from the 2000 level of 6,642. Boeing estimates that 8,799 aircraft worth US$ 585.1
billion will be delivered by 2024. Of total North American deliveries, 20 per cent will
be smaller regional jets, 64 per cent single-aisle aircraft, 13 per cent twin aisle, and 3
per cent 747-and-larger aircraft.
In Europe, air travel is expected to grow at 4.5 per cent annually. This fast growth will 53
be fuelled by continued market liberalization. The regional jet has an even more Aircraft Manufacturers
important role in Europe than in the U.S. By 2020, 78 per cent of the European airline
fleets will be smaller regional jets and other single-aisle aircraft, Boeing predicts. Few
scope clauses are as restrictive as in the U.S., and connecting hubs are generally less
well developed in Europe. The regional jet’s role in Europe is more linked to hub
bypass and point-to-point service strategies. The share of 747-and-larger aircraft will
shrink from 7 per cent to 4 per cent in Europe over the next 20 years, and intermediate
twin-aisle aircraft will increase their share from 17 to 18 per cent. In all, Boeing
believes there will be 9,478 aircraft in the European fleet by 2020, up from 3,665 in
2000. In the next 20 years 6,985 aircraft will be delivered, worth US$456.0 billion. Of
the total deliveries, 21 per cent will be smaller regional jets, 21 per cent will be other
single-aisle aircraft, 59 per cent will be twin-aisle aircraft, and 3 per cent will be 747-
and-larger aircraft.
Projection (2004-2024) – Post 11th September 2001– The Boeing Company
The long-term outlook for air travel is robust. The fundamentals of economic
development, globalization and the need for people to travel will be strong in the
coming decade. Economic growth drives air transportation demand and the average
annual growth of GDP would be around 2.9 per cent per annum, which in turn will
increase the growth of passenger traffic by 4.8 per cent and 6.2 per cent in cargo
movements per annum. Liberalization will enable the airline industry to grow
vibrantly in the coming years. Government will continue to increase access to the
marketplace by removing restrictions on carriers in their own countries and permitting
additional levels of service across the globe. Further, world trade and air travel are
closely linked, hence, more open trade agreements, mobile labour force and global
communication technologies such as satellites, the Internet and improved air services
will stimulate world trade to grow. This in turn will lead to richer economies and even
more need to travel by air for business and leisure.
In its latest forecast 2004, Boeing predicts that the world fleet will be doubled by
2024, from 16,778 in 2000 to 35,287 in 2024. The increase will consist of 5,053 new
jets to replace retired aircraft, and an additional 18,406 to fill increased capacity
demand. The total market potential is 25,694 (Passenger + Freighter) new aircraft,
worth US$ 2.13 trillion using today’s dollar value. The market potential for aviation
support services such as aircraft servicing, modification, and re-marketing, as well as
crew training, and infrastructure services will increase to US$ 4.0 trillion
approximately. The table below will indicate the Aircraft and Traffic Projection.
Table 3.1: The Boeing Company’s Projection – Traffic Growth and
Aircraft Delivery (2004-2024)
Traffic Growth Region wise - Traffic Growth in % Aircraft Delivery & Value
To & From in US $
AFR ASP EUR MER LA NA Aircraft Cost
(No’s) (Billion)
Africa 6.1 6.3 5.0 6.0 8.8 8.2 425 34.2
Asia Pacific 6.3 6.0 5.4 6.1 8.8 6.0 7163 770.2
European 5.0 5.4 3.4 5.1 4.9 4.6 6695 527.4
Middle East 6.0 6.1 5.1 4.7 - 6.6 869 115.0
Region
Latin America 8.8 8.8 4.9 - 7.2 5.1 1743 97.5
North America 8.2 6.0 4.6 6.6 5.1 3.5 8799 585.1
Total 25694 2129.4
Source: Boeing, Overview of Current Market Outlook, March 2005, www.boeing.org

54 AFR – African Region
Aviation
ASP – Asia Pacific Region
EUR – European Region
LAC – Latin America & Caribbean Region
MER – Middle East Region
NAR – North American Region
Fill in the blanks:
1. …………………. is the world’s leading aerospace company and the largest
combined manufacturer of commercial jetliners and military aircraft.
2. …………………. allows business units to focus on profitable growth by
providing the infrastructure services required to run their global operations.
3.6 LET US SUM UP

Boeing, Airbus, Cessna, Grumman, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, Rakwell,
Northrop, Polikarpov, Strearman, Fokker, Illusion are the few aircraft manufacturers
producing the aircraft for commercial as well as for general aviation purposes. Airbus
S.A.S., known as simply Airbus, based in Toulouse, France is the world’s largest
commercial aircraft manufacturer. Airbus Industries began as a consortium of
European aviation firms to compete with American companies such as Boeing and
McDonnell Douglas. Airbus Industries was formally set up in 1970 following an
agreement between Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) CASA,
(joined by CASA of Spain in 1971).

Prepare a presentation on the leading aircraft manufacturers.
3.8 KEYWORDS
Airbus: It is a leading aircraft manufacturer, with the most modern and
comprehensive aircraft family.
Boeing Company: It is a United States-based multinational corporation that designs,
manufactures and sells fixed-wing aircraft, rotorcraft, rockets and satellites and
provides leasing and product support services.
Flight Deck: It is the surface from which its aircraft take off and land, essentially a
miniature airfield at sea.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): It is the market value of all officially recognized
final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.

1. Discuss about few of the leading aircraft manufacturers.
2. Write a brief note on Airbus Industries.
3. Discuss about the competition of Airbus with Boeing.
4. Explain new generation aircraft – A380.
5. Write a brief note on the Boeing Company.
6. Describe the four business units of the Boeing Company.
Check Your Progress: Model Answers 55
Aircraft Manufacturers
CYP 1
1. Airbus
2. A380's
CYP 2
1. Boeing
2. Shared Services Group

Senguttuvan. P S, (2006). Fundamentals of Air Transport Management, Excel Books,
New Delhi.
57
World Airlines and Airports
UNIT 1
UNIT II
58
Aviation
LESSON 59
4
WORLD AIRLINES AND AIRPORTS
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Airports
4.2.1 History of Civil Aviation Industry
4.2.2 Aviation Technology Transformation (1930-2003)
4.3 Training
4.4 Passenger/Cargo Terminal
4.4.1 Passenger Requirements
4.4.2 Passenger Terminal
4.4.3 Cargo Terminal
4.5 World Airlines
4.5.1 Airline Companies
4.5.2 World's Largest Airlines
4.6 World’s Major Airports
4.6.1 2013 Statistics (Partial Year)
4.7 Let us Sum up
4.9 Keywords

z Identify the types and history of airports
z Discuss training at airports
z Describe passenger/cargo terminals – domestic and international
z Discuss about world airlines
z Identify world’s major airports
60
Aviation 4.1 INTRODUCTION
Aviation services are essential for the social and economic development of the
country. The importance of modern transportation for timely trade and development
can be well accomplished by means of air transportation. The Aviation industry
started in early 20th century as a means of modern mode of transportation. The
aviation industry consists of manufacturing, airlines, airport operation, maintenance,
air traffic control, metrological and pilots. The aviation industry means different
things to different people. It is very difficult for you that what aviation industry
exactly takes into account for, as for some people it is only the pilots who fly
commercial airplanes while others think of airports and private planes. Thus, unless
you are involved in the aviation industry, the many characteristics of aviation are not
freely thought of.
4.2 AIRPORTS
While aeronautics is the study of science of flights or aircraft (NASA definition),
aviation is the science, business, or operations related to aircraft. In other words,
‘aviation’ or ‘air transport’ refers to the activities closely associated with mechanical
flight, and the aircraft industry. ‘Aircraft’ includes fixed wing (airplane) and rotary
wing (helicopter) types as well as lighter-than-aircraft flying objects such as balloons
and airships (also known as dirigibles). Aviation can be broadly classified into three
areas, namely:
z Military Aviation: The first part of aviation is military aviation. Military aviation
refers to aircraft flown by the armed forces. Aircraft have been a major weapon in
many wars. The major air arms of the world’s military, have a variety of aircraft
developed for both strategic and tactical purposes, such as, the supersonic fighter
‘strike’ aircraft. Some of these advanced aircraft have the capability of flying at
three times the speed of sound and carrying missiles and radar-directed anti-
aircraft artillery.
z Commercial Aviation: The second part of aviation relates to aviation for
commercial purposes. Commercial aviation began in Germany in 1910.
Commercial aircraft provide public air transportation to approximately five
hundred locations throughout the country, to every part of the globe. Commercial
aircraft may also carry cargo and mail. Commercial aviation is the most common
type of aviation.
z General Aviation: The third part is referred to as general aviation. General
aviation is all civil aeronautics with the exception of commercial air-transport
operations. This includes sports flying, business flying, and crop-dusting. Around
80 per cent of all active civil aircraft are classed as general-aviation aircraft. These
aircraft range from gliders, ultra-light and micro-light aircraft, and small two-
seater, single engine trainers to plush business jet aircraft equipped with turbojet
propulsion and extensive electronic installations. Although general aviation is
frequently overlooked, it is a vital part of air traffic (“Pilot”, Grolier).
4.2.1 History of Civil Aviation Industry

Aviation – The Way it changed the World
To fly with the birds has been man’s dream since Neolithic times. Centuries of studies
and experiments precede the first successful flight. Only until the beginning of the
20th century have we accomplished flight in a heavier-than-air craft. Throughout the
past century of evolution, aviation has acquired a responsibility much greater then
ever conceived. The utilization spectrum of aviation extends from air combat and
high-altitude surveillance to more mundane functions like shipping mail and cargo.
With such versatility, aircraft have contributed to augmenting the fast paced lives we 61
already live. Air transport has contributed to expansion of the global economy, leisure World Airlines and Airports
activities, and influenced governments and industries to diversify. The portrayal of

aviation has impacted our society on three stages: socially, politically and
economically. Leonardo da Vinci had begun drawing blueprints of a flying machine in
the 15th century. At that time, human flight had never been contemplated, beyond a
dream. Practicality worked against Leonardo; however, his thoughts were quite
contemporary by today’s standards seeing how his drawings resemble those of
modern aircraft. Just over a hundred years ago, the idea of human flight was thought
absurd. Flying was something one only did while one was dreaming; but today; one
can fly to any destination in the utmost comfort and safety, thanks to the airplane. The
first flight took place on December 17, 1903, in Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk,
North Carolina. The inventors of ‘The Flyer’, the first heavier-than-air machine that
actually flew under its power, were Wilbur and Orville Wright, the Wright brothers.
Orville made the first successful flight. Although their “air machine” flew for only
twelve seconds, the Wright brothers started a revolution that has greatly affected the
entire world. “The time will come when gentlemen, when they are to go on a journey,
will call for their wings as regularly as they call for their boots. Bishop Wilkens
(Glaeser)”. With the success of the Wright brothers’ flight, powered flight has
undergone renovations that have made everyday flight possible. As time went on, the
design and mechanics of the plane greatly advanced, cockpits were built for the pilot
and suggestions were made to make the plane a weapon, which became a reality with
winged warfare in the First World War. Airplanes are used for a variety of things;
travel is only one of many.
Following the fillip given by the Great War, air transportation developed rapidly in
the 1920s and 1930s, not always for commercial reasons. Airlines were seen as a
means of providing a national airmail service (US) and of establishing long haul air
services to colonies and dependencies (UK and France). Airline companies were set
up to oversee these national goals, a trend that continued in the post-colonial period of
the 1950s to the 1970s, as many African, Asian and Caribbean nations created their
own airline companies while reserving them for specific markets and for specific
routes. In advanced economies, the national policies went in the same direction with
national markets reserved to national carriers offering stable services, but at high
prices. Air transport was then seen as a public service that should be regulated. Thus,
the regulatory agencies of governments (e.g., the Civil Aeronautics Board for the
United States) decided which routes were to be serviced, as well as the pricing.
In the 1970s, the outlook changed and air transport came to be increasingly seen as
just another transport service. Market forces played a major role in fixing air transport
prices, and the role of governments was limited to operational and safety regulations.
In the United States, the Air Deregulation Act of 1978 put an end to fixed markets and
opened the industry to competition. This liberalization process has spread into many
other countries, although with important local distinctions. Many of the former private
firms in the US and many former state-owned airlines that were greatly protected and
subsidized went bankrupt or were absorbed by larger ones. Many new carriers have
emerged, with several low-cost carriers such as Ryan Air and
North-West Air in USA and now, Air Deccan in India having achieved industry
leadership in this low-cost segment. A key outcome of airline deregulation has been
the “Emergence of Hub and Spoke Networks” dominated by a single carrier.
Internationally, air transport is still dominated by bilateral agreements between nations
(Graham 1995).
The post-World War II period saw a momentous growth of air transportation, as it
became the leading mode of international movements of passengers. Air transport has
greatly contributed to cutting distances as it is perfectly tailored to carrying freight and
passengers rapidly across continents and oceans. However, for safety reasons, the
62 organization of air transport at the international level is strictly regulated. As such, for
Aviation
long haul passenger travel, no other modes compete with air transportation. In many
cases, such as in North America, air transportation became a significant mode for
domestic movements of passengers. As a result, airspace became progressively more
used. They include two major components, one being land-based (take-offs and
landings) and the other air-based, mainly composed of air corridors. These corridors
can superimpose themselves to altitudes up to 22,500 feet. The geography of air
transport is limited to the use of predetermined corridors. Air transport makes use of
air space that theoretically gives it great freedom of route choice. Strategic and
political factors influence route choice. For example, the flights of South African
Airways were not allowed to over-fly many African nations during the apartheid
period, and Cubana Airlines has been routinely prohibited from over-flying the US.
By convention, an air space exclusively belongs to the country under it. Air
transportation depends on agreements between nations and airline companies. The
Chicago Convention of 1944 established the basic geopolitical guidelines of air
operations, which became known as the Air Freedom Rights. The most substantial
developments of air transportation came in the late 1960s and early 1970s where fast
growth in traffic came with the convergence of three processes:
z Technical improvements: Technology has significantly extended the range of
aircraft that were now capable of crossing the Atlantic (this was first demonstrated
by Charles Lindbergh’s solo flight that made him a national hero) without
stopping at intermediate places, making trips of up to 18 hours duration. The
introduction of the jet engine considerably reduced distances because of greater
speeds and improved ranges. Transnational movements are favoured by the usage
of polar crossings, which enables a considerable reduction of distances.
z Rising affluence: The growth of air transport is highly correlated to income and
economic output growth. As the population of developed countries became more
affluent, a greater amount of disposable income became available for leisure.
Remote destinations and intercontinental tourism (mainly between Europe and
North America) experienced significant growth in popularity. International
tourism and air transportation are thus mutually interdependent, which is
characterized by significant elasticity.
z Lower airfares: As a consequence of technical improvements, growing demands
and competition, airfares have been reduced considerably, making air
transportation affordable to the general public. This in turn triggered additional
passengers and airfreight demands.
z Globalization: Trade networks established by multinational corporations imply
important movements of passengers and freight over the economic space. About
40% of the value of global manufactured exports is carried by air transportation
(about 50% of the value of American overseas – non-NAFTA – exports).
A key structural factor in the development of air transport networks is the emergence
of major hubs around which air traffic converges. This trend is mainly the result of
decisions made by airline companies in the organization of their services.
Commercial Planes and their Importance

There is a purpose for having the several types of commercial planes, with their
features reflecting their specific usage in the international, national and regional
markets. The usage of a type of aircraft depends on what it will transport (passengers,
freight or both), the amount of traffic, the capabilities of airports being serviced as
well as of the implied distances. Although high capacity planes such as the Boeing
747 and 777, and the Airbus A380 are preferred for intercontinental distances,
deregulation of the industry expanded the need for medium capacity planes, which
now dominate domestic services. The following table reveals the evolution of
commercial planes with their seating capacity, year of introduction and the speed of 63
the aircraft. World Airlines and Airports
Table 4.1: Types of Commercial Airplanes (1935-2005) and their Seating Capacity
Aircraft Type Year Speed/KM/Hr Seats
DC-3 1935 346 30
DC-7 1953 555 52
B-707-100 1958 897 110
B-727-100 1963 917 94
B-747-100 1970 907 385
DC-10 1971 908 260
A-300 1974 847 269
B-767-200 1982 954 216
B-747-400 1989 939 416
B-777-200 1995 905 305
A-340-500 2003 886 313
A-380 2005 930 555
Source: Boeing & Airbus Industries
Seating Capacity of Selected Aircrafts

Pre-1985 models were mainly characterized by high capacity, such as the 747 and the
L1011. They were attempts to replace low capacity and low performance models.
While the 747 and the DC10 were mainly built for intercontinental flights (the 747-
100 was also used for short high capacity flights, mainly in Japan), the L1011 targeted
continental services. Although Boeing continues to provide high capacity planes
(747-400 and 777-300), main post-1985 models have a lower capacity but increased
fuel efficiency. This fits in well with the requirements of regional hub-and-spoke
networks that have emerged since deregulation (1978), where smaller capacities and
high frequencies are the norm.
Figure 4.1: Range of Different Modern Commercial Jet Planes

The ranges of three major categories of jet planes are presented here:
z Regional: The Airbus A320, with a range of 3,700 km, was designed to service
destinations within a continent. From New York, most of North America can be
reached. This range can be applied to the European continent, South America,
East Asia and Africa. This type of aircraft is also used for high demand regional
services needing several flights a day, enabling improved quality of service.
64 z International: The Boeing 777-100, with a range of 7,400 km, can link one
Aviation
continent to another. From New York, it is possible to reach Western Europe and
most of South America.
z Intercontinental: The Boeing 747-400, with a range of 11,400 km, can reach
from New York any destination around the world except Australia, South and
Southeast Asia. Japan is within range.
4.2.2 Aviation Technology Transformation (1930-2003)

The Boeing 700’s are capable of handling many tasks in the commercial and military
world. With the introduction of the 707 in the late fifties to the most recent 777 in the
early nineties, the 700’s have dominated the commercial world for five decades. They
are a line of aircraft which are capable of handling many roles, from basic civilian
transport to various military needs. They are the people movers of the 20th century.
With a large carrying capacity combined with the speed and range of a jet aircraft,
they have moved more people over longer distances than what was once thought
possible. Boeing has truly produced some of the greatest aircraft in history.
The various duties that the 700’s perform are quite extraordinary. It all started in the
fifties. There was a growing demand for a commercial airliner that could move a
greater number of people farther and faster. The age of the jet engine had yet to reach
the civilian transportation. There was still a fear of the jet because of lack of
reliability, but with technological advancements, the jet engine now became more
reliable than even the piston engine. The need for a jet engine-powered plane was
growing. Airlines still were looking for a plane that could cross the Atlantic Ocean
without a refuelling stop. The Lockheed Super constellations, a piston-powered plane,
were able to cross the Atlantic Ocean without stopping on the eastbound leg, but they
had to stop in Gander, Newfoundland to refuel on the westbound leg. The airlines
desired a plane that could easily travel the Atlantic without a stop. The piston engine
just wasn’t going to do it; the jet engine was the answer. Boeing realized this and
moved to design a jet-powered plane. At first, Boeing was looking to modify existing
aircraft with jet engines to perform the tasks. They quickly realized that they needed a
whole new aircraft… and thus was born the Boeing 707. The first Boeing 707 was
delivered to Pan American airlines in May of 1958 (Bauer, 218). Sales started out
slow; in fact, the 707 almost died many times in its first couple years of existence. It
wasn’t until Boeing modified the 707 by increasing the overall length, the wingspan,
and adding more powerful engines did the 707 confirm its place in as a commercial
transporter. With the new modifications, the 707 became a very capable aircraft, and
crossing the Atlantic Ocean became a routine affair. With the introduction of the 707,
transatlantic travel doubled in two years (Bauer, 195). Airlines’ profitability soared
due to the new capabilities the 707 presented. The 707 began a new era in civil
aviation and dramatically improved the way people are flown. The 707 being the first
major jet airliner saw many applications and variations in its lifetime. There were
thirteen variations of the 707; they varied in capacity, range, and speed (Wright, 49).
Each variation was designed to meet specific needs of an individual airline. Some
707’s could carry a larger capacity of passengers over a shorter distance, whereas
another variant could carry fewer passengers over a longer distance. With all of these
variations, the 707 left little room for the Douglas DC-8, which was once though to be
a major threat to Boeing. The 707 could meet any need of an airline; this is one reason
that made the 707 such a versatile aircraft and why it dominated the market. The 707
also saw plenty of action in uniform. Its most useful application came in the way of
the KC-135 Stratotanker. It was modified to perform in-flight refuelling task for the
United States Air Force. The 707 now saw as healthy a lifespan ahead of it, as the
KC-135 — of the 735 units built in the early sixties, 550 still remain in service today
(www.Boeing.com).
The 707 also had the very privileged role of presidential transport. As Air Force One, 65
it started its career in 1962 and served seven Presidents. It was only to be replaced by World Airlines and Airports
one of its bigger brothers, the Boeing 747. Another of one of its more interesting
applications was that of the “Vomet Come” a modified KC-135 to make large in-flight
arcs to provide a weightless environment to train NASA astronauts. Altogether, the
707 and its derivatives saw many varied and interesting applications. With the 707
fulfilling the needs for a long-range jetliner, there was a demand by the airline
industry for a short to medium-range jet. A jet that was designed for short-range use
would provide savings over a long-range jet and faster travel times that were presently
completed by prop driven planes. Boeing went to the drawing boards and came out
with the 727. When the 727 finally soared into the skies, it came up with better
performance that what was originally planned. “As throughout Boeing’s history, its
strong, patient, intense engineering efforts had once more been the key” (Bauer, 226).
The 727 filled the need for a short to medium-range aircraft better than any other
airplane. It showed in the sales: the 727 became at the time the highest selling Boeing
aircraft, but that title would not remain with it very long. The Boeing 737 became the
best selling commercial jetliner in the world. To date, it has sold 3,158 units and there
are still more on order (www.Boeing.com). Its primary role is short to medium-range
passenger transport. The 737s were meant to gradually phase out the 727 and did so
quite well; it became known as the “Little Giant.” The 737 also proved to be a very
rugged aircraft, with an optional kit add-on to the landing gear that it made it possible
for it to land on improvised runways like a grass field or a gravel runway. The 737s
also were far superior in their ability to take off from high altitude, short runways.
These abilities made the 737 very versatile; it could link many areas that were unable
maintain a modern airport that would have a paved runway (Bauer, 250). One key
feature of the 737, which made it the success it was, was the decision to make the
plane seat six abreast. Douglas was the main competition in the beginning with a
plane that had five seats abreast. Even with Douglas’s advantage in speed and range, it
could never match the seat-per-mile cost the 737 gave. A single decision, which meant
about a 17-inch increase of diameter over the Douglas DC-9, meant the success of the
737 and the failure of the DC-9.
The rugged 737 has several military applications as well. Its most widely used
application is as a training aid for both pilots and navigators. Pilots use the USAF
designated T-43 737s as a flight trainer for large cargo and transport aircraft. The 737
is a large – but not too large – aircraft, and provides the perfect stepping stone for
pilots into the huge birds that are present in today’s Air Force. It also provides
navigational training. Its wider design offers plenty of room for the trainees and their
instructors. One T-43 has about 19 stations for its students (Minton, 31). The T-43
provides a very accommodating learning environment for the flight students. The
largest and most infamous member of the family is the Boeing 747, the “Jumbo Jet”.
This is an aircraft that has changed commercial airliners forever. With its sheer size, it
put itself in a class of its own. The 747 offer a lower seat-per-mile cost and a more
efficient way for transportation than any other aircraft. It can move more people and
cargo farther and faster. “The 707 brought jet transportation to people. The 747
brought jet transportation to the everyday people” (Norris and Wagner, 26). 747s have
become the backbone of many airlines, in that they handle more people and cargo than
any of their other planes. 747 is not only a highly efficient people mover, it has also
brought about a great improvement in cargo transportation. Some modified 747s have
a large upward swinging door at the nose of the plane, for greater or ease in loading
large cargo items. Boeing also offered the option of a side panel door for loading. This
was mainly used in the “Combi” 747; they were 747s that could transport people and
cargo at the same time. The 747s also serve several roles in the Military. Most notable
is in the application of presidential transportation as Air Force One. The 747 replaced
the 707 as Air Force One. With the increase in room and luxury, the President hasn’t
had a better ride since.
66 The 747 also found itself the solution to a rather large problem, that is, of the
Aviation
transportation of the Space Shuttle. There really is no other way to transport the large
orbiter than strapping it onto the top of a 747. NASA bought an ex-American Airline
747 in 1977 and has been using it ever since (Gilchrist, 61). By the late seventies, the
727 and 737 were showing their age. Boeing was unable to sell newly modified
versions of the two aircraft and they soon realized that a whole new aircraft was
needed. The new aircraft did not come in the form of a single plane but in two
completely different airplanes that would pick up the slack in the short to medium
range jet planes. These planes would be the 757 and the 767. They would prove to be
very qualified successors to the 727 and the 737, proving themselves in both the
commercial and military world. In fact, the 767 came up with better performance than
what was originally planned. “Getting it into service, getting it under our original cost
estimates and one day early—I don’t know how you can improve on that. And that’s
due to the great team at Boeing” (Bauer, 320). The short to medium-range jet had
been modernized with increases in performance of its capacity, speed, and fuel
consumption. The military had their eye on the 767. It was wide-bodied aircraft
similar in dimensions to the 737 and the wider body is what the military saw as most
appealing. One of the primary functions the 767 serves is in the AWACS (Airborne
Warning and Control System) program. It is a 767 modified with a large circular disc
on the top. The disc is composed of radars and antennas, and its purpose is to target
and track targets from a long range. This information is then communicated to fighters
on stand-by. The body of the plane has a crew and a large amount of computer
equipment used in the process of determining targets. Boeing has some more plans for
the 767, seeing in it a very capable candidate for a tanker/transport variant that would
provide in-flight refuelling and transportation duties (www.Boeing.com).
The last in the family is the 777, which was introduced, in the early nineties. It is a
completely new generation aircraft with complete integration of computers. The 777
has two main variants; presently, they are the 777-200 and the 777-300. The main
difference is length and capacity. The 300 is about 33 feet longer and can hold about
70 more passengers than the 200. Both will work to satisfy the different needs of an
airline. A newer version is in the works. It is the 777-400, planned to have even
greater capacity that what is now present. The 777 should gradually replace the 747 as
the large capacity long-range jet (www.Boeing.com). The 777 is the plane of the
future and will have many service roles in the commercial world. The line of the
Boeing 700 aircraft is undeniably a very versatile line of aircraft. From the beginning,
they have dominated commercial jet sales… and for good reason. Boeing has always
made their aircraft with the utmost quality and attention to detail. Boeing will test and
test again until they get it right, and it shows in their products. The 700’s can
accommodate any commercial and military need placed on them. They have made
long distant air travel a comfort and a pleasure to many. It is hard to imagine what life
would be like without Boeing. It is very safe to say that commercial airline travel
would simply not be at the same calibre we find it today.
4.3 TRAINING
Airport Authority of India has a number of training establishments, namely.
z NIAMAR in Delhi,
z CATC in Allahabad,
z Fire Training Centres at Delhi,
z Kolkata for in-house training of its engineers, and
z Air Traffic Controllers, Rescue & Fire Fighting personnel and so forth.
NIAMAR & CATC are members of ICAO TRAINER programme under which they
share Standard Training Packages (STP) from a central pool for imparting training on
various subjects. Both CATC & NIAMAR have also contributed a number of STPs to 67
the Central pool under ICAO TRAINER programme. Foreign students have also been World Airlines and Airports
participating in the training programme being conducted by these institutions.

Fill in the blanks:
1. The ………………… are capable of handling many tasks in the
commercial and military world.
2. ………………… aircraft provide public air transportation to approximately
five hundred locations throughout the country, to every part of the globe.
4.4 PASSENGER/CARGO TERMINAL

The passenger terminal layout and design are described on the basis of the following
factors:
4.4.1 Passenger Requirements

As passenger’s throughout at airports increases, the passenger terminal becomes a
more important element of the airport, attaining a dominant status in the largest
facilities. The passenger terminal may amount to less than 10 per cent of the total
investment in a small airport, but at large airports terminals often account for more
than 70 per cent of infrastructural investment. The design that is ultimately adopted
depends principally on the passenger volumes to be served and the type of passenger
involved.
Passengers are frequently classified as business or leisure, scheduled or charter,
originating or destined, and transfer or transit. Business travellers tend to pay
significantly higher fares, and airlines usually wish to provide a high quality of service
in order to attract such traffic. The passenger terminal at Heathrow Airport near
London, for example, was designed to a very high standard of space and decor to
attract just this type of passenger. Scheduled and charter passengers, meanwhile, tend
to have very different needs in the terminal, especially at check-in and in the provision
of ground transportation. Palma Airport, on the Spanish island of Majorca, has a
landside that is designed to accommodate large numbers of charter tourists arriving
and departing the airport by bus.
Some airports have a very high percentage of passengers who are either transiting the
airport (i.e., continuing on the same flight) or transferring to another flight. At
Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport in Georgia and at Chicago’s O’Hare
International Airport, for example, two-thirds of all passengers transfer to other flights
and have no wish to visit the cities where the airports are sited. These passengers have
special needs but usually only on the airside of the terminal. There is no need to
provide parking or ground transportation to the city for such passengers; they will,
however, need transit lounges and other areas such as transit check-in desks.
Airports that receive a large number of transferring and transiting passengers are
referred to as hubbing airports. At a hub, aircraft arrive in waves, and passengers
transfer between aircraft during the periods when these waves are on the ground. By
using a “hub-and-spoke” network, airlines are able to increase the load factors on
aircraft and to provide more frequent departures for passengers—at the cost, however,
of inconvenient interchange at the hub.
68 4.4.2 Passenger Terminal
Aviation
The passenger building is obviously the main point of attention to the travelling
public. It is the design of the terminal building which more than often determines the
airport managements’ efficiency and capability in the eyes of the public.
The passenger building is the major connection between airport access and the
aircraft. The purpose of the passenger building is to
1. Interface with the passenger mode of aircraft access
2. Process departing and arriving passengers
3. Convey the passenger to and from the aircraft
These three components could be discussed as access interface, processing and flight
interface respectively. What are the considerations which influence the design of the
passenger terminal? Airport Management and airlines agree that the most important
person in the terminal building is the passenger, whether in transit, departing or
arriving.
Experience in the use of airport building has made certain overall requirements and
planning principles which should be considered. These are:
1. Building should be functional, simple in design and structure, economical to main
and capable of expansion without major structural changes. It is better to build in
progressive stages to that all airport operations many continue to grow
architectural design while the buildings are in use. This is a very important
consideration. It is well known tat in recent years in the oil producing countries,
terminal building have been built as architectural monuments at enormous cost.
What is accepted, no doubt, is the need to have outstanding architectural design,
which blends harmoniously both the natural/traditional architectural design and
contemporary architecture more suited to passenger services.
2. There should be a clear cut functional separation between the airline and other
concerned operational facilities and those elements are directly related thereto. It
is important maintain a functional separation between the two major types of
facilities in an airport i.e. those for aviation activities and those for non-aviation
activities, and facilities for the general public.
3. Public services/facilities should be closely related to the airport passenger
handling area and should be readily accessible to each of its parts.
In large airports with decentralized terminals public services may also have to be
decentralized in order to:
1. Reduce the average distance a passenger must walk to reach such services;
2. Make more services available to passengers;
3. Reduce the time interval required to reach and use such services; and
4. The travel distance between ground transportation and aircraft should be kept at
minimum distance. The size of the ultimate development of the airport,
particularly within the administrative and terminal building area will determine
whether the general plan is to be centralized or decentralized.
The components of the passenger-handling-together with the specific physical
facilities corresponding to them may be seen in Figure 4.2.
69
Figure 4.2: Components of the Passenger Handling System

The facilities that a passenger required are provision of sufficient space in the building
for restaurants, snack bars, shopping arcade, toilet, adequate space for expeditious
facilitation of arriving and departing by international flight through immigration and
customs.
Passenger Terminal Concepts

What should be the concept of a passenger terminal? There has been a considerable
debate on it. Two concepts of terminal designs have been developed, namely
centralized and decentralized terminal. While deciding which of the concepts will suit
a particular airport, the economics and suitability of the terminal in terms of the total
area, manpower utilization and the convenience available to the passenger and airlines
have to be examined.
Centralized Terminal: In a centralized terminal concept, one single interface building,
situated between landside and airside serves all aircrafts respective of their size and
number. All diversified functions of a terminal are controller in one area. Expansion
of facilities necessitated with the growth of traffic can be incorporated easily without
duplicating them. The separate expansion of apron and terminal areas is possible in
this concept without much inconvenience.
The centralized concept has a major drawback in its ever increasing walking distances
for the passengers between the aircraft and the terminal building. However this defect
has been overcome in a centralized type of terminal like Dulles International Airport,
Washington, which has no fingers or satellites, but only a terminal building and large
remote parking apron. Passengers are transported between the two points in special
vehicle known as ‘mobile lounges.’ This type of terminal concept has been adopted in
the new Montreal International Airport at Mirabelle, and the Jeddah Airport in Saudi
Arabia.
Decentralised Terminal: In a decentralized concept, the functional requirement of a
fewer number of aircraft; say 4 to 6, at a time are handled in one common facility.
When the number of aircraft increases, a series of modules are developed to meet the
requirements. This development of modules, instead of one large single terminal is
known as the decentralized concept.
The decentralized or modular concept permits better provision of passenger
convenience. It manages to keep walking distances short and size of the facilities to
‘human scale’. However the public conveniences in the decentralized concept require
a certain degree of duplication in staffing and inventory, I order to permit freedom to
passengers to shop where and when the wish. The airport authorities in such cases
70 have to take a policy decision on the extent to which they desire to cater to public
Aviation
conveniences. This is an important factor of terminal designing that the airport
terminal manager must decide.
The development of finger type terminal and satellite terminal are variations of the
centralized and decentralized concepts. The most recent examples of decentralized
terminal are at Dallas/Fortworth in Texas (USA); Charles de Gaulle in Paris (France)
and the fabulous Atlanta in USA. Built at a cost of US Dollar 500 million and built at
located in an Area of 3750 acres, the newly opened Atlanta Airport pushed the outer
limits of technology and ranks at the very top of the new generation airports.
The design for the complex was refined for over more than a decade to fulfil two basic
requirements—to provide the most convenience and pleasant accommodation for its
passengers three quarters of whom change planes in Atlanta and to create the most
efficient operating conditions for all the airlines. The four boarding concourses which
are separated by the main terminal concourses are connected by a superb, automatic
rapid transit system that takes passenger between the terminal and the farthest
concourse in less than five minutes.
4.4.3 Cargo Terminal

Celebi Delhi Cargo Terminal Management India Pvt. Ltd. Is responsible for the
management of cargo terminal and take care of all operations related to cargo
terminal. In year 2007 an award for organized and excellent handling of cargo
operations was given to the airport. It is situated at a distance of about 1 kilometre
from the main terminal T3.
Terminal 3 – Domestic and International

Terminal 3, an integrated future terminal and a state of art, which was opened in 2010
is the eighth largest passenger terminal and twenty-fourth largest building in the
world and. It is spread over an area of 540,000 m2 (5,800,000 sq ft), with a capacity to
handle thirty-six million passengers every year.
The new Terminal 3 is a two-tier building that occupies an area of thirty acres
(twelve ha), with the top being a departures area and the bottom floor being the
arrivals area. The features of this terminal comprise of 240 check-in counters, 78
aerobridges at 65 contact stands, 54 parking bays, 96 immigration counters, 15 X-
ray screening areas, for less waiting times, duty-free shops, and many more. The
terminal when completed will be used by over 90% of passengers. This new terminal
had been completed in time for the 2010 Commonwealth Games, which were held in
Delhi, and will be connected to Delhi by an eight-lane motorway (National
Highway 8), and the Delhi Mass Rapid Transit System. An official inauguration of
terminal was done on 3 July 2010, and there were 9 flights to test the operational
preparation of the new terminal and its proficiencies in terms of ground handling.
During the late July 2010, all international airlines shifted their operations to the new
terminal, and by mid November all full service domestic carriers shifted their
operations to the new terminal. The arrivals are equipped with 18 baggage carousels.
T3 has India's first automated parking management & guidance system in a multi
level car park, which comprises seven levels and a capacity of 6300 cars.
Terminal 3 will form the first phase of the airport expansion in which a 'U' shaped
building will be developed in a modular manner. Terminal 3 was used by all full
service domestic and international carriers from the year 2010 while low cost
operations were carried from Terminal 1. The low cost carriers will also move to the
new terminal complex at later stages.
The much awaited go ahead for the domestic airlines to start operations from the new
T3 terminal has been given. After passing many hurdles and from 11 November 2010
Air India which is also the national carrier started its domestic operations from the
new T3 terminal. On 14 November 2010, Kingfisher Airlines and Jet Airways moved 71
their domestic operations to the new terminal. Terminal 1D is now used exclusively World Airlines and Airports
by low cost carrier airlines including GoAir.
4.5 WORLD AIRLINES

Airlines have become an integral part of an economy. It is a key catalyst for economic
growth and development, which has profound influences on the quality of life of
population around the world. It amalgamates the global economy in order to promote
the international exchange of people, products, investments and thoughts. In reality,
civil aviation industry has facilitated the less developed, and developing economies to
enter in the mainstream of global commerce by linking worldwide communities like
manufacturing and cultural centres and further more it acts as a forefront in the
development and use of advanced technologies. Airline plays a vital role in the
operation of air services globally. It provides services towards the movements of
travelling passenger and goods.
Air transport comprises of aircraft manufacturers, leasing companies, government
authorities, airports, air traffic control and passengers/goods. Each system has its own
functions in contributing towards air transport operations. Let us briefly oversee the
"Air Transport System" in the following Figure 4.3:
Figure 4.3: Airlines Operation
4.5.1 Airline Companies

Since 1950s, the industry accredited exceptional growth with short periods of
stagnation and rationalization. It has become a powerful factor of generating more
than $700 billion in added value and creating more than 21 million jobs globally. Air
transport has benefited from several technical improvements and commercial
advantages. Remarkable progresses have marked the field of aeronautics. Planes can
now carry above 500 passengers or 100 tons of cargo. Moreover, despite high costs,
there is a multiplication of flights with a view to increasing demand. This in turn
spawns new traffic problems. These problems involve the construction of new,
modern airports often located at considerable distance from the city they serve. Airline
companies are a highly capital intensive segment of transport services. However,
unlike maritime transportation, air transportation is also labour intensive, with limited
room to lessen those labour requirements. For instance, a new 747-400 mainly used
for high volume and long distance travel can cost about 200 million dollars,
depending on the configuration, and a new 737-800 used for regional flights costs
about 60 million dollars. In 2006, the largest commercial aircraft, the Airbus A380, is
expected to enter into service with a seating capacity of 555, and have a range of over
72 14,500 kms. The major key aspect of the development of aircraft is to lower the cost
Aviation
of air travel and increase its accessibility to a wider set of consumers. Technological
developments not only impacted speed, but also range and capacity of aircraft. The
major outbreak was strengthening of business to customer links through the "Internet"
(ICAO, 2003).
Regulation and Privatization in Air Transport Sector

International air transportation sector is a highly complex industry, since it is under
the international regulation of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
and the international routes capacity and tariffs are pegged as regards prices and is
highly regulated. This section reviews the regulation and liberalization of air transport
industry in the domestic context, which has been an important driver of change in the
international sphere. The various approaches adopted to governing the industry at the
international level, are also explored.
4.5.2 World's Largest Airlines

Different airlines can claim the title of world’s largest airlines at the same time, as
there are number of ways in which world’s largest airlines can be defined. For
instance Delta Air Lines, since its merger with Northwest Airlines in 2009 has carried
more scheduled passengers every year than any other airline. On the other hand,
United Airlines flies more passenger-kilometres every year and serves more
destinations than Delta. FedEx Express is the largest cargo airline, both in fleet size
and freight tonne-kilometres flown.
By Scheduled Passengers Carried (Millions)

Rank Airline 2012 2011 2010 2009
1 Delta Air Lines 164.6 163.8 162.6 161.1
2 United Airlines 140.4 141.8 145.6 144.3
3 Southwest Airlines 134.0 127.6 106.2 101.3
4 American Airlines 107.8 107.2 105.2 104.5
5 China Southern Airlines 86.5 80.7 76.5 66.3
6 US Airways 82.5 80.6 79.6 78.0

7 Ryanair 79.3 75.8 72.1 66.5
8 Lufthansa 74.7 65.5 58.9 55.6
9 China Eastern Airlines 73.1 68.7 64.9 44.0
10 Air China 72.4 69.7 60.0 41.3
Notes: Based on individual companies' published figures.
By Scheduled Passenger-Kilometres Flown (Millions)

Rank Airline 2012 2011 2010 2009
1 United Airlines 330,696 334,989 338,833 327,479
2 Delta Air Lines 310,562 310,228 310,875 304,074
3 American Airlines 219,869 219,492 216,132 209,321
4 Southwest Airlines 165,561 157,044 125,604 119,826
5 Emirates 160,446 146,134 126,273 101,762
6 Lufthansa 149,780 141,055 129,668 122,991
Contd…
7 Air France 137,606 135,129 127,763 128,326 73
8 China Southern Airlines 135,535 122,344 111,328 93,002
9 Air China 129,773 123,489 105,695 75,474
10 British Airways 126,436 117,348 106,082 114,346
Notes: Based on individual companies' published figures.
By Scheduled Freight Tonne-Kilometres Flown (Millions)

Rank Airline 2012
1 FedEx Express 16,108
2 UPS Airlines 10,416
3 Emirates SkyCargo 9,319
4 Cathay Pacific Cargo 8,433
5 Korean Air Cargo 8,144
6 Lufthansa Cargo 7,175

7 Singapore Airlines Cargo 6,694
8 British Airways World Cargo 4,732

9 China Airlines Cargo 4,538
10 EVA Air Cargo 4,470
Notes: Based on figures published by the International Air Transport Association.
By Fleet Size
Rank Airline Fleet size
1 Delta Air Lines 1,280
2 United Airlines 1,264
3 American Airlines 873
4 Southwest Airlines 683
5 US Airways 621
6 China Southern Airlines 423
7 Lufthansa 401
8 Air France 381
9 Air Canada 354
10 China Eastern Airlines 352
Notes: Includes passenger aircraft only – Includes figures for main airlines' regional
carrier(s), excludes other subsidiaries.
Cargo Airlines
Rank Airline Fleet size
1 FedEx Express 634
2 DHL 250
3 UPS Airlines 234
4 TNT Express 33
5 Korean Air Cargo 26
Contd…
74 6 23
Aviation
Cathay Pacific Cargo
7 China Airlines Cargo 21
8 Cargolux 20
9 China Postal Airlines 18
10 Lufthansa Cargo 18
By Number of Destinations
Rank Airline Destinations
1 United Airlines 373
2 Delta Air Lines 330
3 American Airlines 277
4 Turkish Airlines 240
5 China Eastern Airlines 211
6 Lufthansa 199
7 Air France 194
8 US Airways 193
9 China Southern Airlines 193
10 British Airways 191
4.6 WORLD’S MAJOR AIRPORTS

A per the data from ACI (Airports Council International) the world's busiest airports
by passenger traffic are measured by total passengers. Total passengers can be
calculated as:
passengers enplaned + passengers deplaned + direct-transit passengers
Every year since 2000 Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport in Atlanta has been the
world's busiest airport; including all airports combined, London has the world's
busiest city airport system by passenger count.
For reliability, the Airports Council International annual figures are at all times used
for the purpose of presentation and ranking, despite figures given by airport
authorities or operators dose not match.
4.6.1 2013 Statistics (Partial Year)

Airports Council International's year-to-date figures (January–August) are as follows:
Rank Airport Location Code Total Rank %

(IATA/ICA) Passengers Change Change
1. Hartsfield– Atlanta, Georgia, ATL/KATL 63,579,546 1.3%

Jackson Atlanta
International United States
Airport
2. Beijing Chaoyang, PEK/ZBAA 55,919,431 2.3%

Capital Beijing, China
International
Airport
Contd...
3. London Hillingdon, LHR/EGLL 48,312,082 3.5% 75
Heathrow London, United
Airport Kingdom
4. Los Los Angeles, LAX/KLAX 45,075,895 2 4.3%

Angeles California, United
International States
Airport
5. Tokyo Ōta, Tokyo, Japan HND/RJTT 44,835,435 1 2.7%

International
Airport
6. O'Hare Chicago, Illinois, ORD/KORD 44,538,012 1 1.7%

Airport
7. Dubai Garhoud, Dubai, DXB/OMDB 43,971,839 3 16.4

International United Arab %
Airport Emirates
8. Paris Roissy-en France, CDG/LFPG 41,711,256 1 0.1%

Charles de Tremblay-en-
Gaulle Airport France,
Mitry-Mory, Île-
de-France, France
9. Dallas-Fort Dallas-Fort DFW/ 40,931,724 1 3.9%

Worth Worth, Texas, KDFW
Airport
10. Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok, HKG/VHHH 39,735,000 2 5.8%

International Hong Kong,
Airport China
11. Soekarno- Cengkareng, CGK/WIII 39,582,018 2 4.5%

Hatta Tangerang,
International Banten, Indonesia
Airport
12. Frankfurt Frankfurt, Hesse, FRA/EDDF 38,663,262 1 0.3%

Airport Germany
13. Singapore Changi, East SIN/WSSS 35,457,356 2 5.4%

Changi Airport Region, Singapore
14. Amsterdam Haarlemmermee, AMS/EHAM 35,357,644 2 3.0%

Schiphol Airport North Holland,
Netherlands
15. Denver Denver, Colorado, DEN/KDEN 35,183,343 2 1.7%

International
Airport United States
16. Guangzhou Huadu, CAN/ZGGG 34,907,598 2 9.3%

Baiyun Guangzhou,
International Guangdong,
Airport China
17. Suvarnabhu Bang Phli, Samut BKK/VTBS 34,373,606 3 5.7%

mi Airport Prakan, Thailand
Contd...
76
Aviation
18. John F. Queens, New JFK/KJFK 33,977,120 1 1.2%
Kennedy York City, New
International York, United
Airport States
19. Atatürk Istanbul, Turkey IST/LTBA 33,946,064 1 15.9

International %
Airport
20. Shanghai Pudong, PVG/ZSPD 31,570,365 1 4.1%

Pudong Shanghai, China
International
Airport
21. Kuala Sepang, Selangor, KUL/ 30,423,601 6 17.2

Lumpur Malaysia WMKK %
International
Airport
22. San San Mateo SFO/KSFO 29,970,381 0.5%

Francisco County,
International California, United
Airport States
23. Charlotte Charlotte, North CLT/KCLT 29,147,707 1 5.3%

Douglas Carolina, United
International States
Airport
24. McCarran Las Vegas, LAS/KLAS 28,037,211 1 0.1%

International Nevada, United
Airport States
25. Seoul Incheon, Republic ICN/RKSI 27,934,142 4 7.1%

Incheon of Korea
International
Airport
26. Miami Miami-Dade MIA/KMIA 27,638,826 2 2.0%

International County, Florida,
Airport United States
27. Phoenix Phoenix, Arizona, PHX/KPHX 27,336,752 2 0.3%

Sky Harbor United States
International
Airport
28. George Houston, Texas, IAH/KIAH 27,004,392 2 1.0%

Bush United States
Intercontinental
Airport
29. Madrid Madrid, Spain MAD/ 26,581,831 10 14.3

Barajas Airport LEMD %
30. Munich Munich, Bavaria, MUC/ 25,770,962 0.7%

Airport Germany EDDM

Fill in the blanks:
1. International Airport in ……………………….. has been the world's
busiest airport every year since 2000.
Contd…
2. ……………………….. is a key catalyst for economic growth and 77
development, which has profound influences on the quality of life of World Airlines and Airports
population around the world.
4.7 LET US SUM UP

Aviation services are vital to the economic and social development of any economy.
Aviation industry is a modern mode of transport, which started during the early 20th
century. A description of aviation industry includes manufacturing, airlines, airport
operation, maintenance, air traffic control, metrological and pilots.
The first part of aviation is military aviation. Military aviation refers to aircraft flown
by the armed forces. The second part of aviation relates to aviation for commercial
purposes. Commercial aviation began in Germany in 1910.The third part is referred to
as general aviation. General aviation is all civil aeronautics with the exception of
commercial air-transport operations.
The passenger terminal becomes a more important element of the airport. The design
that is ultimately adopted depends principally on the passenger volumes to be served
and the type of passenger involved. The passenger building is the major connection
between airport access and the aircraft. Two concepts of terminal designs have been
developed, namely centralized and decentralized terminal. The Cargo Terminal is
managed by Celebi Delhi Cargo Terminal Management India Pvt. Ltd. and handles all
cargo operations. The airport received an award in 2007 for its excellent and
organized cargo handling system.
Airline is a key catalyst for economic growth and development, which has profound
influences on the quality of life of population around the world. The world's busiest
airports by passenger traffic are measured by total passengers (data from Airports
Council International (ACI)), defined as passengers enplaned plus passengers
deplaned plus direct-transit passengers.

Conduct a research on the recent developments in the area of passenger terminals at
both domestic and international airports.
4.9 KEYWORDS
Aviation’ or ‘Air Transport’: It refers to the activities closely associated with
mechanical flight, and the aircraft industry.
Military Aviation: It refers to aircraft flown by the armed forces. Aircraft have been a
major weapon in many wars.
Commercial Aircraft: It provides public air transportation to approximately five
hundred locations throughout the country, to every part of the globe.
General Aviation: It is all civil aeronautics with the exception of commercial air-
transport operations. This includes sports flying, business flying, and crop-dusting.
Centralized Terminal: In centralized terminal concept, one single interface building,
situated between landside and airside serves all aircrafts respective of their size and
number.
Decentralized Concept: In a decentralized concept, the functional requirement of a
fewer number of aircraft; say 4 to 6, at a time are handled in one common facility.
78
Aviation 4.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. “Aviation can be broadly classified into three areas”. Discuss each of these areas
in brief.
2. Write a brief summary on the history of civil aviation industry.
3. What do you mean by passenger Terminal?
4. Explain cargo terminal.

CYP 1
1. Boeing 700’s
2. Commercial
CYP 2
1. Atlanta
2. Airlines

Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board.
Manuel Ayres (Jr.), (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook,
Transportation Research Board.
Group Publishing.
Scientific Publishing.
79
LESSON World Aviation Bodies
5
WORLD AVIATION BODIES
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 International Air Transport Association (IATA)
5.2.1 Aims of IATA
5.3 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
5.3.1 ICAO’s Objectives
5.3.2 ICAO’s Strategic Planning
5.4 National Aviation Authorities
5.4.1 Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA, India)
5.5 Role of the Central and State Governments
5.5.1 Civil-Military Cooperation
5.5.2 Human Resource Development
5.5.3 Environmental Issues
5.5.4 Regulatory Mechanisms
5.5.5 User and Community Participation
5.5.6 Legal Framework
5.6 Airport Authority of India
5.6.1 History
5.7 Let us Sum up
5.9 Keywords

z Explain International Air Transport Association
z Describe International Civil Aviation Organisation
z Discuss National Aviation Authorities
z Explain Airport Authority of India
80
In this lesson you will learn about the International Air Transport Association was
founded in Havana, Cuba, in April 1945. You will also study about the international
civil aviation organization and national aviation authorities with emphasis on the role
of central and state government. Further in this lesson you will learn about Airport
Authority of India which Aviation is responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining
and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India.
5.2 INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION

(IATA)
The International Air Transport Association is the prime vehicle for inter-airline
cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services - for the
benefit of the world’s consumers. The international scheduled air transport industry is
now more than 100 times larger than it was in 1945. Few industries can match the
dynamism of that growth, which would have been much less spectacular without the
standards, practices and procedures developed within IATA. At its founding, IATA
had 57 Members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North America. Today, it has
over 270 Members from more than 140 nations in every part of the globe. The modern
IATA is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association founded in The
Hague in 1919 − the year of the world’s first international scheduled services.
International air transport is one of the most dynamic and fastest-changing industries
in the world. It needs a responsive, forward-looking and universal trade association,
operating at the highest professional standards. IATA is that association. IATA brings
together approximately 265 airlines, including the world’s largest. Flights by these
airlines comprise 94 per cent of all international scheduled air traffic. Since these
airlines face a rapidly changing world, they must cooperate in order to offer a
seamless service of the highest possible standard to passengers and cargo shippers.
Much of that cooperation is expressed through IATA, whose mission is to “represent,
lead and serve the airline industry”.
Continual efforts by IATA ensure that people, freight and mail can move around the
vast global airline network as easily as if they were on a single airline in a single
country. In addition, IATA helps to ensure that Members’ aircraft can operate safely,
securely, efficiently and economically under clearly defined and understood rules. For
consumers, IATA simplifies the travel and shipping process. By helping to control
airline costs, IATA contributes to cheaper tickets and shipping costs. Thanks to airline
cooperation through IATA, individual passengers can make one telephone call to
reserve a ticket, pay in one currency and then use the ticket on several airlines in
several countries – or even return it for cash refund.
IATA is also a collective link between third parties and the airlines. Passenger and
cargo agents are able to make representations to the industry through IATA and derive
the benefit of neutrally applied agency service standards and levels of professional
skill. Equipment manufacturers and third-party service providers are able to join in the
airline meetings, which define the way air transport goes about its business. IATA
allows airlines to operate more efficiently. It offers joint means – beyond the
resources of any single company – of exploiting opportunities, reducing costs and
solving problems. Airlines knit their individual networks into a worldwide system
through IATA, despite differences in language, currencies, laws and national customs.
IATA is a useful means for governments to work with airlines and draw on their
experience and expertise. Working standards within the aviation industry are
developed within IATA. In fostering safe and efficient air transport, IATA serves the
stated policies of most of the world’s governments.
5.2.1 Aims of IATA 81
World Aviation Bodies
z To promote safe, regular and economical air transport for the benefit of the
peoples of the world, to foster air commerce, and to study the problems connected
therewith.
z To provide means for collaboration among the air transport enterprises engaged
directly or indirectly in international air transport service.
z To cooperate with the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO - the specialized United Nations agency for civil aviation) and other
international organizations.
The most important tasks of IATA during its earliest days were technical, because
safety and reliability are fundamental to airline operations. These require the highest
standards in air navigation, airport infrastructure and flight operations. The IATA
airlines provided vital input to the work of ICAO, as that organization drafted its
Standards and commended Practices. By 1949, the drafting process was largely
complete and reflected in “Annexes” to the Chicago convention, the treaty which still
governs the conduct of international civil aviation. In those early days, ICAO
coordinated regional air navigation and support for airports and operational aids in
countries, which could not themselves, afford such services. IATA provided airline
input to ICAO and to sessions of the International Telecommunications Union on
wavelength allocation.
The standardization of documentation and procedures for the smooth functioning of
the world air transport network also required a sound legal basis. IATA helped to
interlock international conventions, developed through ICAO, with US air transport
law, which had developed in isolation prior to World War Two. The Association made
a vital input to the development of Conditions of Carriage, the contract between the
customer and the transporting airline. One early item on the legal agenda was
revision and modernization of the Warsaw Convention - originally signed in 1929 - on
airline liability for passenger injury or death and cargo damage or loss. This work
continues once they were operating within a sound technical and legal framework.
Airlines’ next requirements were for answers to questions such as: who can fly where?
What prices are to be charged? How is the money from multi-airline journeys - that is,
interlining - to be divided up, and how do airlines settle their accounts?
The Chicago Conference of 1944, which gave birth to the Chicago Convention tried to
achieve a multilateral answer to the first two questions, but failed to do so. The
questions of who flies, and where, were resolved on a bilateral basis. The benchmark
Bermuda Agreement of 1946 between the US and the UK was the first of almost
4,000 bilateral air transport agreements so far signed and registered with ICAO. In the
early days, governments insisted on the right to oversee the prices charged by
international airlines, but could not in practical terms, develop those prices for
themselves. IATA was delegated to hold Traffic Conferences for this purpose, with all
fares and rates subject to final government approval. The aim was twofold:
ensuring that fares and rates would not involve cut-throat competition, while ensuring
that they could be set as low as possible, in the interests of consumers.
A coherent pattern of fares and rates pattern was established, avoiding inconsistencies
between tariffs affecting neighbouring countries - and thereby avoiding traffic
diversion. The predictability of fares and rates in this pattern also enabled airlines to
accept each other’s tickets on multi-sector journeys and thus gave birth to interlining.
Today, 50 million international air passengers a year pay for their ticket in one
place, in one currency, but complete their journey using at least two, and
sometimes five or more, airlines from different countries using different currencies.
The first worldwide Traffic Conference was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1947. It reached
unanimous agreement on nearly 400 resolutions covering all aspects of air travel. Fare
82 construction rules for multi-sector trips, revenue allocation - pro-rating - rules,
Aviation
baggage allowances, ticket and air waybill design and agency appointment procedures
were typical details agreed at this pioneering meeting.
Today, that pioneering work is reflected in the currently applicable IATA Resolutions
dealing with these and many other subjects. Notable examples are:
z Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreements: These are the basis for the airlines’
interline network. About 300 airlines have signed and accepted each other’s
tickets and air waybills − and thus their passenger and cargo traffic − on a
reciprocal basis.
z Passenger and Cargo Services Conference Resolutions: These prescribe a variety
of standard formats and technical specifications for tickets and air way bills.
z Passenger and Cargo Agency Agreements and Sales Agency Rules: These govern
the relationships between IATA Member airlines and their accredited agents with
regard to passenger and cargo.
z Debt Settlement between airlines, largely arising from interlining, takes place
through the Clearing House, which began operations in January 1947. During its
first year, 17 airlines cleared (US) $26 million. By 1994, the Clearing House had
380 participants including non-airlines. The total cleared was (US) $22.8 billion.
Typically, almost 90 per cent of debts between participants are offset and there is
no need for cash transfers.
IATA’s Two-Tier Systems

Between the late 1940s and the early 1970s, it could be said that flight was
transformed from “a scientific phenomenon to a public utility at the disposal of the
entire world.” At the same time, the popularization of civil aviation led to growing
demands that the “public utility” view of the industry on the part of governments be
modified to encompass greater competition and wider access to markets. These
demands were fuelled by competition for leisure travellers provided by charter
companies and the challenge of stimulating demand to fill the new wide-bodied
aircraft. Potential demand for air travel had extended well beyond the original client
base of bureaucrats, businessmen and the well to do. New travel products and greatly
increased price flexibility were needed. As a result, the old basis for conducting IATA
Traffic Conferences needed modification.
At the same time, the US Government, which had first given IATA Traffic
Conferences immunity from national anti-trust law in 1946, began its own review of
air transport regulation, which, although domestic in scope, was bound to have
international repercussions. The international dimension of the US review resulted in
a “Show Cause Order”. Hearings took place in 1979, at which IATA was called upon
to show cause why should anti-trust immunity not be removed from its Tariff
Coordination activities? The outcome mainly affected North Atlantic passenger fares
which, for some years, were subject to special rules under an inter-governmental
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between t he US and ECAC states. The
present position is that all Tariff Coordination activities continue to be protected.
Eventually, IATA was re-organized on a two-tier basis in October 1979. The tiers
comprised:
z Trade Association: (Technical, legal, financial, traffic services and most agency
matters)
z Tariff Coordination: (Passenger fares, cargo rates, and related conditions and
charges)
Growth and Development 83
Taking account of its present size and average annual world growth rates in the range
of 5-6 per cent − typically, twice the rate of general economic growth − air transport
has a dynamism undiminished from its pioneering days. IATA’s role in it remains
central. The market for air transport has changed beyond recognition during
the history of the modern IATA. The industry continues to change and IATA is
adapting to meet the new needs. However, one thing has not changed − the necessity
to provide service. IATA helps the airlines to achieve this objective as they meet the
new demands of the 21st century. In large measure, the airlines have created a
modern, interdependent world over the past 50 years. IATA is working to ensure that
the world’s most exciting industry meets its greatest possible potential.
5.3 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION

(ICAO)
The outcome of the studies begun by the US, and the succeeding consultations
between the Major Allies, was that the US government extended an invitation to 55
States to attend an International Civil Aviation Conference in Chicago in November
1944, at the end of which a Convention on International Civil Aviation was signed by
32 States to set up the permanent International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as
a means to secure international cooperation for a highest possible degree of uniformity
in regulations and standards, procedures and organization regarding civil aviation
matters. At the same time the International Services Transit Agreement and the
International Air Transport Agreement were signed.
The most important work accomplished in the technical field by the Chicago
Conference was that it laid the foundation for a set of rules and regulations regarding
air navigation safety and paved the way for the application of a common air
navigation system throughout the world. ICAO was firmly established in 1947, and it
was realized that the work of the Secretariat, especially in the technical field, would
have to cover two major activities:
1. those which covered generally applicable rules and regulations concerning
training and licensing of aeronautical personnel both in the air, and
2. on the ground, communication systems and procedures, rules for the air and air
traffic control systems and practices, airworthiness requirements for aircraft
engaged in international air navigation as well as their registration and
identification, aeronautical meteorology and maps and charts.
For obvious reasons, these aspects required uniformity on a worldwide scale if truly
international air navigation was to become a possibility. Activities in these fields had
therefore to be handled by a central agency, i.e., ICAO headquarters, if local
deviations or separate developments were to be avoided. The 96 articles of the
Chicago Convention establish the privileges and restrictions of all contracting states
and provide for the adoption of “International Standards and Recommended Practices
(SARPs) regulating international air transport.
The main aim and objectives of ICAO, as contained in Article 44 of the Chicago
Convention are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation
and to foster the planning and development of international air transport so as to:
z Insure the safe orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world.
z Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purpose.
z Encourage the development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities for
international civil aviation.
84 z To meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and
Aviation
economical air transport.
z Prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition.
z Insure that the rights of contracting states are fully respected and that every
contracting state has fair opportunity to operate international airlines.
z Avoid discrimination between contracting states.
z Promote safety of flight in international air navigation.
z To promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil
aeronautics.
At present, there are 189 countries that are the members of the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO), as on September 2005.
5.3.1 ICAO’s Objectives

z Standardization: ICAO’s principal activities are standardization, the
establishment of International Standards, Recommended Practices and Procedures
(SRPP) covering the technical fields of aviation: licensing of personnel, rules of
the air, aeronautical meteorology, aeronautical charts, units of measurement,
operation of aircraft, nationality and registration marks, airworthiness,
aeronautical telecommunications, air traffic services, search and rescue, aircraft
accident investigation, aerodromes, aeronautical information services, aircraft
noise and engine emissions, security and the safe transport of dangerous goods.
After a Standard is adopted, it is put into effect by each ICAO Contracting State in
its own territories. As aviation technology continues to develop rapidly, the
Standards are kept under constant review and amended as necessary.
z Communication Navigational Surveillance/Air Traffic Management: ICAO’s
most recent significant achievements have been the development of a satellite-
based system concept to meet the future communications, navigation and
surveillance/air traffic management (CNS/ATM) needs of civil aviation.
CNS/ATM, formerly known as the future air navigation systems (FANS) concept,
is essentially the application of today’s high technologies in satellites and
computers, data links and advanced flight deck avionics, to cope with tomorrow’s
growing operational needs. It produces economies, efficiencies and greater safety.
This will be its further impact as an integrated global system, with consequential
changes to the way air traffic services are organized and operated. The CNS/ATM
systems concept has received the endorsement of ICAO Member States, and is
now in its implementation phase. This major task includes the development of
standards, recommended practices and guidance material, which will be applied
well into the 21st century.
z Regional Planning: Aviation tribulations are on a worldwide scale with various
specialized/professionalized subjects on a regional basis. ICAO recognizes nine
geographical regions, for planning the provision of air navigation facilities and
services required on the ground by aircraft flying in these regions. In each of the
regions, keeping in mind the objective of producing a seamless global air traffic
management system, careful planning is necessary to produce the network of air
navigation facilities and services upon which the aero planes depend the
aerodromes, the meteorological and communications stations, the navigation aids,
the air traffic control units, the search and rescue bases, the thousands of facilities
to be established and operated and the services to be rendered.. The plan, which
emerges from a regional meeting, is so designed that, when the States concerned
implement it, it will lead to an integrated, efficient system for the entire region
and contribute toward the global system. When States require assistance in this
regard, ICAO’s help is available through seven regional offices, each one
accredited to a group of Contracting States. These offices have as their main 85
function, the duty of encouraging, assisting, expediting and following up the World Aviation Bodies
implementation of the Air Navigation Plans and maintaining them up to date. In

addition, regional planning and implementation groups have been established in
ICAO regions to assist the regional offices in keeping the regional plans up-to-
date and in fostering their implementation.
z Facilitation: ICAO has tried to persuade its Contracting States to reduce red tape,
and International Standards on facilitation. In addition to reducing procedural
formalities, ICAO’s efforts are also aimed at providing adequate airport terminal
buildings for passengers and their baggage as well as for air cargo, with all related
facilities and services. The obstacles placed by customs, immigration, public
health and other formalities on the free and unimpeded passage of passengers and
cargo across international boundaries have been a particularly serious impediment
to air travel.
z Economics: International Civil Aviation requires international air transport
services to be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated
soundly and economically. In fact, ICAO’s basic objective is the development of
safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport. To assist States in planning
their air transport services, ICAO collects and publishes comprehensive world
aviation statistical data, and undertakes extensive economic studies in line with
Resolutions of the ICAO Assembly and Recommendations of worldwide
conferences. ICAO also produces manuals for the guidance of States in such areas
as statistics, air traffic forecasting, airport and air navigation facility tariffs, the
economic regulation of air transport and the establishment of airfares and rates.
z Technical Cooperation for Development: ICAO pays special attention to
promoting civil aviation in developing countries. An important instrument in this
work has been the United Nations Development Programme. So far, most of the
Organization’s work in this area has been directed toward the development of the
ground services required for civil aviation and, in particular, toward aerodromes,
air traffic control, communications and meteorological services; in the past few
years, and with the advent of larger and more complex aircraft, requests for
assistance in the more sophisticated fields of aviation, including airports
operations, have been increasing in number. In response to the alarming incidents
in recent years of acts of unlawful interference against aircraft and airports, ICAO
also provides assistance to States in order to improve their aviation security
facilities and procedures.
z Law: ICAO has more than one hundred and eighty nine Contracting States. There
are many legal philosophies and different systems of jurisprudence. Therefore to
unify this, the development of a code of international air law is mandatory. It is a
function of ICAO to facilitate the adoption of international air law instruments
and to promote their general acceptance. So far, many international air law
instruments have been adopted under the Organization’s auspices involving such
varied subjects as the international recognition of property rights in aircraft,
damage done by aircraft to third parties on the surface, the liability of the air
carrier to its passengers, crimes committed on board aircraft, the marking of
plastic explosives for detection and unlawful interference with civil aviation.
5.3.2 ICAO’s Strategic Planning

Today, international civil aviation industry faces major challenges, and therefore,
there is a need for ICAO to adapt framework of the Convention to rapidly changing
scenarios based on the following aims in strategic planning of the industry:
z Globalization and Trans nationalization of markets and operations.
z Emergence of regional and sub-regional trading and regulatory blocks.
86 z Commercialization of government service providers.
Aviation
z Diversification of fiscal measures to respond to budgetary needs.
z Liberalization of Economic regulation.
z Potential Evasion of safety regulation.
z Blurring of sectoral boundaries and responsibilities of related authorities.
ICAO Annexes
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) laid out standard regulation towards
the safety and security of Airport, Airlines, Air Traffic Control, Security, Safety,
Facilitation and Environmental issues. These standards are laid out in the 18 Annexes
and each annexe would describe the functions and standard norms of particular
providing services.
ICAO ANNEXES
ANNEX 1 Personnel Licensing
ANNEX 2 Rules of the Air
ANNEX 3 Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
ANNEX 4 Aeronautical Charts
ANNEX 5 Units of Measurement to be used in Air and Ground Operations
ANNEX 6 Operation of Aircraft
ANNEX 7 Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
ANNEX 8 Airworthiness of Aircraft
ANNEX 9 Facilitation
ANNEX 10 Aeronautical Telecommunication
ANNEX 11 Air Traffic Services
ANNEX 12 Search and Rescue
ANNEX 13 Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
ANNEX 14 Aerodromes
ANNEX 15 Aeronautical Information Services
ANNEX 16 Environmental Protection
ANNEX 17 Security - Safeguarding International Civil Aviation against Acts of
Unlawful Interferences
ANNEX 18 The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
1. The main aim and objectives of ICAO, as contained in Article 44 of the
Chicago Convention are to develop the principles and techniques of
international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of
international air transport.
2. International Civil Aviation requires international air transport services to
be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundly
and economically.
87
5.4 NATIONAL AVIATION AUTHORITIES World Aviation Bodies
A National Aviation Authority (NAA) is a government statutory authority in each

country that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation.
z Role: Due to the inherent dangers in the use of flight vehicles, NAA's typically
regulate the following critical aspects of aircraft airworthiness and their operation:
Design of aircraft, engines, airborne equipment and ground-based equipment
affecting flight safety.
Conditions of manufacture and test of aircraft and equipment.
Maintenance of aircraft and equipment.
Operation of aircraft and equipment.
Licensing of pilots and maintenance engineers.
Licensing of airports and navigational aids.
Standards for air traffic control.
Depending on the legal system of the parent country, the NAA will derive its
power from an act of Parliament (such as the Civil or Federal Aviation Act), and
is then empowered to make regulations within the bounds of the act. This allows
technical aspects of airworthiness to be dealt with by subject matter experts and
not politicians.
The NAA may also be involved in the investigation of aircraft accidents, although
in many cases this is left to a separate body (such as the Australian Transport
Safety Bureau (ATSB) in Australia or the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB) in the USA), to allow independent review of regulatory oversight.
The NAA will regulate the control of air traffic but a separate agency will
generally carry out air traffic control functions.
z History: The independent development of NAAs has resulted in differing
regulations in country to country. This has required aircraft manufacturers in the
past to develop differing models for specific NAA requirements (such as the BAe
Jetstream 31), and difficulty for airlines to travel into foreign jurisdictions. In an
effort to resolve these issues, the Convention on International Civil
Aviation (Chicago Convention) was signed in 1944. This then led to the
establishment by the United Nations of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) in 1947 which now oversees member states and works to
implement regulatory changes to ensure best practice regulations are adopted.
Major national aviation authorities
1. Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil (ANAC, Brazil)
2. Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA, Australia)
3. Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC, People's Republic of China)
4. Civil Aviation Authority (Greece) (ΥΠΑ, Greece)
5. Civil Aviation Department (CAD, Hong Kong)
6. Civil Aviation Authority of Pakistan (CAA, Pakistan)
7. Civil Aviation Authority (CAA, UK)
8. Civil Aviation Authority (CAA, NZ)
9. Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS, Singapore)
10. Direccion General de Aeronautica Civil (DGAC, Mexico)
88 11. Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA, India)
Aviation
12. Directorate General of Civil Aviation of Turkey (SHGM, Turkey)
13. Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile (DGAC, France)
14. Ente Nazionale per l'Aviazione Civile (ENAC, Italy)
15. European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA, is not actually an NAA but plays part
of the role within its member states of the EU)
16. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA, USA)
17. Iran Civil Aviation Organization (CAO, Islamic Republic of Iran)
18. Instituto Nacional da Aviação Civil (INAVIC, Angola)
19. Instituto Nacional de Aviação Civil (INAC, Portugal)
20. National Transportation Safety Committee (NTSC, Indonesia)
21. Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (LBA, Germany)
22. Transport Canada (TC, Canada)
5.4.1 Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA, India)

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the prime regulatory organization in
India, in the field of Civil Aviation. It is accountable for regulation of air transport
services to/from/within India and for formulation and enforcement of civil air
transport regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards. It is also co-ordinates all
regulatory functions with the International Civil Aviation Organization. The
Directorate General of Civil Aviation is headed by the Director General of Civil
Aviation whose headquarters are in New Delhi. The DGCA has the following
Directorates under his supervision:
z Directorate of Regulations and Information
z Directorate of Air Transport
z Directorate of Airworthiness
z Directorate of Air Safety
z Directorate of Training and Licensing
z Directorate of Aerodrome Standards
z Directorate of Flying Training
z Directorate of Flight Inspection
z Directorate of Research and Development
z Directorate of Administration
Functions of DGCA
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is responsible for
z Laying down rules and regulations for implementation of ICAO Standards and
Recommended Practices
z Regulation of air transport services to/from/within India;
z Registration of civil aircraft in India;
z Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft registered in India and
grant of Certificate of Airworthiness to such aircraft;
z Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers and flight engineers;
z Licensing of aerodromes in India; 89
z Carrying out Investigations into air accidents and incidents;
z Implementation of bilateral air services agreements with foreign countries;
z Rendering advice on matters pertaining to air transport;
z Processing of aviation registration;
z Supervision of the training activities of the Flying/Gliding Clubs in India;
z Development of light aircraft, gliders and winches; and
z Certification of aircraft
Air Service Agreements − (Bilateral Agreements)

DGCA is entrusted with the duty of keeping track records of bilateral agreements
between the countries. As on 2004-2005, more than 100 bilateral agreements were
made by the country with various countries, in respect of trade by means of air
transport.
Air Transport Services (International Scheduled Services)

As on 31st December 2004, approximately 60 foreign airlines were operating
scheduled air services to/through India, excluding Air India, Indian Airlines, Jet
Airways and Air Sahara (including 64 national carriers). In addition, 27 foreign
airlines were operating scheduled services, overflying Indian Territory. The operation
of tourist charters under the Tourist Charter Guidelines continued during the year. As
on 31st October 2000, 38 companies were holding Non-Scheduled Operator's Permit.
Domestic Scheduled Operators

In addition to Air India, Indian Airlines and Alliance Air, the following private
operators had the permission to operate domestic scheduled air transport services: - Jet
Airways, Air Sahara, Air Deccan (2004), Spice Jet (2005), Kingfisher Airlines (2005),
Paramount Airlines (2005) and Blue Dart (Freighter).
Airworthiness
Registration of aircraft as on 31st January 2001: there were 1064 aircraft (including
micro light aircraft, gliders and balloons) on the Indian Civil Register, of which 26
were registered during the year 2000-2001. Out of this, 628 aircraft held current
Certificates of Airworthiness:
Licensing of Aircraft Maintenance Engineers is another responsibility of the DGCA.
A total of 5175 Aircraft Maintenance Engineers (AME) Licenses including Basic
Aircraft Maintenance Engineers Certificates (BAMEC) and 282 Flight Engineers (FE)
certificates have been issued so far, of which 319 AME Licenses have been issued
during the year 2000-2001. Approval of firms: so far, a total of 544 firms, including
71 foreign firms, have been approved for manufacture, maintenance, testing, storage,
etc., of aircraft, aircraft components/equipment.
5.5 ROLE OF THE CENTRAL AND STATE

GOVERNMENTS
1. The role and functions of the Central Government as contained in the various
statutes and the preceding sections extend to the following matters;
(a) Investment in airport infrastructure.
(b) Clearance of Greenfield airport projects.
90 (c) Airspace management, safety and security of airports.
Aviation
(d) Bilateral air services agreements, including those involving international
cooperation for modernization and upgradation of airports.
(e) Licensing of airports and ATC personnel.
(f) Environmental aspects and removal of obstructions around airports.
(g) Approval of aeronautical charges.
2. The Ministry of Civil Aviation will try to facilitate the speedy clearance of
projects from different Ministries.
3. The State Governments will deal with the following aspects:
(a) Acquisition of private land and allotment of government land.
(b) Supply of water and power, and provision of sanitation and sewage services.
(c) Provision of surface access through multi-modal linkages.
(d) Prevention of environmental pollution.
(e) Maintenance of law and order.
(f) Protection of airports from encroachments and vandalism.
4. In case Government land is allotted by a State Government for an airport owned
by a private party, it may be made available at the same rate as is charged from
other industrial ventures in the State.
5. Government will ensure that legislative and administrative mechanisms for
speedy acquisition of land are devised.
6. The Ministry of Civil Aviation will liaise with the State Governments in order to
ensure provision of all these essential services and basic facilities. The State Civil
Aviation Secretaries will act as coordinating officers for single-point liaison with
all the State-level departments and authorities.
5.5.1 Civil-Military Cooperation

1. There are numerous areas of interaction between the civilian departments and the
defence authorities. Action is required as under to sort out the various issues:
(a) In order to meet the expanding requirements of civil air traffic there is an
urgent need to widen the existing air corridors, provide them unidirectional air
corridors, to provide smooth flow of air traffic and thus enhance air safety.
(b) We have to optimize the utilization of restricted air space, by networking of
radar and data systems, which should be acquired on the basis of mutual
compatibility.
(c) Additional land is to be provided at civilian enclaves in military airports.
Revenue from aeronautical charges at these airports deserves to be shared
with the AAI, in order to compensate it for the capital investment it has made.
(d) Additional slots should be made available for civilian flights at military
airports.
2. In order to ensure civil-military cooperation, coordination committee at the level
of respective Ministries as well as at operational level will be energized.
5.5.2 Human Resource Development

1. Airport management, air safety, airport security, navigation and communication
and fire prevention are critical areas of human resource development, especially in
the context of privatization of these functions. Stress needs to be laid on 91
developing an overall environment of courteous behaviour by all associated with World Aviation Bodies
airport operations besides inculcating safety and security as a habit. It is thus of

utmost importance that private institutions are set up for training of airport
managers, air traffic controllers, navigation and communication engineers, airport
security and fire-fighting personnel and they are licensed by the Government.
Appropriate syllabi and course contents should be laid down and there should be
legal provision for licensing of these personnel.
2. Simultaneously, the training facilities in the public sector have to be upgraded and
refurbished so as to cater to the growing demands for trained personnel as also to
counter the phenomenon of technological obsolescence.
3. The National Institute of Aviation Management and Research should be
strengthened so as to act as the lead institution for human resource development.
It should develop academic linkages with ICAO, IIT, IIMs and Universities.
Chairs on Civil Aviation research will be created in the institutions of learning.
4. In certain areas of human resources, there may be need for introduction of
innovative systems of deployment like the flexible complementing scheme
prevalent in the scientific community, so that the benefits of specialization are not
frittered away at the time of promotion.
5. Contingency and back-up plans will be drawn up to meet emergencies arising out
of industrial unrest among airport staff.
6. Airport management needs expertise in diverse fields and cannot survive except
by sub-contracting of specialized activities to a host of private organizations.
Legal hurdles to engagement of contract labour or contractual agencies will have
to be dismantled through legislative intervention.
5.5.3 Environmental Issues

1. The operation of airports has to be in full accord with the provisions relating to
prevention of air, water and noise pollution. All effluents would require to be
treated before these are allowed to leave the airports. There will be close liaison
with state governments and municipal authorities to maintain cleanliness and
remove encroachments in airports and surrounding areas, so as to obviate the
menace of bird hits. Large scale plantations and other eco-friendly activities like
construction of golf courses would be encouraged around airports, both for
environmental purposes as also to provide relaxation to transit passengers. Such
environmental issues would need close interaction with regional planning bodies.
2. The airports would be set up after the requisite environmental clearances and a
time-frame of 90 days would be prescribed by Ministry of Environment and
Forests for completing the processing of applications for such clearances.
3. Improved connectivity between airports and adjacent population centres should
form an integral part of each airport infrastructure development projects and not
be left to evolve by itself.
5.5.4 Regulatory Mechanisms

1. In the context of a multiplicity of operators (including private areas) and the
possibility of oligopolistic practices, there is a need for an appellate authority
which could look into grievances with regard to fixation of tariff rates, allotment
of slots, working of air traffic controllers, allocation of space in the airports etc.
To this end, Government will create a fair and independent Airport Regulatory
Board, comprising representatives of the Ministry of Civil Aviation, DGCA,
airport and airline operators, etc. This grievance redressal mechanism would help
in speedy and effective resolution of disputes among the various stakeholders.
92 2. There will also be a legislation for conversion of the DGCA into a Civil Aviation
Aviation
Authority with full powers of regulation overall aspects of the aviation industry.
5.5.5 User and Community Participation

1. An airport is a living entity and it should co-exist with all members of the
community, especially the users of its various facilities.
2. The Airport Advisory Committees should be more broad-based and meet
frequently so as to serve as an effective means for grievance redressal to achieve
better facilitation for airport users.
3. Special representation should be given to associations of passengers and cargo
handling agents.
5.5.6 Legal Framework

1. All changes necessitated by this policy in the existing Acts, Rules, Regulations
and other provisions should be carried out expeditiously, so as to facilitate its
implementation.
2. Presently property tax is being levied on the properties of AAI, thus putting a
further strain on the viability of the airports. This anomaly needs to be rectified,
because airport land is owned by the Central Government and AAI is only a
trustee.
5.6 AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA

The responsibility of creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation
infrastructure in India lies with the Airports Authority of India (AAI) under the
Ministry of Civil Aviation. The Airports Authority of India renders ATM (Air traffic
management) services over Indian airspace and adjoining oceanic areas. AAI also
manages a total of 125 Airports, together with eleven International Airports,
eight Customs Airports, eighty-one Domestic Airports and twenty-five civil
enclaves at Military Airfields. The Airports Authority of India also has ground
installations at all airports and 25 other locations to safeguard safety of aircraft
operations. AAI covers all major air-routes over Indian landmass by means of twenty-
nine Radar installations at 11 locations along with eighty-nine VOR/DVOR
installations co-located with Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). Fifty-two
runways are furnished with ILS (Instrument landing system) installations with Night
Landing Facilities at most of these airports and Automatic Message Switching System
at fifteen Airports.
India was the first country to use ADSS (Automatic Dependence Surveillance System)
technology in the South East Asian region thereby changing Air Traffic Control over
oceanic areas employing satellite mode of communication. This was made possible by
Airports Authority of India implementation of ADSS (Automatic Dependence
Surveillance System), by means of indigenous technology, at Kolkata and Chennai
Air Traffic Control Centres. Performance Based Navigation (PBN) techniques have
already been carried out at Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports and are probably
to be implemented at other Airports in a phased manner. In technological
collaboration with the ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization), Airports
Authority of India is implementing the GAGAN project, in which satellite based
system, will be used for navigation. The GPS will send the navigation signals that will
be used to get the navigational requirement of aircraft. In February 2008, the 1st phase
of technology demonstration system was completed.
Airports Authority of India has 4 training establishments namely, The Civil Aviation
Training College (CATC) at Allahabad, National Institute of Aviation Management
and Research (NIAMAR) at Delhi and Fire Training Centres (FTC) at Delhi and
Kolkata. An Aerodrome Visual Simulator (AVS) has been supplied at Civil Aviation 93
Training College and non-radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being World Aviation Bodies
supplied to Civil Aviation Training College Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport.

Airports Authority of India has a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit (FIU) with a fleet of
3 aircraft fitted with flight inspection system to inspect Instrument Landing Systems
up to Cat-III, VORs, DMEs, NDBs, VGSI (PAPI, VASI) and RADAR (ASR/MSSR).
Along with in-house flight calibration of its navigational aids, AAI undertakes flight
calibration of navigational aids for the Indian Coast Guard, Indian Navy, Indian Air
Force, and other private airfields in the country.
Airports Authority of India has entered into Joint Ventures at Mumbai, Kolkata,
Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Nagpur Airports to upgrade these airports.
5.6.1 History
On 1st April 1995, the Airports Authority of India (AAI) came into being and was
constituted by an Act of Parliament by merging International Airports Authority of
India and erstwhile National Airports Authority. The merger brought into existence a
single Organization entrusted with the responsibility of creating, upgrading,
maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air
space in the country.
Functions
z Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals.
z Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territorial
limits of the country, as accepted by ICAO.
z Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic
airports and civil enclaves.
z Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic
airports.
z Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, Taxiway
etc.
z Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar
etc.
z Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the passenger
terminals at airports.
z Provision of visual aids.
Passenger Facilities
z Construction, modification and management of passenger terminals, development
and management of cargo terminals, development and maintenance of apron
infrastructure including runways, parallel taxiways, apron etc.,
z Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes
provision of DVOR/DME, ILS, ATC radars, visual aids, etc., facility of air traffic
services, establishment of passenger facilities and related amenities at its
terminals thus safeguarding aircraft operations, passenger and cargo in the
country.
Air Navigation Services

In order to modernize Air Traffic Control (ATC) infrastructure for seamless
navigation across state and regional boundaries, Airport Authority of India is
upgrading to satellite based Communication, Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) and Air
Traffic Management. A number of co-operation agreements and memoranda of
94 co-operation have been signed with the US Trade and Development Agency, Federal
Aviation
Aviation Administration, Air Services Australia, European Union, and the French
Government Co-operative Projects and Studies started to gain from their experience.
Through these activities more and more executives of AAI are being exposed to the
latest technology, modern practices and procedures being adopted to improve the
overall performance of Airports and Air Navigation Services.
Some of the major initiatives in this direction are as follows:
z Introduction of Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) in Indian air space
to boost capacity and cut down congestion in the air;
z Implementation of GPS and Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) together with
with ISRO which when put to operation would be one of the four such systems in
the world.
z Airport Authority of India is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services
Organisation (CANSO).
IT Implementation
A bulk of information can be obtained from the website of Airport Authority of India
including information related to scheduled domestic and international flight and many
other information of interest to the public in general and passengers in particular.
Revenue
The maximum amount of revenue of Airport Authority of India comes from
landing/parking fees and fees collected by rendering CNS & ATC services to aircraft
over the Indian airspace.
Only sixteen of the hindered and twenty six airfields operated by the Airport
Authority of India are profitable while the other airports incur heavy losses owing to
underutilization and poor management.
Privatisation of Airports
The Airport Authority of India and the Ministry of Civil Aviation was involved in a
struggle over the issue of privatization of its two utmost profitable airports
at Delhi and Mumbai. During the year 2006 the Government of India handed over
these two airports to private companies for the purpose of modernisation under
revenue sharing agreement to the GMR Group and GVK group respectively.
The Nagpur Airport was transferred to the Maharashtra State owned MADC.
In addition to these, a number of greenfield airports are being operated by Private
groups, specifically, Bengaluru International Airport, Rajiv Gandhi International
Airport at Hyderabad, Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport at Durgapur in West Bengal
and Cochin International Airport.
International Projects
The Airport Authority of India has been involved in a number of consultancy projects
with Afghanistan, Nauru, Maldives, Yemen, Algeria, and Libya. The AAI also renders
trained personnel for operation, maintenance and management of airports in these
countries.
Fill in the blanks:
1. The ……………………… is the prime regulatory organization in India, in
the field of Civil Aviation.
2. ……………………… is a government statutory authority in each country
that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation.
95
5.7 LET US SUM UP World Aviation Bodies
The International Air Transport Association is the prime vehicle for inter-airline
cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services − for the
benefit of the world’s consumers. Today, it has over 270 Members from more
than 140 nations in every part of the globe.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a means to secure international
cooperation for a highest possible degree of uniformity in regulations and standards,
procedures and organization regarding civil aviation matters. The main aim and
objectives of ICAO, as contained in Article 44 of the Chicago Convention are to
develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the
planning and development of international air transport.
A national aviation authority (NAA) is a government statutory authority in each
country that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation. The Directorate
General of Civil Aviation is the prime regulatory organization in India, in the field of
Civil Aviation. It is accountable for regulation of air transport services to/from/within
India and for formulation and enforcement of civil air transport regulations, air safety
and airworthiness standards.
The responsible of creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation
infrastructure in India lies with the Airports Authority of India (AAI) under the
Ministry of Civil Aviation. On 1st April 1995, the Airports Authority of India (AAI)
came into being and was constituted by an Act of Parliament by merging International
Airports Authority of India and erstwhile National Airports Authority.

Prepare a project on the recent initiatives and actions taken by the aviation authority
of India and other international bodies for the development of aviation Industry
globally.
5.9 KEYWORDS
Airports Authority of India (AAI): Under the Ministry of Civil Aviation is
responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation
infrastructure in India.
Directorate General of Civil Aviation: It is the prime regulatory organization in India,
in the field of Civil Aviation. It is accountable for regulation of air transport services
to/from/within India and for formulation and enforcement of civil air transport
regulations, air safety and airworthiness standards.
National Aviation Authority (NAA): It is a government statutory authority in each
country that oversees the approval and regulation of civil aviation.
International Air Transport Association: It was founded in Havana, Cuba, in April
1945. It is the prime vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable,
secure and economical air services - for the benefit of the world’s consumers.

1. What were the aims behind the formation of IATA?
2. Discuss IATA’s two-tier systems.
3. Describe the formation of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
4. Discuss ICAO’s Strategic Planning.
5. Write a brief note on National Aviation Authorities.
96 6. Discuss the role and functions of Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA,
Aviation
India).

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
CYP 2
1. Directorate General of Civil Aviation
2. National Aviation Authority (NAA)

New Delhi.
Transportation Research Board
Group Publishing
97
Airport Layout and Security
UNIT 1
UNIT III
98
Aviation
LESSON 99
6
AIRPORT LAYOUT AND SECURITY
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Layout of an Airport
6.2.1 Airside Areas
6.3 Ground Handling
6.3.1 Ramp Service
6.3.2 Passenger Service
6.4 Airport and Aircraft Security
6.4.1 Airport Security in India
6.4.2 Indian Airport Security Check and Regulations
6.4.3 Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BACS)
6.5 Let us Sum up
6.7 Keywords

z Discuss the layout of an airport
z Describe airport ground handling
z Explain airport and aircraft security
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Aerodrome or airport is defined as a defined area on land or water (including any
buildings, installations and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for
the arrival, departure and surface movement of aircraft.
Airport is a wide term, used in a broad manner. Normally, what a passenger feels that
the airport consists of only the terminal building where he purchases his air ticket,
boards and disembarks the plane. In fact the terminal building is just one part of the
airport, and in totality it includes a lot many other features, some of them extremely
important, such as runways, taxiways, apron, air traffic control, apron (With Parking
Stands), Hangar, Radio Navigational aids, Communication facilities etc.
100
Aviation 6.2 LAYOUT OF AN AIRPORT
Figure 6.1 depicts a typical airport plan showing air side and city side areas.
Figure 6.1: Airport Layout

Normally the airport is divided into two basic parts, 'city side' and 'air side'. 'City side'
is what a travelling passenger is well familiar with and includes airport terminal
building, ticket counters, airline and other offices, waiting halls, security lounges,
customs, immigration, outside car park, cargo building, outside roads etc. The 'air
side' consists of the areas of the airport used mainly for aircraft operation purposes
like runways, taxiways, apron, radio navigational aids, landing aids etc.
In addition, Airport support elements include air traffic control tower, Aircraft Rescue
and Fire Fighting (ARFF) facilities, airport administration facilities, fuel storage, City
maintenance facilities, Medical Centre, Catering and utility systems etc.
6.2.1 Airside Areas

To start with we can discuss these items one by one in brief:
z Runway: Runway (RWY) is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome used
for landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways on an established aerodrome may be
a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both), and for small
aerodromes it could also be a natural surface (grass, dirt, or gravel).
z Orientation and Dimensions: The runways are named according to their
Magnetic Bearings (the direction it is "pointing towards") with reference to North
rounded to nearest 100. The runway number is the whole number nearest one-
tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centre line of the runway, measured clockwise
from the magnetic north. As two 'ends of the runway' point out in two different
directions (Each separated by 1800), thus each runway has two names separated
by 1800. For example the Runways at Delhi (IGI Airport) are 11/29, 10/28 and
09/27 and Runways at Mumbai are 09/27 and 14/32.
101
Figure 6.2: Airside Areas

Each digit of runway name is pronounced separately for clarity in radio
communications. Thus, Runway Three Six would be aligned in roughly a 360 degrees
direction (i.e. magnetic north), Runway Nine would be used for a runway with a 94
degree-alignment (i.e. close to magnetic east), and Runway One Seven for 168
degrees. Thus, Runway One Zero (100°) becomes Runway Two Eight (280°) when
used in the opposite direction and Runway One Eight (180°) becomes Runway Three
Six (360°). For runways less than 100° include the leading "zero", e.g. Runway Zero
Two or Runway Zero One Left.
If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways),
each runway is identified by appending Left, Centre and Right to the Runway number,
for example, at Kolkata Airport, the Runways One Nine Left (19L), Zero One Right
(01R), and One Nine Right (19R). Runway Zero One Left (01L).
From left to right – A pair of parallel runways 35L/17R & 35R/17L.
For aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the wind to
reduce take off roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger
airports usually may have more than one runway in different directions, so that one
can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway
are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind.
Runway dimensions vary from as small as 800 ft (244 m) long and 25 ft (8 m) wide in
smaller general aviation airports, to 18,000 ft (5,486 m) long and 250 ft (76 m) wide at
large international airports built to accommodate large passenger jets. In India major
passenger airports are having runways with length 4500 ft to less than 13000 ft.
Runway dimensions can be measured in feet or in meters depending on your location
in the world.
Runways can be further categorized into the following types:
Non-instrument Runway: A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
approach procedures.
Instrument Runway: One of the following types of runways intended for the
operation of aircraft using instrument approach procedures:
1. Non-precision approach runway. An instrument runway served by visual aids and
a non-visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in
approach.
2. Precision approach runway, category I. An instrument runway served by ILS
and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height not
102 lower than 60 m (200 ft) and either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway
Aviation
visual range not less than 550 m.
3. Precision approach runway, category II. An instrument runway served by ILS
and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height lower
than 60 m (200 ft) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a runway visual range not
less than 350 m.
4. Precision approach runway, category III. An instrument runway served by ILS
and/or MLS to and along the surface of the runway;
(a) intended for operations with a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft), or no
decision height and a runway visual range not less than 200 m.
(b) intended for operations with a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft), or no
decision height and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50
m.
(c) intended for operations with no decision height and no runway visual range
limitations.
Declared Distances
Let us discuss the declared distances:
Take-off Run Available (TORA): The length of runway declared available and
suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.
Take-off Distance Available (TODA): The length of the take off run available plus
the length of the clearway, where provided (the clearway length allowed must lie
within the aerodrome or airport boundary).
Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the take off run available
plus the length of the stopway, where provided.
Landing Distance Available (LDA): The length of runway which is declared
available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
Threshold of a Runway
Threshold of a runway can be discussed in the following manner:
1. The Runway Strip is the cleared, grassy area around the paved runway. It is kept
free from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft,
although the grass is not always necessarily in good condition. The grass is often
marked with white cones or gables.
2. The Runway is the entire paved surface, which typically features threshold
markings, numbers, centre lines, and overrun areas at both ends.
3. Stopways (depicted in Figure 6.3) also known as overrun areas are also
constructed at the end of runways as emergency space to slowly stop planes that
overrun the runway on a landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on an
aborted takeoff or a takeoff gone wrong. Stopways are often not as strong as the
main paved surface of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes
are not allowed to taxi, takeoff or land on stopways, except in an emergency.
Source: www.wikipedia.org
Figure 6.3: Stopway
4. Threshold: The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for landing.
5. Displaced threshold means that a threshold not located at the extremity of a
runway. Displaced threshold is the point at the end of the runway. In major
airports, it is usually marked with white paint arrows that lead up to the displaced 103
threshold (see Figure 6.4). Smaller runways may not have markings to indicate the Airport Layout and Security
displaced threshold.
Source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/content/img/McGrawHill/Aviation/f0217-03.gif
Figure 6.4: Threshold and Displaced Threshold
A displaced threshold may be used for taxiing and take off but not for landing,
because obstacles just before the runway, runway strength, or noise restrictions may
make the area unsuitable for landings.
z Runway Markings and Lightings: The centre line is shown with white broken
lines. The runway markings are shown in Figure 6.5.
Ilustration A
14.5 m
Ilustration B
35 m
9
m
m
1.
5
36.5
Taxiway
1.8 Runway Centre line
m
Centre line
CLOSED RUNWAY MARKING CLOSED TAXIWAY MARKING
Figure 6.5: Runway Markings

z Taxiway: A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps,
hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as
asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass. At
most airports, taxiways are designated by letters such as Taxiway 'A', Taxiway 'C',
104 Taxiway 'B-4' etc. Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit
Aviation
taxiways in order to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This
allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land in a
shorter space of time.
Taxiway markings are shown by yellow continuous lines.
(a) Double yellow lines mark the boundary between areas under jurisdiction of
ATC and the parking areas.
(b) A single solid yellow line marks the taxiway centre line.
(c) Two parallel dashed yellow lines followed by two parallel solid yellow lines
indicate a hold line. A hold line marks the intersection of a taxiway and a
runway. Taxi-holding position lines are marked across the width of a taxiway.
These markings should not be crossed to enter into the runway until a
clearance is received from the tower.
z Rotating Beacons: Pilots identify airports at night by looking for rotating
beacons. Civil airport beacons flash alternating white and green lights. Military
airports flash two white lights followed by a green light. Seaplane landing areas
and lighted heliports use different sequences. If the rotating beacon is turned on
during the day, it usually indicates that IFR conditions prevail, but this isn't
always the case.
z Apron: The airport apron is a defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to
accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading and boarding of
passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking or maintenance. The use of the apron
may be controlled by the apron control service.
The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the manoeuvring area,
but a part of the movement area. All vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron
are referred to as apron traffic.
In fact, the pre-flight activities are done in Ramps; and areas for parking &
maintenance are called aprons. However, normally the words "Apron" and
"Ramp" are used interchangeably. Passenger gates are the main feature of a
terminal ramp.
'Aircraft stand' is a designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking an
aircraft also known as "Parking Bay" or "Gate". Aircraft stands are named as
"Stand Nos" 1, 2, 3, ...,31,..,45, etc.
z Apron Floodlighting: Apron floodlighting is provided on an apron, on a de-
icing/anti-icing facility and on a designated isolated aircraft parking position
intended to be used at night.
Apron floodlights should be located so as to provide adequate illumination on all
apron service areas, with a minimum of glare to pilots of aircraft in flight and on
the ground, aerodrome and apron controllers, and personnel on the apron. The
arrangement and aiming of floodlights should be such that an aircraft stand
receives light from two or more directions to minimize shadows.
z Terminal Building: An airport terminal is a building at an airport where
passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow
them to board and disembark from aircraft.
Within the terminal building, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage,
and go through security. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports
may have several terminals. Some larger airports have one terminal that is
connected to multiple concourses via walkways, Aerobridges (Also called
skybridges), or underground tunnels etc.
Most airport terminals are built in a plain style. However, some, such as Baghdad 105
International Airport, are monumental in stature, while others are considered Airport Layout and Security
architectural masterpieces, such as Terminal 1 at Charles de Gaulle airport near

Paris or Terminal 5 at New York's JFK Airport. A few are designed to reflect the
culture of a particular area. For example, in India, Jodhpur Airport terminal looks
like a Rajashthani Fort, while the terminal at Dimapur (Nagaland Airport) looks
like a Naga House.
z Airport Terminal Designs: Mostly airport terminals open directly onto the tarmac
and passengers are able to proceed to the aircraft either by walking or by taking a
bus to their aircraft. However, on some large airports, aircraft may be parked to
remote aprons or on remotely located bays, where Passengers can be taken by a
surface transport. Now modern airports have many "Aerobridges" to join directly
into the aircraft.
z Control Tower: A control tower, or more specifically an air traffic control tower
(ATC Tower), is the name of the air traffic control unit responsible for
movements around an airport, and is also the name of the building from which the
unit operates.
Airport Control tower is generally a high rise structure above other buildings at an
airport to give air traffic controllers a view of aircraft moving on the ground and
in the air around the airport. Control tower structures usually have glass
(Or transparent) windows to give an all round view.
Figure 6.6: Control Tower

Control Towers typically contain the following:
(a) Radios for communication with aircraft, linked to controllers' headsets or to
microphones and speakers;
(b) A telephone system that connects dedicated voice lines and public telephone
lines via quick-dial systems to controllers' headsets, allowing them to talk to
other controllers and outside parties;
(c) A strip board allowing Flight Progress Strips to be used (however in some
towers these have been replaced by a computerised system);
(d) A 'very pistol' for exhibiting light signals to the aircraft in the event of a radio
communication failure;
(e) Wind and pressure gauges;
(f) Various other, optional equipment.
In addition modern control towers may also include the following:
(a) An Aerodrome Traffic Monitor with a small radar display.
(b) A Surface Movement Radar displaying aircraft and vehicles on the airport to
assist controllers at night and in poor visibility.
106 (c) Computerised meteorological information or a met observer, flight data and
Aviation
briefing systems.
z Hangar: A hangar is an enclosed tall and massive structure designed to hold
aircraft in protective storage, for the purpose of maintenance, repair, overhaul,
inspection, storage and other purposes.
Figure 6.7: Hangar

z Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS) and Precision Approach Path
Indicator (PAPI).
Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS): This is an airport lighting facility
which provides visual gliding guidance to aircraft during approach and landing, by
radiating a pattern of high intensity red and white focused light beams which indicate
to the pilot that he/she is above, on, or below the glide path.
These lights may be visible from up to eight kilometres during the day and up to 32
kilometres or more at night. Figure 6.8 depicts an airport layout that shows various
aerodrome facilities.
Figure 6.8: Airport Layout Showing Various Aerodrome Facilities

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI): PAPI uses the same basic principle as a
VASI, but the white and red lights are arranged in a single row. It is a light system
positioned beside the runway that consists of two, three, or four boxes of lights that
provide a visual indication to the pilot on the glide path for the associated runway. 107
These lights radiate a high intensity red or white beam to indicate whether the pilot is Airport Layout and Security
above or below the required approach path to the runway.

The PAPI is usually located on the left side of the runway and has an effective visual
range of 5 NM (8 kms) during the day and 20 NM (32 kms) at night similar to VASIS.
Each light box of lights of PAPI is equipped with an optical apparatus that splits light
output into two segments, red and white. Depending on the angle of approach, the
lights will appear either red or white to the pilot. Ideally the total of lights will change
from white to half red, moving in succession from right to left side. The pilot will
have reached the normal glidepath (usually around 3 degrees) when there is an even
split in red and white lights. If an aircraft is beneath the glidepath, red lights will
outnumber white; if an aircraft is above the glidepath, more white lights are visible.
Nowadays, mostly PAPIs are used in place of VASIS.
1. Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS): This is an airport
lighting facility which provides visual gliding guidance to aircraft during
approach and landing.
2. A runway is an enclosed tall and massive structure designed to hold aircraft
in protective storage.
6.3 GROUND HANDLING

There are number of airlines that provide ground handling services to airports,
handling agents or even to another airline. As per the IATA (International Air
Transport Association), conservative estimates suggest airlines outsource more than
fifty per cent of the ground handling that takes place at the world's airports. A number
of services of an airliner between the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the time it
departs on its next flight are dealt by ground handling. Speed, efficiency, and accuracy
are vital in ground handling services so as to minimise the turnaround time. A
turnover time is the time in the course of which the aircraft must remain parked at the
gate.
Figure 6.9: A Ground-handling Tug Pulls a British Airways

Boeing 747-400 at London Heathrow Airport, England
Those airlines that have fewer resources and non-frequent services at specific
locations often render ground handling or aircraft maintenance when called upon by
other airlines, as it is a short-term inexpensive alternate for setting up its own ground
handling or maintenance capabilities.
108 Airlines can participate in an industry-standard Mutual Assistance Ground Service
Aviation
Agreement (MAGSA). The Mutual Assistance Ground Service Agreement is
published by the Air Transport Association and is used by airlines to know prices for
support and maintenance to aircraft at so-called Mutual Assistance Ground Service
Agreement Rates, which are updated every year based on changes in the U.S.
Producer Price Index. Airlines can choose to contract for ground handling services
under the terms of a Standard Ground Handling Agreement published in airport
handling manual of the International Air Transport Association . Airlines also have an
alternative to go for ground handling services under non-standard terms.
A number of ground services are not directly concerned to the actual flying of the
aircraft, and in its place encompass other tasks. The main categories of ground
handling services are as under.
z Cabin Service: Cabin services safeguard passenger comfort. The main service
involved in cabin service is cabin cleaning. They take account of as activities such
as cleaning the passenger cabin and replenishment of on-board consumables or
washable items such as pillows, soaps, blankets and tissues.
z Catering: Catering take account of the unloading of idle food and drink from the
aircraft, and the loading of fresh food and drink for crew and passengers. Trolleys
are used for the delivery of Airline meals. Empty or trash-filled trolleys from the
previous flight are replaced with fresh ones. Meals are prepared generally on the
ground with the purpose of minimising the amount of preparation required in the
air.
While there are many airlines that have their own catering, others have either owned
catering companies in the past and divested themselves of the companies, or
have outsourced their catering to third-party companies. Airline catering sources
include the following companies:
z Airline Services and Logistics PLC(EPZE)
z American Airlines
z Atlas Catering (Royal Air Maroc's catering service)
z Cara Operations
z Cathay Pacific's Cathay Pacific Catering Services
z Chelsea Food Services
z Gate Gourmet
z KLM's KLM Catering in Stages
z LSG Sky Chefs
z Q Catering
z Servair
z Thai Airways's Thai Catering Services
z United Airlines
6.3.1 Ramp Service

This consists of services on the ramp or apron, such as:
z Air cargo handling, usually by means of cargo dollies, and cargo loaders
z Air conditioning (more common for smaller aircraft)
z Airstart units (for starting engines)
z Catering trucks
z Deicing 109
z Gate checked luggage, often handled on the tarmac as passengers disembark
z Ground power (so that engines need not be running to provide aircraft power on
the ground)
z Guiding the aircraft into and out of the parking position (by way of aircraft
marshalling),
z Hydraulic mules (units that provide hydraulic power to an aircraft externally)
z Lavatory drainage
z Luggage handling, usually by means of beltloaders and baggage carts
z Passenger stairs (used instead of an aerobridge or airstairs, some budget airlines
use both to improve turnaround speed)
z Refueling, which may be done with a refuelling tanker truck or refuelling pumper
z Towing with pushback tractors
z Water cartage (to refill fresh water tanks)
z Wheelchair lifts, if required
6.3.2 Passenger Service

This comprises services inside the airport terminal such as:
z Providing check-in counter services for the passengers departing on the customer
airlines.
z Providing Gate arrival and departure services. The agents are required to meet a
flight on arrival as well as provide departure services including boarding
passengers and closing the flight.
z Staffing the transfer counters, customer service counters and airline lounges.
Field Operation Service

This service dispatches the aircraft, maintains communication with the rest of the
airline operation at the airport and with Air Traffic Control.
6.4 AIRPORT AND AIRCRAFT SECURITY

One of the most significant issues facing airports in the early twenty-first century is
that of airport security. Most users of commercial service airports are subjected to
security infrastructure, policies, and procedures within the airport terminal area.
Airport security is not limited to the terminal area, however. Airport security concerns
all areas and all users of the airport. Airport security procedures are designed to deter,
prevent, and respond to criminal acts that may affect the safety and security of the
travelling public. Criminal activity includes the hijacking of aircraft, known as air
piracy, damaging or destroying aircraft with explosives, and other acts of terrorism,
defined as the systematic use of terror or unpredictable violence against governments,
publics, or individuals to attain a political objective. Criminal activity also includes
acts of assault, theft, and vandalism against passengers and their property, aircraft, and
all airport facilities.
6.4.1 Airport Security in India

The objective of airport security will be to safeguard the passengers, crew, ground
personnel, the general public and the airport infrastructure against unlawful acts as per
ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices laid down in Annexure-17 to the
Chicago Convention. The level of security will be calibrated by the BCAS according
110 to the threat perception at any point of time. Security will have to be cost-effective
Aviation
when compared to internationally accepted norms. New staffing patterns, different
from the normal police stations, will have to be innovated for airports. There will be
greater accent on modern technology and mechanization, so as to reduce the need for
manpower and increase the effectiveness of the force deployed.
Airport security will be looked after by specialized police agencies, state police and
airport security organizations, depending on the internal security conditions prevalent
in a particular area. BCAS will continue to coordinate the working of the various
agencies to ensure that all security norms are followed by them. Govt. recognizes the
urgent need to develop an airport security organization, in order to have a quietly
efficient, specialized, commercially conscious, passenger-friendly force, at the
international airports to begin with. Private security agencies will also be allowed at
certain airports, if the threat assessment so permits.
There will be constant training of security personnel posted at airports in order to
improve their effectiveness and passenger-friendliness. The present training centre at
BCAS Headquarters will be upgraded and strengthened for this purpose.
6.4.2 Indian Airport Security Check and Regulations

Airport security checks are essential for the safety of both the passengers and the
country. Documents like the passengers' passport, ticket, visa, etc. are checked at the
boarding counter prior to the passenger boarding the aircraft. If these are found
genuine a boarding card is issued to the passenger.
The next step is the immigration check where the biographical data and the passport is
screened and details fed into the computer which automatically matches the details
with the criminal databank to see if there is any illegal doings connected with the
passenger. These completed the passenger is allowed to enter the aircraft.
Regulations for Luggage and Safety Measures

During the first leg of the journey passengers are advised not to buy duty free liquor
since these will get confiscated at the Brussels airport. Hence it is better to purchase
duty free items after the Brussels check in.
The security rules and regulations maintain that:
z Passengers should not agree to carry packets or baggage of unknown people.
z If carrying explosive substances or arms one should declare these at the check in
counters as concealing them is an offence.
z The hand luggage should be small and not contain dry cells or battery cells which
would be removed while checking and the airport will not be able to return them
to the passenger.
z Explosives like compressed gases, fireworks, hand guns, blank cartridges, pistol
caps, acids and alkalis or any apparatus containing mercury should not be carried
in your baggage.
z Liquids that is highly flammable such as fire or cigarette lighters, paints and
thinners, matches, oxidizing material, radioactive material, peroxides or bleaching
powders should be avoided.
z Insecticides and poisonous weed killers or live viruses are strictly prohibited.
z Valuable articles like jewels, money, precious metals should not be carried in the
baggage.
z Sprays and perfumes should be packed according to the cargo regulations and
carried in the baggage.
z Use of cell phone on board the Indian aircraft is prohibited. 111
z For medical use small oxygen cylinders can be carried and for passengers who
require small carbon dioxide gas cylinders to operate mechanical limbs are
allowed with prior permission.
6.4.3 Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS)

The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was initially set up as a Cell in the Directorate
General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) in January 1978 on the recommendation of the
Pande Committee constituted in the wake of the hijacking of the Indian Airlines flight
on 10th September, 1976. The role of the Cell was to coordinate, monitor, inspect and
train personnel in Civil Aviation Security matters. The BCAS was reorganized into an
independent department on 1st April, 1987 under the Ministry of Civil Aviation as a
sequel to the Kanishka Tragedy in June 1985. The main responsibility of BCAS are
lay down standards and measures in respect of security of civil flights at International
and domestic airports in India.
Organisation
BCAS is the regulatory authority for civil aviation security in India. It is headed by an
officer of the rank of Director General of Police and is designated as Commissioner of
Security (Civil Aviation).
Commissioner of Security (CA) is the appropriate authority for implementation of
Annexure 17 to Chicago convention of International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO).
Commissioner of security (CA) is responsible for the development, implementation
and maintenance of the National Civil Aviation Security Programme.
BCAS Hqrs is located at "A" Wing, I-III floor, Janpath Bhavan, Janpath, New Delhi-
110001. It has got four Regional Offices located at International airports i.e. Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. The Regional Office is headed by an officer of the
rank of Deputy Commissioner of Security (CA).
Functions
z Laying down Aviation Security Standards in accordance with Annex 17 to
Chicago Convention of ICAO for airport operators, airlines operators, and their
security agencies responsible for implementing AVSEC measures.
z Monitoring the implementation of security rules and regulations and carrying out
survey of security needs.
z Ensure that the persons implementing security controls are appropriately trained
and possess all competencies required to perform their duties.
z Planning and coordination of Aviation security matters.
z Conducting Surprise/Dummy checks to test professional efficiency and alertness
of security staff.
z Mock exercise to test efficacy of Contingency Plans and operational preparedness
of the various agencies.
Passenger Screening
The processing of passengers and baggage for the purpose of ensuring the security of
the civil aviation system has undergone a virtual overhaul following the terrorist
attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001. As of 2003, passenger and
baggage security screening is managed and operated by the Transportation Security
Administration (TSA). Even though the TSA has ultimate authority of the facilities
112 and procedures that comprise the security screening processes, airport managers and
Aviation
planners should be keenly aware of the security screening process, because the
process has presented the most significant impacts on airport terminal planning and
operations in recent years. As of 2003, policies surrounding passenger and baggage
security screening remained in a high state of flux. Despite this, certain fundamentals
of the passenger and baggage screening process remain.
Security at Commercial Service Airports

Passenger screening facilities include an automated screening process, conducted by a
magnetometer that attempts to screen for weapons potentially carried on by a
passenger that are metallic in content. As a passenger walks through a magnetometer,
the presence of metal on the passenger is detected. If a sufficient amount of metal is
detected, based on the sensitivity setting on the magnetometer, an alarm is triggered.
Passengers who trigger the magnetometer are then subject to a manual search by a
TSA screener. Manual searches range from a further check of metal on the passenger's
person with the use of a hand-held wand, to a manual pat down, to the inspection of
the passenger's shoes.
Carry-on baggage screening facilities are located at security screening stations to
examine the contents of passengers' carry-on baggage for prohibited items such as
firearms, sharp objects that may be used as weapons, or plastic or chemical-based
trace explosives. All carry-on baggage is first inspected through the use of an x-ray
machine. Bags selected because of suspicions as a result of the x-ray examination, or
selected on a random basis, are further inspected through the use of Explosive Trace
Detection (ETD) equipment and/or by manual search. In addition, personal electronic
items such as laptop computers or cellular phones are frequently inspected by being
turned on and briefly operated to check for authenticity.
Prior to September 11, 2001, passenger and carry-on baggage screening fell under the
responsibility of the commercial air carriers whose aircraft provided passenger service
at any given airport, as dictated by FAR Part 108-Aircraft Operator Security, Air
Carriers and Commercial Operators. Under this regulation, air carriers typically
subcontracted security responsibilities to private firms. Studies of these firms
conducted through 2001 revealed a work environment characterized by low, almost
minimum, wages, high turnover rates of 100 to 400 per cent annually, low levels of
training, and low performance quality, illustrated by independent audits which
illustrated the ability to bring prohibited items, such as firearms and other weapons,
through checkpoints. Since November 2002, passenger screening at all commercial
service airports has been performed by the TSA-employed screener workforce (with
the exception of five airports, located in San Francisco, CA; Kansas City, MO;
Rochester, NY; Jackson Hole, WY; and Tupelo, MS; operating under a pilot program
to evaluate new private contracted screener workforces) under 49 CFR Part 1544. The
TSA workforce is provided higher wages than their pre- September 11 private force
counterparts, receives higher levels of training, including 44 hours of classroom and
60 hours of on-the-job training, and by some measures, exhibits higher performance
quality. TSA passenger screening procedures have called for more scrutiny, including
a wider range of prohibited items, more thorough hand searches, removal of passenger
shoes for inspection, and identification checks.
Controlled Access
A variety of measures are used around airports to prevent, or more appropriately,
control the movement of persons and vehicles to and from security-sensitive areas of
the airport property. At most commercial service airports, controlled access through
doors that provide access to the AOA, secure areas, sterile areas, and other areas
within the SIDA, as well as many employee-only restricted areas, is enforced by the
use of control systems. These systems range from simple key locks to smart-access
technologies, such as keypad entry systems requiring proper pass code. In many cases, 113
pass codes are calibrated with a person's SIDA badge, requiring both a presentation of Airport Layout and Security
the person's badge and proper pass code entry to gain access.
One weakness associated with door entry to security-sensitive areas, regardless of
their access control measures, is the ability to allow unauthorized persons to enter
through the door after an authorized person has opened the door. This situation is
known as piggybacking, and is almost always a violation of security policies. In some
instances, revolving turnstiles with a one-rotation limit per access, rather than typical
door systems have been used to restrict the number of persons achieving access
through these areas.
Biometrics
Advanced identification verification technologies, including those that employ
biometrics are continuously being developed to enhance access control at airports.
Biometrics refers to technologies that measure and analyse human body
characteristics such as fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice patterns, facial
patterns, and hand measurements, especially for identification authentication
purposes. Biometric devices typically consist of a reader or scanning device, software
that converts the scanned information into digital form, and a database that stores the
biometric data for comparison. For the most part, biometric technologies have initially
been found to be most applicable when controlling the access of those with SIDA
badges at the airport.
Controlling the access of the general public using biometrics proves more difficult,
because previously recorded data are required to authenticate the identification of the
person. If anything, however, biometrics provides another technology to prevent
unauthorized access to security-sensitive areas.
Perimeter Security
An important part of an airport's security plan is its strategy for protecting the areas
that serve as the border between secured and unsecured areas of the airport, known as
the airport perimeter. Four of the most common methods for securing the airport's
perimeter are perimeter fencing, controlled access gates, area lighting, and patrolling
of the secured area. Perimeter fencing is one of the most common methods of creating
a barrier in otherwise easily accessible areas of an airport's secured area boundary.
Fencing can vary in design, height, and type, depending on local security.
Aircraft Security
The primary purpose of improving security at airports is to safeguard the intentional
misuse of aircraft for terrorist purposes. The primary way of improving security at
aircraft is by proper securing of aircraft. Various methods ought to be used by pilots
for securing their aircraft to make it quite difficult for an unauthorized person to gain
admission to it.
Some primary ways of securing an aircraft take account of:
z Commercially available options for auxiliary locks include locks for propellers,
throttle, and tie-downs.
z Make sure that aircraft ignition keys are not stored inside the aircraft.
z Make sure that door locks are consistently regularly used to prevent avoid
unauthorized access admission or tampering with the aircraft.
z Storing the aircraft in a hangar, if available, and locking hangar doors.
z Using an auxiliary lock to further protect aircraft from unauthorized use.
z Using keyed ignitions where appropriate.
114 Hangars
Aviation
The most prominent way of safeguarding aircraft is by way of its storage in hangars
TSA recognises that hangar space at many airports is not sufficient. Nevertheless, all
efforts ought to be made to utilise hangars wherever available and make sure that all
hangar/personnel doors are secured when unattended.
For emergency purpose hangars should be properly marked and numbered. These
areas are also a good place to install security and informational signs. Hangar locks
that have keys that are easily obtained or duplicated should not be used. Hangar locks
should be rekeyed with every new tenant. Proper lighting around hangar areas should
be installed. As an additional security measure alarm and interruption detection
systems might also help in the security of hangars.
Locks
Irrespective of its quality or cost a lock is simply a delaying device and not a complete
bar to entry. The decision of where to install locks is as important as the decision of
making choice of lock. Such factors to consider may include:
z How many people will need to use the lock?
z How often will codes, keys, or locks need to be changed for persons needing
access? For example, new hangar tenants, those with tie down agreements
needing ramp access, etc.?
z How secure should the area be made?
z Is the area monitored?
z Is the object to be locked indoors or outdoors?
z Will use of a lock interfere with fire code egress requirements?
z Would a certain type of lock hinder access in high traffic areas?
Lighting
Protective lighting furnishes a means of continuing a degree of protection from any
illegal activity, theft or vandalism at night. An emergency power source should also
be used with the security lighting systems if available. The local situation and the
areas to be protected are the factors on which the requirements for protective lighting
of airports depend upon. A careful analysis of security lighting requirements should be
based on the need for good visibility and the following criteria:
z employee recognition and badge identification,
z vehicle access,
z detection of intruders, and
z deterrent to illegal entry.
Normally maintaining protective lightening at airports is not much expensive, and
when properly installed, may furnish airport personnel with additional protection from
surprise by a determined invader. Though, when developing any security lighting plan
care ought to be taken to make sure that lighting ensures interfere with aircraft
operations.
Consider installing outdoor area lighting to help increase the security of fuel storage
areas, aircraft parking and hangar areas, airport access points; and other appropriate
areas.
Signs
The use of signs offers a deterrent by warning of facility boundaries as well as
informing about the results for violation. The signs should be located in such a way
that an individual when standing at one sign, the observer should be able to see the 115
next sign in both directions. While signs for security purposes must be designed to Airport Layout and Security
draw attention, moreover for the purpose of uniformity and style it should also be
coordinated with other airport when possible. Contrasting colours, durable materials,
and reflective material should be used in the construction of signs. Wherever possible,
concise language should be used.
Wording may include – but is not limited to – warnings against trespassing,
unauthorized use of aircraft and tampering with aircraft, and reporting of suspicious
activity. Signage should include phone numbers of the nearest responding law
enforcement agency, 9-1-1, or TSA’s 1-866-GA-SECUR, whichever is appropriate.
Many locations with access control or Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) equipment
may warrant signage for directional, legal, or law enforcement purposes (e.g. “Alarm
will sound if opened”, “Authorized personnel only”, “Notice: All activities in this area
are being monitored and recorded”, etc.).
Identification System
Identifying system of airport employees or authorized tenant access to various areas of
the airport are often used by number of airports. Presently, there are many systems on
the market that may fulfil this. They can range from a simple laminated identification
card that takes account of a photograph of an individual to a sophisticated swipe card
with various biometric data. With any identification system, measures have to be
developed that comprise of safeguarding control and accountability of the media.
Below are number of elements that can be part of an identification system:
z A (UIN) unique identification number
z A clear expiration date
z Airport name
z An image of full-face image
z Employer
z Full name of an individual. The individual’s full name
z The scope of the individual access and movement privileges (e.g. colour coding)
A vehicle identification system may be developed. Vehicle identification system can
provide assistance to airport personnel and law enforcement in identifying authorized
vehicles. Decals, stickers, and hand tags can be used for the purpose of vehicle
identification. Decals should be non-transferable; that is, they should not be capable of
being removed without destroying their integrity. These systems should also be used
to point admission authorisation where appropriate, for instance by numbering or
color-coding. Issuing authorities must also attempt to make current stickers/decals
easily distinguished from expired ones. Furthermore, any decal application form must
contain owner contact information that could be used in case of an emergency.
Airport Planning
Any project undertaken at airport should include security planning. Pre-planning and
continuous monitoring are the most cost effective way of introducing security
measures into any facility or operation. Selecting, constructing, or modifying a facility
without taking into account the security implications can result in costly modifications
and delays. Airport operators must regard addressing future security needs for
instance access controls and lighting enhancements when planning new hangars or
terminal buildings. Security measure should be included and addressed in airport
facility and land leases, airport rules and regulations, and the Minimum Standards
document. Moreover, airport construction projects can affect airfield security.
Construction personnel and vehicle access during projects should also be considered.
116 Check Your Progress 2
Aviation
Fill in the blanks:
1. Planning for ……………………………. should be an integral part of any
project undertaken at an airport.
2. The use of ……………………………. provides a deterrent by warning of
facility boundaries as well notifying of the consequences for violation.
6.5 LET US SUM UP

Airport is a wide term, used in a broad manner. Normally the airport is divided into
two basic parts, 'city side' and 'air side'. 'City side' is what a travelling passenger is
well familiar with and includes airport terminal building, ticket counters, airline and
other offices, waiting halls, security lounges, customs, immigration, outside car park,
cargo building, outside roads etc. The 'air side' consists of the areas of the airport used
mainly for aircraft operation purposes like runways, taxiways, apron, radio
navigational aids, landing aids etc.
Many airlines subcontract ground handling to airports, handling agents or even to
another airline. Ground handling addresses the many service requirements of
an airliner between the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the time it departs on its
next flight. Speed, efficiency, and accuracy are important in ground handling services
in order to minimize the turnaround time.
One of the most significant issues facing airports in the early twenty-first century is
that of airport security. Airport security concerns all areas and all users of the airport.
Airport security procedures are designed to deter, prevent, and respond to criminal
acts that may affect the safety and security of the travelling public.

Prepare a brief note on the safety and security system at Various Indian airports.
6.7 KEYWORDS
Final Approach: The flight path of an aircraft which is inbound to the airport on an
approved final instrument approach course, beginning at the final approach fix or
point and extending to the airport or the point where circling for landing or missed
approach is executed.
Final Approach Areas: Areas of defined dimensions protected for aircraft executing
instrument approaches.
Global Positioning System (GPS): A satellite-based navigation system that will
enhance user-preferred routing, reduce separation standards, and increase access to
airports under instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) through more precision
approaches.
Ground Access Systems: Existing and planned highway and mass transit systems in
the area of the airport.

1. What do you mean by 'city side' and 'air side' area of an airport?
2. Write a detailed note on Runway.
3. What do you mean by terminal building? Discuss.
4. Explain airport ground handling. 117
5. What are the major categories of ground handling services?
6. What are the regulations concerning luggage and safety measures in Indian
airport?
7. Describe Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BACS).

CYP 1
1. True
2. False
CYP 2
1. Security
2. signs

New Delhi.
Group Publishing
118
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LESSON
7
AIRPORT MANAGERIAL OPERATIONS
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Airline Catering
7.2.1 Role of Food Onboard
7.2.2 Flight Catering System
7.3 Handling of Various Bodies
7.3.1 Handling of Unaccompanied Minor
7.3.2 Handling of Disabled Passengers
7.3.3 Carrying of Human Remains
7.3.4 Handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP
7.4 Coordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments
7.5 Let us Sum up
7.7 Keywords

z Define airline catering
z Explain the handling of various bodies at airport
z Discuss the handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP
z Describe the coordination of supporting agencies/departments
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The flight catering industry is a very large, global activity. The total market size is
estimated to be around 12 billion euros. More than 1 billion passengers are served
each year. It is probably one of the most complex operational systems in the world.
For instance, a large-scale flight catering production unit may employ over 800 staff
to produce as many as 25,000 meals per day during peak periods.
119
7.2 AIRLINE CATERING Airport Managerial Operations
Large international airlines may have more than 1,000 takeoffs and landings every
day. A single, long-haul Boeing 747 has over 40,000 items loaded on to it before it
flies. All together these items weigh 6 metric tonnes and occupy a space of 60 cubic
metres. These items range from meals to toilet bags, from duty-free goods to first aid
boxes, from newspapers to headsets. Food items must be fresh and items for personal
passenger use must be clean and serviceable.
These facts and others like them make flight catering unlike any other sector of the
catering industry. While the way food is served on trays to airline passengers bears
some resemblance to service styles in restaurants or cafeterias, the way food is
prepared and cooked increasingly resembles a food manufacturing plant. Certainly the
hot kitchen in a typical production kitchen is often no more than 10% of the total floor
area. The rest of the space is used for bonded stores, tray and trolley assembly, and
flight wash-up. And almost certainly there are far more loaders and drivers employed
than chefs. The way food and equipment is stored resembles a freight warehouse, and
the way meals and equipment are transported and supplied has a close affinity to
military-style logistics and distribution systems.
When the very large numbers and variety of items which must be loaded for passenger
service during a flight are considered, together with the need for them to be loaded at
widespread locations, the logistics complexity is obvious. It is therefore not surprising
that the President of KLM Catering once said that “Flight catering is 70 per cent
logistics and 30 per cent cooking.”
7.2.1 Role of Food Onboard

The importance of food and onboard service varies from airlines to airlines. There are
some airlines that consider food service as a marketing tool. A number of airlines
advertise their product by making food the central point. But food as a marketing tool
has only a restricted impact. Surveys over a number of years recommend that
passengers seems to be more interested about safety, scheduling/ticketing issues,
on-time performance, the physical surroundings of the aircraft's for example seat and
leg comfort, and gate check-in and boarding. This means that though food is
important, it is doubtful to be the deciding for the passenger for making choice of their
airline. The quality of meat in airlines is perceived to be low by consumers and the
media. This may be due to a number of factors which affect passengers’ appetite and
behaviour whilst flying. Sensory abilities for instance smell, sight, and taste are
affected by the relatively low humidity and air pressure experienced at altitude. This
affects taste buds which may function as much as thirty per cent below par and
mucous membranes in the nose which blunts the sense of smell. Airline food is often
more highly seasoned for these reasons. Similarly, at such a high altitude not all wines
hold their subtle aroma and bouquet and this has to be considered when wine lists are
chosen by the airlines and caterers. Moreover, as passenger movement and exercise is
limited at such high altitude, the meals provided must to be easily digestible.
Additionally, the effects of alcohol are more quickly observed in a pressurised cabin
and on dehydrated passengers.
Major Stakeholders
The in-flight catering industry comprises five major players:
z The airlines, or their various representatives;
z The providers, in this case specialised flight caterers;
z The suppliers, either to the providers or direct to the airlines;
z Those using the airline's services, that is the fare-paying passengers and
z Distributors.
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Figure 7.1: Major Stakeholders in Flight Catering

z Role of the passenger: A feature of the airline industry is the huge diversity of
customers. Prior to the 1960s, air travel was exclusive – only the very rich or
government employees would fly long haul. The development of jet aircraft and
charter airlines lead to mass air travel. Then in the 1990s, the business model was
redesigned by the operators of so called low cost or budget airlines.
z Role of airlines: Airlines are accountable for the design of onboard service. This
is affected by the time of flight, length of flight, point of embarkation and
disembarkation, nationality or ethnicity of passengers, seat class (economy,
business or first), budget allowed by the airline, price of food, seasonality of food,
cost of labour to make a food item, time required to serve the food, number of
flight attendants available to serve food, time needed to consume food, ability of
meal to be consumed in a small place on a plane, the time and effort needed to
clear an item, the needs and desires of the passengers, odours that may enter the
cabin, the capacity of meal to be rethermalised and the capacity of the meal to
withstand low humidity and pressures. Given this long list of variables it is not
astonishing that the nature of onboard service differs extensively from flight to
flight and airline to airline.
z Role of caterers: Caterers have two main roles: to prepare items not bought in
directly from suppliers to a state ready for loading on board and to assemble trays
and trolleys. Flight kitchens are at all times located near to major airports and are
typically used to 'manufacture' consumable food items. There are two main
reasons why menu items may be made outside of airport-based flight kitchens: the
cost of space and the cost of labour. Airport space is at a premium so often it is
not reasonable for a flight kitchen to produce all of the meals required for every
seat class. Such as, some flight kitchens or caterers may make their first-class, and
in some cases business-class, meals from scratch at the flight kitchen and
subcontract all other meal production.
The caterer is often in an unusual and at times difficult, position. Although they
are a customer of the supplier, the products used may not be of their choosing but
may have been determined by the airline. When the products used are those
purchased directly by the airline, caterers only charge for a handling and storage
fee of the product but not the cost of the product. Such as, all liquor products for
tax purpose must be purchased by the airlines, either through a prepaid
arrangement with the distributor or through an arrangement whereby the charges
are directly invoiced to the airline. However, the caterer is often accountable for
keeping and accounting for any such products and these products are generally
delivered directly to the caterer’s bonded store. The challenge for caterers is that
the products are the property of the individual airlines served by the caterer.
Products belonging to one airline cannot be used for another, even if the two
airlines use identical products.
z Role of suppliers: Suppliers may supply the inflight industry in two main ways. 121
Firstly, based on the scheduled menus, the supplier receives direct orders from the Airport Managerial Operations
airlines, even if they deliver their goods to flight kitchens operated by the
contracted caterers. Airlines buy direct from suppliers for the reason that they
want to have continuousness of supply in all their stations, since they negotiate a
discount, or because they want to preserve a particular brand image. Secondly, the
supplier may supply the caterer directly, with products that meet the contract
specification.
Likewise suppliers have two approaches to manufacturing their products. Some
supply airlines or their caterers with their standard products, while others make
and supply specialist products specially designed for the in-flight kitchen. In the
first instance, the manufacture of these products is likely to take place in a factory
or plant producing many other products. The products for in-flight service may be
to some extent modified for that market. For instance, spirits manufacturers need
to bottle their spirits in miniatures rather than 40 oz bottles. In the second case, the
manufacturer concentrates on simply producing a cycle of food items, often
supplying their sole business and therefore they can produce large amounts of
these items to be sold to the flight kitchen, as a method of outsourcing. These food
manufacturers can make these items in volume at a lower cost than the flight
kitchen can. The cost of labour to mass produce meals is obviously cheaper a
good distance away from large cities where airports must exist. Traditionally it
was mainly frozen meals, or ‘pop-outs’ as they are called in the USA, that were
outsourced in this way. Nowadays all kinds of specialist food items may be
outsourced, for instance canapés, ethnic meals, vegetarian items, patisserie, and so
on.
z Role of distributors: Distributors are characteristically global logistics companies,
specialising in moving goods around the world, often in containers. They furnish
two main services for airlines or caterers. They can distribute materials and meals
from vendor/suppliers to both the caterers and the airlines and they can track the
numbers, volumes, and brands of the products they distribute. Using a specialised
distributor or logistics company allows the airline and caterer to better manage the
flow of materials from aircraft to flight kitchen and back again. This applies to
both short-term food items and to longer term recyclable items, including
equipment.
7.2.2 Flight Catering System

The flight catering system is shown in Figure 7.2. This model signifies only a
framework of the process flow inflight catering as such operations have various
alternative configurations. Flight catering starts with an understanding of the number
of passengers and their needs; such information is available from both market research
and actual passenger behaviour. On the basis of this, airlines, sometimes in
consultation with caterers and suppliers, develop their product and service
specifications. Such specifications regulate exactly what food, drink and equipment
items are to be carried on each route for each class of passenger. In reaction to
forecasts of passenger numbers on any given flight, the production unit follows a
series of complex steps to produce trayed meals and non-food items ready for
transportation to the aircraft.
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Figure 7.2: Flight Catering System

Transportation is usually carried out by using specialist high-loader trucks that allow
trolleys to be rolled on and off aircraft. Once loaded, trolleys and other items are
required to be stowed on board to make sure the microbial safety of cooked items and
the security and safety of the crew, passengers and aircraft. At the designated time
during the flight, the cabin crew then carry out the service of meals, snacks and other
items. Upon arrival at its destination, each aircraft is then stripped of all the equipment
and trolleys, which are returned to the production units for cleaning and re-use. In
achieving this, it is essential to recognize the impact of flying on the physiology of the
passenger, to manage a complex supply chain, safeguard the safety and quality of the
product, utilize increasingly sophisticated information and communication
technologies, and involve in on-going research and development.
Usually there have been 3 elementary differences in this system. In North America,
the basic model was for airlines to take accountability for determining strategy, galley
planning and sourcing, designing or selecting offers, items and components. The
airlines then contracted out to caterers—storage, inventory control, preparation,
assembly, loading/unloading, recycling and waste disposal. Caterers then purchased
from suppliers the raw materials, components and items they needed with the aim of
meeting their contractual obligations with the airline.
However this model applies only to the supply of fresh items viz. meals. There was a
different model for the supply of retail items, for instance soft drinks, alcoholic
beverages, and duty free good. In this case, airlines tended to negotiate directly with
suppliers; whereas the elements of preparation, packaging and tray assembly were
avoidable as these items came in ready for sale. This retail flight catering supply chain
is used not only in North America but also in Europe.
However, the fresh supply chain in Europe was configured differently to North
America, as airlines did not have caterers to whom they could outsource. Therefore,
the third variation was backwardly integrated airlines i.e. they owned and operated
their own flight kitchens. later, European airlines have decided to dispose of their 123
kitchens, but two – Lufthansa and Swissair – established their catering divisions so Airport Managerial Operations
that they grew into LSG Skychef and Gate Gourmet, now the two largest flight
caterers in the world.
Even though there have been many advances in the supply chain from the 1990s
onwards, these three basic models continue to the present day. The larger and growing
airlines in the Asia and Middle East have been likely to adopt the European model;
while the European airlines have inclined to divest themselves of their flight catering
operations and have adopted the North American model. Both in-house and
outsourced catering will continue to be adopted in the future, even though increasingly
this is only likely to be applied to first and business class offers.
This analysis also describes how it is possible for airlines to switch away from
complimentary meal service to so-called ‘buy on board’. In principle, buy on board is
grounded on the notion that the food items turn out to be a retail product. Therefore,
the retail supply chain can be adopted for this purpose. Low cost airlines, as part of
their business model, adopted the retail approach to the flight catering supply chain
from the very beginning.

1. Transportation is usually carried out by using specialist high-loader trucks
that enable trolleys to be rolled on and off aircraft.
2. Flight catering starts with an understanding of the number of passengers and
their needs.
7.3 HANDLING OF VARIOUS BODIES

7.3.1 Handling of Unaccompanied Minor
z For sectors within India: A child between the ages of 5 years through 12 years
travelling alone or with one or more guests who have not yet completed 18 years
is considered an Unaccompanied Minor (UM) for travel within India where the
entire travel is on Jet Airways.
z For international sectors: A child between the ages of 6 years through 12 years
travelling alone or travelling with one or more guests who have not yet completed
18 years is considered an Unaccompanied Minor (UM) for international travel
where the entire travel is on Jet Airways.
Jet Airways will accept unaccompanied minors with an itinerary involving connecting
flights on other airlines subject to the acceptance policies of all the other airlines
participating in the journey.
When an unaccompanied minor is entrusted to us for travel, no effort is spared in
providing special attention to him or her. This should give confidence to parents/
guardians regarding our ability to look after their children whilst travelling with us.
The child is escorted to the aircraft and handed over to the Inflight Executive (IFE).
On arrival at the destination the arrival staff will receive the UM from the IFE.
We ensure that an unaccompanied minor is never left alone at any point of time, as we
are responsible for the child whilst with us. Unaccompanied Minors are seated near
the galley so that crew can keep an eye on them.
At the destination, the Unaccompanied Minor is handed over only to the person stated
in the UM form. If necessary, proof of identity may be requested.
124 Formalities/Procedures for the UMNR Travel − Travel within India
Aviation
z The detailed information of the UMNR has to be given at the time of reservation.
z Child discount is not applicable to the UMNR.
z You will have to fill up the UMNR form at the origin. This form is available at Jet
Airways reservation and ticketing counter.
z The child is handed over to our ground staff at the origin.
z The child is escorted by our ground staff and handed over to the In-Flight
Executive.
z The cabin crew will take care of the child through the flight and ensure that the
child is seated near the crew galley.
z On arrival at destination the crew hands over the child to the ground staff.
z The ground staff escort the child and will hand over the child only to the person
whose name is mentioned in the UMNR form.
Formalities/Procedures for the UMNR Travel − International Travel

z Child discount is not applicable to the UMNR.
z We will not accept an UNMR when there is an overnight stay involved. However,
in the event of diversion of a flight to another station, a female staff will stay in
the hotel until the departure of the flight.
z If a UMNR has an onward connecting flight on Jet Airways or any other airline,
and an overnight stay is involved, a person must be nominated by the
parents/guardians to collect the child on arrival at the point of transfer and remain
with the child until he/she has been handed over to the staff of the onward
connecting flight. If, the parents/guardians are unable to nominate such a person,
we cannot accept the UNMR for travel.
z If the onward connecting flight is on Jet Airways but departs from another airport
in the same city, or another terminal, we will transfer the UNMR provided the
connecting time is 4 hours or less.
z If the onward connecting flight is on another airline, departing from the same
terminal or another terminal which can be easily accessed without exiting the
terminal building, we will transfer the UMNR to the connecting carrier provided
the connecting time is 4 hours or less.
z If the onward connecting flight is on another airline and departs from another
airport in the same city or another terminal that cannot be accessed without
exiting the terminal building, a person must be nominated by the parents/
guardians to collect the UNMR at the transfer point and further deliver him/her to
the onward carrier.
7.3.2 Handling of Disabled Passengers

Air transportation today has been made easier than ever. The Government policies on
‘Open Sky’ allowed the growth of airlines and also non-scheduled operators in the
country. The new ideas of Low Cost and Low Frill concept have also brought the
common man with average income group to travel by air.
Whereas persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility like everyone
else are increasingly given the possibility to travel by air, there lies a need to
standardize the conditions for travel of such persons so as to facilitate their acceptance
and handling of their carriage by the airlines and other operators.
CAR (Civil Aviation Requirements) establishes regulations for the protection of and 125
provision of assistance to disabled persons and persons with reduced mobility Airport Managerial Operations
traveling by air in order to protect them against any form of discrimination and to
ensure that they receive all possible assistance with due respect and dignity.
For the purpose of this CAR, the Incapacitated Persons or Persons with Disability/
Reduced Mobility are considered the same.
CAR is issued under the provisions of Rule 133 A of the Aircraft Rules, 1937 for
information, guidance and compliance by the concerned agencies.
All operators engaged in scheduled and non-scheduled air transport services both
domestic and international, engaged in carriage of passengers, and shall comply with
the requirements of this CAR.
Requirements
z No airline shall refuse to carry persons with disability or persons with reduced
mobility and their assistive aids/devices, escorts and guide dogs including their
presence in the cabin, provided such persons or their representatives, at the time
of booking and/or check-in for travel, inform the airlines of their requirement. The
airlines shall incorporate appropriate provisions in the online form for booking
tickets so that all the required facilities are made available to the passengers with
disabilities at the time of check-in.
z The airline shall formulate a detailed procedure for carriage of disabled persons or
persons with reduced mobility and publish the same on their website.
z Airlines should develop emergency evacuation procedures and training of their
staff for handling persons with disabilities and include the same in their safety
manuals. The training programme shall include detailed procedures of handling,
evacuation and develop awareness towards disabled passengers, persons with
medical conditions, elderly persons, infants, pregnant women etc.
z All airlines and airport management shall run program for their staff engaged in
passenger handling e.g. cabin crew/commercial staff including floor walkers and
counter staff etc. for sensitization and developing awareness for assisting
passengers with disabilities. The training program shall be conducted at the time
of initial training and a refresher shall be conducted every 3 years on the subject.
Only such persons who have current course shall be assigned to handling disabled
persons. The training program should inter alia, include assisting disabled persons
in filling up travel documents as may be required while providing assistance in
flight.
z No airline shall refuse to engage in interline transactions for carriage of disabled
persons or persons with reduced mobility or to commence/continue interline
transportation of such persons.
Note: This requirement does not require airlines to create interline agreements
solely for this purpose.
z Many persons with disabilities do not require constant assistance for their
activities. Therefore, if the passenger declares independence in feeding,
communication with reasonable accommodation, toileting and personal needs, the
airlines shall not insist for the presence of an escort.
z No airline shall refuse to carry persons traveling in a stretcher or incubator when
they are accompanied by an escort who will be responsible for them and their
needs of embarking, disembarking, during flight, and during emergency
evacuation. The required number of seats for such travel must be reserved in
advance at applicable fares.
126 z All airlines shall provide necessary assistance to persons with disabilities/
Aviation
impairment who wish to travel alone without an escort.
z Persons with disabilities not holding any certificate shall also be provided
necessary assistance as well as the aids such as wheel chairs, ambulifts, etc. In
such cases during ticketing/check-in the individuals’ degree of disability and his
need for assistance may be confirmed. Airlines shall not refuse carriage in such
cases.
z Airport operator shall display International symbol of Disability within the visible
proximity of the main entrance of the arrival/departure terminal, informing that
they may contact the concerned airline operator for special assistance. Special
assistance to be provided by Airport operator/security agencies to the visually
impaired in locating concerned airline operator counter/office. Airport operator
shall provide dedicated reserved parking space, toilets with independent entrance
with proper signage and barrier free access to all areas in the terminal building.
z Once a passenger has bought a ticket for travel, it is obligatory on part of the
airline that he reaches the aircraft from the departure lounge, and at the end of the
journey from the aircraft to the arrival lounge exit, without incurring any further
expenditure.
z Sufficient directional signage should be placed inside the airport regarding the
availability of assistance for disabled person or person with reduced mobility.
Airlines shall not limit the number or types of incapacitated passengers on their
flights other than for specific reason for orderly evacuation from the aircraft exits
and due to physical limitations such as size of the aircraft.
z Airlines shall provide assistance to meet the particular needs of the persons with
disabilities and persons with reduced mobility, from the departing airport terminal
to the destination airport terminal.
z Persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility have equal choice of
seat allocation as others, subject to safety requirements and physical limitations of
the aircraft - like seats near the emergency exits and seats with more leg-room.
Medical Clearance
z No Medical clearance or special forms shall be insisted from persons with
disabilities or persons with reduced mobility who only require special assistance
at the airport for assistance in embarking/disembarking and a reasonable
accommodation in flight, who otherwise do not require any additional assistance.
z A medical clearance by the airline may be required only when the airline has
received information that the passenger.
suffers from any disease, which is believed to be actively contagious and
communicable;
who, because of certain diseases, or incapacitation may have or develop an
adverse physical condition which could have an adverse effect during flight
and on safety and emergency evacuation procedures;
would require medical attention and/or special equipment to maintain their
health during the flights;
there exists a possibility of medical condition aggravated during or because of
the flight.
Note: Persons with specific disabilities should plan to have all required forms for
assistance ready in advance, to avoid flight delays. Forms and information will be
made available on each airline’s website.
z Any passenger having any of the conditions mentioned in 5.2 (a) through 5.2 (d) 127
be subjected to prior clearance for air travel by the medical departments/advisors Airport Managerial Operations
of the carrying airlines. In case the passenger has a connecting flight with another
airline, this medical clearance should be accepted at the first point of check-in and
the information transmitted by the first Airlines to the connecting airlines so that
the passenger is not required to furnish the same again and again.
z Before refusing carriage of any such passengers, the airlines shall refer to their
medical departments/advisors for advise/clarification in accordance with a
procedure, which shall be documented by the airlines. For such clearance the
airline may seek the necessary medical information from the passenger(s)
concerned or their representatives. Any forms for such information to be provided
to the passengers by the airline staff will be made available on the airline’s
website.
z The airline shall enter for each person with disabilities or person with reduced
mobility or incapacitated passenger the information sheet requiring special
assistance.
Note 1: The airline shall establish a procedure for expeditious clearance by their
medical departments, where required, to avoid delays causing inconvenience to
passengers. Airlines shall provide necessary forms and procedures on their websites
and through their call centres/agencies to make the process simple. The passengers
should pre-clear themselves with the airline in advance.
Note 2: The airline shall ensure that at time of check-in airline staff is alerted and
shall verify that all needs required by such passenger in advance in the relevant forms
have been made available.
Note 3: The procedures involving medical clearances shall be documented and
published in each airline’s websites.
Availability of Wheelchairs and/or Other Assistive Devices

All assistive aids shall be provided without any extra cost to the passengers.
1. Wheelchairs:
(a) Airlines shall ensure that at all stations, for boarding/disembarking purposes,
before departure, during intermediate stops and on arrival wheel chairs are
available without any extra charge and that advance arrangements made with
other concerned agencies like Airport Management where necessary to ensure
that movement of persons with disabilities and persons with reduced mobility
within the airport is not restricted.
(b) Passengers who intend to check-in with their own wheelchair shall be given
the option of using a station/airport wheelchair. If the passengers prefer to use
their own wheelchair within the airport, they shall be permitted to use it up to
the aircraft, whereupon it may be stowed at an appropriate place in the
aircraft. At the time of disembarking, the passenger’s wheel chair should be
returned to him to enable him to transfer himself from the aisle seat directly
into his own wheel chair.
2. Stretchers: Upon advance request, and with a charge for such material as may be
levied, the airlines shall make stretchers and associated equipment, e.g. blankets,
pillows, sheets, nursing materials and privacy curtains, available for passengers
who cannot use the standard airline seat in a sitting or reclining position for the
class of service desired.
Ambulifts at airport: Every airport operator shall make appropriate provision
including ambulifts to enable disabled passengers or passengers with reduced
128 mobility to embark/disembark the aircraft without inconvenience. Such provision
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may be made in coordination with airline operators, if required.
3. Other Assistive Devices:
(a) Airlines shall ensure availability of low floor accessible buses at the airports
to enable easy boarding and alighting by passengers.
(b) To board/disembark the disabled persons, immobile or incapacitated
passengers not traveling on stretchers, airlines shall have available narrow
aisle chairs (wheelchair-type devices), without armrests, preferably foldable
type that can be moved about in the passenger cabin, before 31.7.2009.
(c) Airport Management Authorities shall provide ramps at least at the main
entrance/exit to the terminal building for easy access.
(d) Upon request the airlines shall endeavour to have available on board a special
wheel chair capable of carrying a handicapped passenger to enable them to
use lavatory facilities, or as a boarding/disembarkation vehicle where these
are not available.
Boarding, Seating and Briefing

1. Boarding:
(a) The presence of all categories of incapacitated passengers and persons with
disabilities or reduced mobility with their escorts and any special
arrangements made for them while on board, shall always be referred to the
captain/senior cabin crew member.
(b) Incapacitated passengers and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility and
their escorts shall be offered pre-boarding facilities.
(c) If passengers for any reason have to be offloaded, the highest possible priority
for transportation shall be given to persons with disability or persons with
reduced mobility, and to their escorts.
(d) The checked-in baggage of the persons with disability or with reduced
mobility should be given ’Priority Tags’ to ensure early identification and
assistance by the airline ground staff.
2. Seating:
(a) Incapacitated passengers and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility
including blind shall not be restricted to any particular cabin or seating areas,
except when it is done for safety of passengers and avoid interference with
evacuations or due to physical limitations of the aircraft.
(b) Airlines shall have to maintain procedures for carriage of Guide/Service Dogs
if required in cabin for the assistance of persons with disabilities or persons
with reduced mobility.
3. Briefing:
(a) Before take off, persons with certain types of disabilities or persons with
reduced mobility, incapacitated passengers and their escorts may be
individually briefed on emergency procedures, cabin layout and specialized
equipment supplied by the airline. The responsibility for such special briefing
shall rests with airline’s senior cabin crew on the flight.
(b) Blind passengers may be briefed verbally, and Braille brochures where
available may back up such briefing. Instructions in large print may be made
available for persons with low vision.
4. In-transit off-loading: 129
Airport Managerial Operations
When overnight accommodation is offered such as when disabled persons are
offloaded or when airlines are forced to have an overnight halt, airlines must
endeavour to ensure that wheel chair users are allocated accommodation that is
suitable to their needs.
5. Loading of special equipment of persons with disabilities or reduced mobility:
Special equipment required by incapacitated passengers and persons with
disabilities or reduced mobility in connection with their trip, if not carried in the
passenger cabin, shall be loaded in the baggage holds where it is easily accessible
for timely return to the passenger at the time of disembarkations.
All such items must be properly identified and tagged, must always travel with the
passenger, and shall be loaded in such a way as to be readily and immediately
available at transfer and destination points.
Note: Passengers with assistive aids and devices may be allowed to take the same
as a hand baggage as these devices are delicate and prone to breakage.
6. Transit stations:
Incapacitated passengers and persons with disabilities or reduced mobility
requiring special assistance or protection from disturbance, and their escorts, shall
be permitted to stay on board during transit stops, if they so desire, subject to the
observance of applicable safety and security norms.
7. Disembarkation at point of transfer and/or destination:
(a) Upon request, the airline shall make arrangements for assisting persons with
disabilities or persons with reduced mobility and incapacitated passengers in
baggage delivery and getting out of the airport, even when they are
accompanied by an escort. The checked in baggage with ‘Priority Tags’
should be kept in a safe place by the ground staff till the passenger arrives.
(b) Wheelchairs and other assistive devices checked-in shall, within the shortest
possible time, be delivered as close as possible to the door of the aircraft.
8. Transmission of Information/Down line notice:
The airline checking in the incapacitated passenger and persons with disabilities
or reduced mobility (or any person delegated by such airline) shall be responsible
for advising its ground staff at transit stations and at the airport of disembarkation
about the presence of incapacitated passengers and the location of wheelchairs
and assistive devices on board and about the need to arrange for special
assistance.
9. Provision of Ambulances:
(a) The Aerodrome operator shall provide ambulance facility for the passenger on
arrival and departure at/from the airport, to such passengers on stretchers,
upon advance request by the passengers or their representative or by the
airline.
(b) Incapacitated passengers arriving at the airport in hospital/outside ambulance
may be given an option of either taking the ambulance up to the aircraft
boarding point or use the airport ambulance for going to the aircraft. In the
former case the airport management shall provide escort to direct the
ambulance driver through designated areas for vehicle driving.
10. Assistance on the Plane:
(a) All airlines should assist a passenger with disability or reduced mobility to get
to the toilet and to provide essential safety information.
130 (b) Airlines shall provide accommodation for passenger with disability or reduced
Aviation
mobility which may require extra leg space without any extra charge.
(c) Airline should ensure proper storage and handling of mobility equipment or
any such assistive devices used by the persons with disability or reduced
mobility. In case of lost or damage to such equipment the airlines shall be
liable for provide suitable compensation.
(d) Airlines should provide necessary procedure for emergency evacuation in
respect of person with disability or reduced mobility in the form of passenger
briefing card or individualized verbal briefing.
(e) All information required by the airlines to facilitate carriage of the disable
person or person with reduced mobility must be gathered by the airline during
the online booking process or through the call centres. Airlines shall obtain all
the information about the specific requirements of the persons with
disabilities at the time of ticketing. Once the ticket is confirmed no further
enquires shall be made.
(f) The following information should help the airline to make arrangements:
(i) the nature and level of special assistance required when embarking,
disembarking and in-flight assistance required;
(ii) mobility equipment and disability aids that need to be carried by the
airline either in cabin and/or aircraft hold;
(iii) whether the passenger will be accompanied with an escort.
Note: The above is not an exhaustive list and during online booking, the airlines
should gather all such information without requiring the passenger to provide
additional information later.
11. Complaint Procedure:
(a) A disabled person or person with reduced mobility who considers that this
regulation has been infringed may bring the matter to the attention of the
managing body of airlines, airport or other concerned authorities, as the case
may be.
(b) The managing body of the airlines and the airport shall ensure speedy and
proper redressal of these complaints.
Case Study: Air India − Persons with Disabilities or Persons with

Reduced Mobility
W hen Incapacitated Passengers travel, every effort is made to make

their journey comfortable and all necessary arrangements are made
in advance, in order to facilitate them. Incapacitated Passengers shall
be defined as those with a physical disability or a neurological disorder or with
a medical condition, who require individual attention or assistance on
emplaning/deplaning, during the flight and during ground handling, which is
normally not extended to other passengers. This requirement will be apparent
from special requests made by the passenger or by their family or by a medical
authority at the time of making a booking.
Categories
Irrespective of their physical or medical condition, Incapacitated Passengers are
categorized into various groups. These groups are identified in airline messages
by AIRIMP Codes, such as:
z WCHR Wheelchair-R for ramp (passenger can ascend/descend steps and
walk to the seat)
Contd…
z WCHS Wheelchair-S for steps (passenger unable to ascend/descend steps 131
but able to walk to the seat) Airport Managerial Operations
z WCHC Wheelchair-C for cabin seat (passenger completely immobile)

z STCR Stretcher passenger
z BLND Blind passenger (specify if accompanied by seeing-eye dog)
z DEAF Deaf passenger
z MEDA Medical Case (Medical clearance required)
z OXYG Needing oxygen during flight
z LEGL Left Leg-in cast
z LEGR Right leg-in cast
z LEGB Both Legs in cast
Limitations
In keeping with the requirement of air safety, the carriage of wheelchair
passengers is restricted on our flights. The objective of this restriction is
primarily, the safety of all passengers in the unlikely event of an emergency
evacuation.
Air-India may refuse to carry passengers under the following conditions:
z When the physical or medical condition of a passenger poses a threat to
the safety of other passengers and their property, the aircraft or the crew.
z Passenger who refuses or does not submit himself to the specific
conditions of carriage of Air-India.
z When persons travelling in a stretcher or incubator, persons with severe
immobility impairment, persons with severe hearing or vision impairment,
unless accompanied by an escort, who will be responsible for them and
their needs on emplaning, deplaning, during the flight and during
emergency evacuation.
z Person who may be a source of infection and in the case of certain diseases
discomfort to other passengers.
Charges for Wheelchairs
Requests generally received for wheelchair assistance are from the following
categories of passengers:
z Non-ambulatory i.e. passengers totally dependent on wheelchairs
z Ambulatory i.e. passengers who can walk with assistance
z Aged passengers
In order not to violate the civil rights of passengers with disabilities, for a
barrier free environment, no charges will be levied for the use of wheelchairs at
all airports for passengers travelling in any class.
Mobility Assistance at the Airport and In-flight
If you need mobility assistance to help you through the airport, please request it
once you have made your booking, so that the service can be provided. If you
already have a booking with Air India, you can request mobility assistance
through the Booking Office from where you have done your booking/ticketing.
Contd…
132 Facilitation
Aviation
In order to facilitate passengers requiring wheelchair assistance at the airport,
Air India ensures that:
Wheelchair requests are adequately recorded and confirmed in the SSR element
for each segment of the Air-India and interline journey. At the time of check-in,
the appropriate inputs are made in the system to ensure that same is reflected
for the information and action by cabin crew. For easy identification, all
disabled passengers are provided with wheelchair badges. Disabled passengers
are boarded first and deplaned last in order not to interfere with movement of
other passengers. Disabled passengers are conveniently seated close to the toilet
and on the aisle. The Commander and the Cabin Crew are fully briefed on all
such cases including their medical history, if any, to enable the Cabin Crew to
provide every type of assistance on-board. After departure, messages are sent to
all en-route stations and destination to assist passengers in transit and on
arrival. On arrival, passengers are assisted in deplaning and an escort provided
up to the baggage hall or the connecting carrier in the event of an onward
connection. Passengers on wheelchairs are provided with special stickers
affixed on their boarding cards for easy identification.
Medical Clearance Not Required
Medical clearance or special forms are not required for Incapacitated
Passengers, who only require special assistance at the airport or at the time of
embarking or disembarking.
For those passengers, who are permanently or chronically incapacitated and do
not need medical clearance but may only require assistance, in order to
facilitate their travel, the Medical Department of any carrier may issue a
Frequent Travellers’ Medical Card (FREMEC). When such cards issued by the
medical authority of any Carrier are presented within the validity, they may be
accepted for travel as a medical clearance.
Medical Clearance Required
The following passengers will be subject to clearance from the Air India
Medical Services Department and the Medical Department/Advisors of all
other interline carriers involved in the transportation of the passenger. Airlines
can deny transportation to the following passengers:
z Needing medical clearance unless they meet the requirements of the
carrier/s involved in the transportation.
z Any disease which is believed to be contagious and communicable.
Certain diseases or incapacitation which could develop into an unusual
behaviour or physical condition which may have adverse effect on the
welfare and comfort of other passengers.
z Could be a potential hazard to the safety of the flight (including the
possibility of a diversion and unscheduled landing)
z Could require medical attention and special equipment to maintain their
health during the flight,
z Might have a medical condition which could be aggravated during the
flight.
For such Incapacitated Passengers requiring Medical Assistance, an
information sheet must be filled-up containing all information on the medical
assistance required by the passenger, at the time of booking (agents office or an
airline office). Where it is determined that a medical clearance is required, the
passenger must take a MEDIF Form, which is required to be completed by their
Contd…
attending doctor. The completed form must be forwarded to the Air India 133
Medical Services Department for necessary clearance. On receipt of clearance Airport Managerial Operations
to travel from the Medical Department and that of the other participating
carriers, the booking may be effected and the PNR completed.
Passengers, who require continuous supply of oxygen, are not booked on the
long haul non-stop flights, due to limited uplift of oxygen for the complete
duration of the flight.
Availability of wheelchairs and other Assistive Devices Air India ensures that:
Sufficient wheelchairs are available for boarding/disembarking passengers.
Passengers travelling with their own wheelchair or assistive devices may carry
the same in the passenger cabin, on request, subject to availability of space.
Alternatively, the wheelchair or assistive devices should be loaded in the
baggage hold where it is easily accessible for timely return to the passenger.
Passengers, who intend to check-in their own wheelchair, are given the option
of using the airline/airport wheelchair. If the passenger wishes to use his own
wheelchair at the airport he may be permitted to do so, up to the aircraft door.
The wheelchair duly tagged, must then be sent for loading in the hold. Narrow
wheelchair-type devices without arm rests are available in the passenger cabin
for assistance on-board.
Stretcher Cases – Handling of Stretcher Passenger
A request for a stretcher must be made in advance and shall be strictly subject
to space availability. Where Interline travel on other airlines is involved,
advance arrangements with the carrier is necessary regarding confirmation on
special meals, medicines, oxygen, ambulance and other requirements. Only one
stretcher is accepted per flight in Economy class. No stretcher is carried in First
and Executive class. Stretcher cases are accepted only after clearance from the
Medical Services Dept. and confirmation of the quantity of oxygen to be
carried will be determined by the Chief Medical Officer.
The MEDIF Forms are required to be filled-in for clearance, and may be
obtained from any Air India Offices.
The MEDIF Form is an IATA approved document and lists the minimum
information to be provided to the airline, for carriage of invalid passengers. We
are free to ask for additional information or clarifications, if required for
carriage of such passengers. The MEDIF Form is to be completely filled up by
the passenger or his authorized representative, in case the passenger is unable to
do so. While the part of information caters to travel details and the services
requested for in-flight or intermediate sessions, an important aspect of MEDIF
is to be filled up by the physician in charge of the invalid passenger and
provides information about the clinical condition of the passenger. It is
mandatory to complete the MEDIF including the treating physician’s
certification and the undertaking/passenger declaration at the end of the
MEDIF. Importantly the passenger/representative must sign the MEDIF
requesting for air travel. MEDIF Forms need to be filled up every time an
invalid passenger travels by commercial airlines and clearance is valid for a
particular flight and date.
The MEDIF Form duly completed must be forwarded to The Medical Officer,
Medical Services Department, Old Airport, Kalina, Santa Cruz (East), Mumbai
– 400 029. FAX No.: 2615 7174 (at least minimum 3 days in advance for
stretcher cases and minimum 24 hours for wheelchair cases requiring medical
clearance).
Contd…
134 Categories of Passengers requiring MEDIF
Aviation
Broadly, any passenger who needs special assistance/facilitation by the airline
due to health grounds should request the airline reservations to provide
information and the necessary form that i.e. MEDIF to travel as a medical case.
A passenger with the following medical/health condition will need to fill-in a
MEDIF Form.
z Passenger who needs a stretcher or incubator on-board the aircraft
z Passenger whose medical condition requires additional oxygen supply on-
board as recommended by his treating physician
z Passenger who requires extra space to accommodate leg elevation
z Passenger who requires the use of medical equipment on-board the aircraft
Ideally, MEDIF should be forwarded by the invalid passenger/his
representative based on the passenger’s latest medical status, on the
recommendation of the treating physician, not later than 14 days prior to the
date of commencement of travel. Invalid passengers with a permanent disability
which are fully established and unlikely to progress in the future need not fill-
up the MEDIF every time they undertake air travel on Air-India. They can
request the Medical Services Department, Mumbai, for issuance of a FREMEC
Card (Frequent Travellers’ Medical Card) which is issued free of charge.
The FREMEC Card has a specified period of validity, depending on the
disability.
Mentally Retarded Passengers
z Acceptance of Mentally Retarded Passengers.
z Mentally retarded passengers are not accepted without a suitable attendant.
The trained attendant must carry the treating physician’s certificate along with a
prescription for an injectable sedative medicine, which may be required to be
administered by the attendant, prior to commencement of travel or as may be
required en-route.
The attendant must be briefed that no Cabin Crew will be specially assigned to
look after the mentally retarded passenger.
Acceptance of Passengers with Impaired Vision/Seeing-Eye Dog
z A dog trained to lead the blind, which accompanies the passenger with
impaired vision will not be carried unless proper permits are obtained for
entry into the country or territory of destination and countries of transit,
where such permits are required.
z All permits are required to be presented at the time of reservation.
z The dog must be properly harnessed and muzzled.
z The dog may be carried in the passenger cabin or in the hold depending
upon the individual country’s regulations as well as size of the dog.
z The dog shall not be permitted to occupy a seat.
z The dog will be carried free of charge in addition to the normal free
baggage allowance.
z If any country or territory on the route prohibits the entry of dogs, carriage
will be refused.
z All formalities required by the government authorities at the destination/
transit stations are complied with.
Contd…
Question: 135
Airport Managerial Operations
What other facilities can be provided for persons with disabilities?
Source: http://www.airindia.com/disability-assistance.htm
7.3.3 Carrying of Human Remains

Transporting human remains is a duty that demands respect, sensitivity and careful
attention to detail. Transportation of human remains is accorded top priority and
utmost care is taken for carriage of the same. Airport Health Organisation under
Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare,
Government of India has notified that for obtaining public health clearance of dead
bodies and cremated remains transported by international airlines at Indian airports, as
per the Aircraft (Public Health) Rules, 1954, the following needs to be observed:
1. The consignee as well as the air transport service shall give to the Health Officer
of the airport of arrival advance intimation of at least 48 hours, of the importation
of the dead body or human remains or ashes of the cremated bodies.
2. There should be a proper death certificate issued by a Medical Officer in English
or translated into English in respect of the dead body. As per international health
regulations of WHO, Death Certificate should be in English or French only. The
translation of death certificate sometimes causes undue delay and frustration
among the attendants.
3. The death certificate showing cause of death as pending or mentioned as cause of
death to be ascertained after postmortem or cause of death unknown or as natural
death shall render the Death Certificate as invalid and the dead body/human
remain shall not be granted NOC by Health Officer of the airport.
4. Embalming Certificate should be enclosed.
5. The NOC should be obtained from Indian Embassy/Consulate of the country from
where body is transported.
6. As per the Provisions of The Aircraft (Public Health) Rules, 1954 Part IV Rule
No.41 no person shall bring into India any dead-body or human remains of
persons who may have died of yellow fever, plague, anthrax, glanders or any
other diseases as may be notified by the Government of India for this purpose,
provided that nothing in this rule shall apply to properly cremated ashes of dead
bodies or human remains.
Required documents:
1. Completed "Misc. Services" application form with one passport size photo affixed
in the box.
2. Passport and a photocopy of pages containing personal particulars (first three and
last two pages) of the deceased.
Passport will be cancelled and returned. Keep it safely.
3. Death Certificate in original and a photocopy.
4. Embalming Certificate (in original and a photocopy) stating that the body has
been embalmed in accordance with the rules and regulations of international
shipping and that the body has been placed in a hermetically sealed container with
zinc liner and wooden outer container.
5. Certificate from the Department of Health stating that the deceased did not have
any communicable/contagious diseases.
6. Burial/Transit Permit.
136 7. A copy of the flight schedule (confirmed or proposed) for transportation of the
Aviation
mortal remains.
8. Fee $1 and $3 for ICWF.
9. Fee can be paid by cashier’s check or money order. Cash payment is accepted at
the counter of the Consulate.
10. Personal checks, Debit cards and Credit cards are not accepted.
11. If application is being sent by post mail:
(a) Either add an additional $20/- to the fee for return mail.
(b) Or enclose stamped/prepaid return envelope with the application.
7.3.4 Handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP

AAI has been entrusted with the responsibility of handling VVIPs and providing
entitled VIPs with reserved lounge facilities besides extending due courtesy and
attendance by responsible staff/hostess.
Due to Security reasons the Dignitaries entitled to take their vehicle up to the Aircraft
and Dignitaries exempted from Pre- Embarkation Security. VIP commitments, being a
sensitive matter, need to be handled meticulously, under a well-defined drill and with
effective co-ordination. Following actions are required to be taken at various airports
for handling VVIPs/VIPs, CIPs.
Documentation
On receipt of any message regarding VVIP/VIP movement , the airport Terminal
Manager is required to carefully scrutinize the message/tour programme/itinerary of
the VVIP/VIP and apprise the airport Director/airport-in-Charge or the officer who is
authorized by airport Director/or airport –in-Charge in this behalf. He will also
promptly enter the same in the VIP register to facilitate preparation of the shift-wise
Daily-VIP-proforma. While making necessary entries, he should ensure that specific
lounge reserved be mentioned. Any special handling requirements are also to be
specifically mentioned. This will form important items of mutual briefing while
conducting handing over/taking over of shift duties.
Daily VIP Proforma

The day shift Duty Airport Terminal Manager shall every day fill up the daily VIP
proforma enlisting all VVIP/VIP movements from 1000 hrs of that day to 1000 hrs of
the following day (24 hours cycle) and forward copy to all concerned. This proforma
shall cover all relevant and necessary information for handling the movements of the
VVIP/VIP including any special handling requirements.
VVIP/VIP – Team Briefing

1. Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager on shift duties shall
apprise themselves of all VVIP/VIP movements likely to take place in their shift.
They shall brief all concerned well in advance of the respective VIP movements.
Any spill-over should be briefed properly to the next incoming shift officer.
2. All VVIP/VIP movements or other sensitive movements should be tied up by
Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager with Airport Director/
Airport-in-Charge or with an officer authorized by Airport Director or Airport-in-
Charge in this behalf.
3. It should also be ensured that during VVIP/VIP sensitive movements, the
Sr. Manager Engg. (E)/(C) and Sr. Manager (Electronics) are kept apprised to
ensure that all requirements pertaining to their departments are kept in proper 137
operational status and desired shape. Airport Managerial Operations
4. In the event of VVIP/VIP, Minister of Civil Aviation and other sensitive

movements, the Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager shall
besides keeping the Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge or an officer authorized
by Airport Director on this behalf and other related departments heads informed.
He shall also keep close liaison with office/residence of representatives of VVIP/
VIP to ensure smooth handling of the movement.
Responsibility of Airport Director/Airport in-Charge

The overall responsibility of VVIP/VIP handling shall rest with the concerned Airport
Director/Airport-in-Charge to ensure smooth and efficient handling besides
co-coordinating with all concerned agencies/departments. Sr. Airport Terminal
Manager shall be responsible for ensuring smooth handling of VIPs during his shift
and shall be assisted by the Airport Terminal Manager on shift. Special care should be
taken by the officer concerned to ensure that the correct ETA & ETD and revisions
thereto are obtained from ATC. Such information should be passed on to the officials
attending the VIP well in time & necessary assistance should be provided at all times.
VVIP/VIP Follow-up Report

Sr. Airport Terminal Manager shall submit VVIP/VIP handling follow-up report to
Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge wherein he shall enlist any lapses during the
movements and shall also suggest remedial measures required to be taken to prevent
any shortcoming for handling future VVIP/VIP movements. Any lapses or
suggestions in respect of VIP/VIP movements shall be communicated by Sr. Airport
Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager to Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge
immediately.
7.4 COORDINATION OF SUPPORTING AGENCIES/

DEPARTMENTS
International cooperation has presumed enormous importance in today’s world. Over
the years number of organisations has evolved in tourism sector. These organisations
gave strength to tourism by joining together and putting efforts to develop and
promote tourism. These organisations are also responsible for enhancing
cooperation’s among its members to support each other in tourism developmental
activities.
Presently different organisations are functioning in the field of travel and tourism.
Some of these organisations contribute towards development and promotion of global
tourism. In any field of activity international cooperation has assumed vital
importance. The cooperation leads stable government worldwide for negotiation in
activities mutually beneficial to all of them. The growth development of any discipline
depends on manner in which it associates itself with those pursuing similar discipline.
The international organisations or world bodies provide platform where exchange of
ideas and topics of mutual interest are discussed and solutions arrived at. Participants
from various disciplines meet together and discuss areas of mutual interest. New ideas
and information develop that help in growth and promotion of a discipline.
The international organisation played key role in strengthening tourism by combined
efforts effort and so there role is critically important. The expanding international
character of modern tourism and developing effect of international agencies in
different field are imitated in growth and development of international cooperation
and organization in tourism. Organisers are providers of tourist services come together
at various forums at international level to discuss common problems and arrive at
138 some conclusions. International union of official travel organisations (IUOTO) is
Aviation
main instrument for promotion of tourism. Different tourism organisation are:
1. International Union of Official Travel Organisation (IUOTO)
2. World Tourism Organisation (WTO)
3. Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)
4. International Air Transport Association (IATA)
5. International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
Fill in the blanks:
1. …………………… has been entrusted with the responsibility of handling
VVIPs & providing entitled VIPs with reserved lounge facilities besides
extending due courtesy and attendance by responsible staff/ hostess.
2. Persons with specific …………………… should plan to have all required
forms for assistance ready in advance, to avoid flight delays.
7.5 LET US SUM UP

In this lesson you have studied about the flight catering industry which is a very large,
global activity. The total market size is estimated to be around 12 billion euros. The
in-flight catering industry consists of five major players: the airlines, or their various
representatives; the providers, in this case specialised flight caterers; the suppliers,
either to the providers or direct to the airlines; those using the airline's services, that is
the fare-paying passengers and distributors.
Flight catering starts with an understanding of the number of passengers and their
needs; such information is available from both market research and actual passenger
behaviour. On the basis of this, airlines, sometimes in consultation with caterers and
suppliers, develop their product and service specifications. Such specifications
determine exactly what food, drink and equipment items are to be carried on each
route for each class of passenger.
Further in this lesson you have studied about the procedure for handling various
bodies including unaccompanied minors, disabled passengers, handling of stretcher
passenger and human remains. In addition to this you have also studied about how to
handling of VIP, VVI/CIP is done at airport and the coordination between supporting
agencies and departments.

Prepare a presentation on the procedure for carrying unaccompanied minors and
disabled passengers.
7.7 KEYWORDS
Airline: An organization providing a regular public service of air transportation on
one or more routes.
Very Important Person or VIP: VIP is a person who is accorded special privileges
due to his or her status or importance.
Airline meal or in-flight meal: Airline meal is a meal served to passengers on board a
commercial airliner. These meals are prepared by airline catering services.
139
7.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION Airport Managerial Operations
1. Discuss the role of food and onboard.

2. What are the major stakeholders involved in flight catering business?
3. Explain Flight Catering System.
4. Discuss the procedure of handling of Unaccompanied Minor.
5. Describe procedure for handling of disabled passengers and carrying of human
remains.
6. How are handling of CIP, VIP and VVIP done at airports?

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
CYP 2
1. AAI
2. Disabilities

New Delhi.
Group Publishing
140
Aviation
141
Airport Services
UNIT 1
UNIT IV
142
Aviation
LESSON 143
Airport Services
8
AIRPORT SERVICES
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Standard Operations − Ramp and Airside Safety
8.2.1 Airside Vehicle Operation
8.3 Freight Warehouse Management
8.3.1 Air Cargo Growth Forecast
8.3.2 Vertical Integration and the Role of Integrators
8.3.3 Main Air Cargo Markets
8.4 Airline Terminal Management
8.4.1 Historical Development of Airport Terminals
8.4.2 Components of the Airport Terminal
8.5 Let us Sum up
8.7 Keywords

z Discuss the standard operations
z Explain freight warehouse management
z Describe airline terminal management
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Airside is believed to be the most dangerous place to work. There are numerous
activities including refuelling tankers, specialist vehicles, aircraft and many more that
can cause serious hazards for the unguarded, untrained or unworried. Prior to going to
airside, proper training ought to be given to all the staff by their employers so as to
safeguard them.
144
Aviation 8.2 STANDARD OPERATIONS − RAMP AND AIRSIDE
SAFETY
The most important aspect of airport operations involve:
z Ground Handling and
z Ramp Safety.
At the time of aircraft arrival and departure, safe and efficient ground handling calls
for coordinate accountabilities amongst qualified individuals. Where an airline
decides to render services through ground handling service providers, it must lay
down accountability of its own workers for execution, monitoring and verification of
critical points of those functions.
The ramp area (Apron) is normally designed for the aircraft, and not for the vehicles
that service and/or operate in the vicinity of the aircraft. In contrast, the ramp area sees
a diverse collection of high placed activities that comprise aircraft, vehicles and
personnel working in close vicinity to one another. This may take account of activities
for instance:
z Aircraft ground handling like taxiing, towing, chocking, parking, mooring etc.
z Aircraft servicing-catering, cleaning, food service
z Baggage and cargo handling
z Ground power supply
z Refuelling
z Routine checks and maintenance
Personnel engaged in activities mentioned above are exposed to numerous of the
occupational hazards for example, strains from baggage handling, cuts from
protruding aircraft parts slips, trips, falls, electrical hazards, exposure to hazardous
materials like aircraft fuel, hydraulic fluids, hot oil, high pressure air, aircraft noise
from engines and so on. For that reason appropriate provisions are to be taken for
security purpose.
8.2.1 Airside Vehicle Operation

Several incidents happen concerning crash of vehicle with aircraft or with another
vehicle. Separate vehicular lanes are drawn at airports that are busy for movement of
the vehicles. Likewise yellow lines are drawn and no vehicle is allowed to cross this
line. While working on the operational area and while in close proximity to an
aircraft, it is mandatory for all vehicles to move with slow speed. Besides watching
for moving aircraft, care ought to be taken so that Vehicles do not get too close to a
parked aircraft, in order to avoid collision with the aircraft, as well as to prevent
problem of jet blast or prop wash. There have been a number of cases where vehicles
have been overturned by jet blast.
When driving near navigational aids, the vehicles are to stay out of the protected areas
around them to avoid interfering with their signals.
At "controlled" airports whenever the Control tower is operating, the vehicles must
get permission from the controller to be on the runway or taxiways, their associated
safety areas, or any other part of the movement area by radio or with advanced
coordination with ATC.
Night Driving or Bad Weather Driving

Extra precautions have to be taken by vehicle drivers for driving at night or in bad
weather. They should be driven with slow speed and with care. Under winter
conditions, signs and marking may be obscured due fog. Caution has to be taken as 145
there may be extra risks present. Airport Services
Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

Foreign Object Damage occurs as a result of ingestion of loose objects by aircraft
engines, or owing to hitting of such material with the aircraft. Trash or rocks sucked
into a jet engine can shred parts of the engine in seconds. A rock caught by a propeller
can damage the propeller, as well as become a deadly projectile. It should be ensured
that a covered container is used for all trash that will not be blown away.
Correspondingly all loose pieces of metal, bolts, nails, pebbles, rocks or trash near
aircraft movement areas have to be picked up and removed. Furthermore anything that
could cause foreign object damage or puncture tires must be picked up and tracking
mud and rocks onto the pavement surfaces must be avoided.
Aviation Fuel Handling

Fuel handling is an important safety issue not only to fuel handlers but also to other
airport personnel, passengers, and to the operations of the aircraft. Failure to bind to
safe operating procedures in the course of refuelling of the aircraft, or transporting the
fuel from one location to other, may result into major disasters.
A few vulnerable areas with reference to the fuel handling are health hazards to
refuellers, hazards from spill fuel contaminations, explosions and fires due to fuel and
so on. Therefore stringent provisions are to be taken by the official concerned so as to
avoid such incidents. Stringent precautions are required while using ignition system
such as starting of vehicles and even radio transmitter as aircraft fuel is highly
flammable, as it may create fire.
De-icing
The problem of de-icing occurs mostly at European or US airports, and at places
where temperature goes normally below freezing point.
There may be a case of serious problems for aircraft on account of the presence of ice
and snow on the control surfaces, airfoil and sensor surfaces, and thus the same has to
be removed before the takeoff of the aircraft, by the spray of de-icing fluid. The fluid
must also be used with great care, as failure may lead to damage of sensitive aircraft
controls such as pitot and static sensors, angle of attack sensors, engines and so forth.
It is also dangerous for the health of personnel
1. The problem of de-icing occurs at places where temperature goes normally
below melting point.
2. Fuel handling is an important safety issue only to fuel handlers.
8.3 FREIGHT WAREHOUSE MANAGEMENT

Cargo (or freight) is goods or produce transported, generally for commercial gain, by
ship, aircraft, train, van or truck. In addition to people, airports are accountable for
moving in large volumes of cargo round the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own
on-site and adjacent infrastructure to rapidly transfer parcels between ground and air
modes of transportation.
Cargo airlines (or airfreight carriers) are airlines dedicated to the transport of cargo.
Some cargo airlines are divisions or subsidiaries of larger passenger airlines. Aircrafts
146 were first used for carrying mail as cargo in 1911. Eventually manufacturers started
Aviation
designing aircrafts for other types of freight as well.
There are many commercial aircrafts suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing
747 and the bigger An-124, which was purposely built for easy conversion into a
cargo aircraft. Such large aircraft employ quick-loading containers known as Unit
Load Devices (ULDs), much like containerized cargo ships. The ULDs are located in
front section of the aircraft. Most nations own and utilize large numbers of cargo
aircraft such as the C-17 Globemaster III for airlift logistic needs.
8.3.1 Air Cargo Growth Forecast

The air cargo traffic is rebounding. The growth of the market is expected by 6.5% per
year as yields stabilize.
Figure 8.1: World Air Cargo Traffic Expected to Triple by 2013

Europe-Asia and North Atlantic have experienced the recent positive growth.
There are several positive factors underlie this 6.5% baseline projection of the future
expansions in air cargo markets:
z Predictions of 3.3% yearly world GDP growth through 2013
z Long term prices of the fuel are expected to remain low.
z The stabilization of the yield.
z The further expansion of express networks and airline logistic services, which
includes both growth and airline revenues.
World Forecast Detail

The world air freight will grow more rapidly than mail, with 6.6% average annually
growth through 2013. The mails RTKs will display the steady growth with an average
of 4% annually.
The international market growth will continue to outpace U.S. domestic increases,
exceeding 80% of total RTKs by the year 2013. The share of the non-U.S. airlines of
the world RTKs will increase from 67% in 1993 to 71% by the year 2013. There is a
highest air freight market growth occur on Asian and Latin American routes. These
markets accounts for 60% of the world freight market by 2013.
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Airport Services
Figure 8.2: Forces and Constraints for Air Cargo Growth

The fastest and the most expensive way used for the transportation of goods is air
freight. Because of this reason air freight is particularly used for the transportation of
goods that are highly – valued and perishable or that needs fast delivery. During the
year 2011 the global amount of world air cargo traffic was 202 billion RTKs
(Revenue Ton Kilometres). To compare, in the same year containership cargo traffic
was figured at 10.5 trillion RTKs. During 2012 these volumes have stabilised and tend
to move evenly with the world economic growth. Air cargo traffic is strongly
connected with the globa; gross domestic product and is often seen as a good indicator
for the world economy.
Shippers, forwarders and carriers are the 3 prominent players in the supply of air
cargo on the export side. While in case of import, the consignees and the destination
forwarders also play a significant role in the supply chain.
Let us know about shipper, carriers and forwarders.
z Shippers are companies or individuals who want to use air freight to transport
their products.
z Carriers or airlines are the asset holders, who over cargo capacity on their planes.
z Forwarders are intermediaries between the shipper and the carrier. They negotiate
prices with a carrier and provide transportation service to and from the airport.
Additionally, all the paperwork and customs involved in shipping goods are taken
care by them. The role of the forwarders can be compared with the role of a tour-
operator involved in holiday business.
Figure 8.3: Cargo Supply Chain

148 8.3.2 Vertical Integration and the Role of Integrators
Aviation
In case of passenger airlines, customers have the option to book through any of the
following modes:
z A tour operator or another intermediary: In this way of booking customers can
compare prices of one airline with that of another.
z Book directly at the carrier: In this process other parties are unable to make
additional profits, which entails that booking directly at the carrier is a cheaper
option.
In air cargo industry, all shipments are booked by forwarders. It hardly ever happens
that a shipper directly speaks to the carrier. Therefore, there is no transparency in air
cargo rates. It is very difficult to achieve the market equilibrium because shippers only
know what they have to pay to the forwarder, and forwarders have their rates at the
carrier, but they are unaware of the prices charged by their competitors.
A special case in the cargo market is the integrators. These are forwarding companies
which have their own flight network, which they use for mail and package services.
DHL Express, FedEx and UPS are the most famous integrators. Their efficiency is
much higher for the reason that they own the whole supply chain, so no time and
money is lost because of shipment handovers or additional paperwork. The integrators
are gaining market share as the size of the shipments they accept increase.
8.3.3 Main Air Cargo Markets

The air cargo industry is a global business where shipments are sent across the. There
are many large trade flows from producing countries to their export destinations.
Flows from Europe and North-America to Asia and vice versa generally cover the
largest amount of global air cargo traffic.
There are number of airlines that use a certain hub in their home country. Large
airlines have their own trucking network within a continent which they use for moving
shipments to their main hub, where shipments are loaded on the plane for
intercontinental transfers. Trucking is a much economical and less polluting way of
transporting goods. For this reason the market for air cargo within Europe is very
small, only 0.8% of the world FTKs. The domestic United States air freight market is
somewhat larger, but the main commodity on these fights is mail and express goods,
transported by integrators like FedEx or UPS.
Typical Air Cargo Products

As discussed above, air freight is the most costly way of transport of products, and
hence it is generally used for specific types of products which need fast delivery.
Products which are often transported by air freight are:
z Goods with a short economic lifecycle (radioactive material, newspapers).
z High-tech goods;
z High-value goods (gold, banknotes);
z Live animals;
z Perishable goods (fruits, vegetables, fresh fish, flowers);
z Pharmaceuticals; and
z Spare parts (to prevent production line stops in factories).
There are two reasons for the transportation of high valued goods by air:
1. Safety: Fast delivery means less risk of problems with the shipment. When a
shipment is on sea for a few weeks, there are more chances to theft or piracy.
2. For high valued goods, the transport costs relative to the product's value is 149
negligible. Airport Services
Perishables goods/products such as flowers, vegetables, flowers etc., are required to

be transported as quickly as possible, also for instance newspapers because such
products have a short economic lifecycle: as they lose their value after one or few
days. Some frozen pharmaceuticals that are required to be cooled in the course of
transportation. For these shipments, dry ice is used which is placed in an insulated
container.
Another common air freight shipment is spare parts. Spare parts are very costly when
factories have line-stops: which means that the staff cannot work and production
processes often have a long start-up time. Thus, spare parts are required to be
transported as quickly as possible. Another example is of Aircraft engines. It is
expensive when a plane is out of service for a long time.
In addition to the above types there are number of goods which are shipped using air
freight. Some of these need extra care, but there is also a large market for general
shipments, which are collectively booked as a large consolidation by a forwarding
company. This way the forwarder is able to obtain cheap capacity because of scale
benefits, and the carrier is ensured of a large amount of capacity utilisation.
8.4 AIRLINE TERMINAL MANAGEMENT

The airport terminal area, comprised of passenger and cargo terminal buildings,
aircraft parking, loading, unloading, and service areas such as passenger service
facilities, automobile parking, and public transit stations, is a vital component to the
airport system. The primary goal of an airport is to provide passengers and cargo
access to air transportation, and thus the terminal area achieves the goal of the airport
by providing the vital link between the airside of the airport and the landside. The
terminal area provides the facilities, procedures, and processes to efficiently move
crew, passengers, and cargo onto, and off of, commercial and general aviation aircraft.
The term terminal is in fact somewhat of a misnomer. Terminal implies ending.
Although aircraft itineraries begin and end at an airport's terminal area, the itineraries
of passengers and baggage do not. It is vitally important to understand that the airport
terminal is not an end point, but an area of transfer along the way.
8.4.1 Historical Development of Airport Terminals

Just as there were no runways or other airfield facilities during the very earliest days
of aviation, there certainly were no terminals, at least the way they are recognized
today. The first facilities that could be remotely considered airport terminal areas
evolved in the early 1920s with the introduction of airmail service. Airmail operations
required small depots in order to load and unload mail, fuel aircraft, and perform any
required maintenance. Little in the way of formal passenger or cargo processing was
required, and hence, airport terminal facilities were little more than single-room
structures with the most basic of infrastructure.
The introduction of commercial passenger air service in the late 1920s resulted in the
need to develop certain basic passenger processing policies. The earliest passenger
processing strategies evolved from the major intercity transportation mode of the day,
the railroads. Tickets and boarding passes were issued for passengers, and similar to
policies set for rail transport, cargo rates were also charged, typically by the weight of
the cargo being transported. (Sometimes passengers were weighed as well, primarily
to ensure that the aircraft did not exceed its maximum takeoff weight!). The facilities
required for performing basic ticketing and weighing functions, as well as for aircraft
boarding and alighting the relatively few passengers and little cargo that used civil air
transportation could be, and were often, incorporated into one-room facilities,
strikingly similar to the facilities that served the railroads.
150 Unit Terminal Concepts
Aviation
These first terminals were the earliest centralized facilities, centralized meaning that
all passenger processing facilities at the airport are housed in one building. These first
centralized facilities became known as the earliest simple unit terminals, because they
contained all required passenger processing facilities for a given air carrier in a
single-unit building. In addition to passenger processing facilities, the airport's
administrative offices, and even air traffic control facilities, were located within the
unit terminal building became known as the combined unit terminal. In larger
metropolitan areas, separate buildings were constructed for each airline, each building
behaving as its own unit terminal. This terminal area configuration became known as
the multiple-unit terminal concept. Even though the multiple-unit terminal area
consisted of separate facilities for each airline, it is still considered an individual
centralized facility because all passenger and cargo processing required for any given
passenger or piece of cargo to board any given flight still exists in one facility. The
early centralized terminals, including the simple-unit, combined-unit, and multiple-
unit terminals, employed the gate arrival concept. The gate arrival concept is a
centralized layout that is aimed at reducing the overall size of terminal areas by
bringing automobile parking as close as possible to aircraft parking. The simple-unit
terminal represents the most fundamental type of gate arrival facility, consisting of a
single common waiting and ticketing area with exits onto a small aircraft parking
apron. Even today, the gate arrival concept is adaptable to airports with low airline
activity and is particularly applicable to general aviation operations whether a smaller
general aviation terminal is located separately from a larger terminal for commercial
air carriers or is the operational centre for an airport used exclusively for general
aviation.
Where the terminal serves airline operations, close-in parking is usually available for
three to six commercial aircraft. Where the simple-unit terminal serves general
aviation only, the facility is within convenient walking distance of aircraft parking
areas and adjacent to an aircraft service apron. The simple-unit terminal facility
normally consists of a single-level structure where access to aircraft is afforded by a
walk across the aircraft parking apron.
Linear Terminal Concepts
As airports expanded to meet the growing needs of the public, as well as the growing
wingspans of aircraft, simple-unit terminals expanded outward in a rectangular or
linear manner, with the goal of maintaining short distances between the vehicle curb
and aircraft parking that existed with unit terminals. Within linear terminals, ticket
counters serving individual airlines were introduced and loading bridges were
deployed at aircraft gates to allow passengers to board aircraft without having to be
outside on the apron, thereby improving convenience and safety for passengers. In
some instances airports were extended in a curvilinear fashion, allowing even more
aircraft to park "nose-in" to the terminal building while maintaining short walking
distances from the airport entrance to the aircraft gate. In many respects, the linear and
curvilinear terminal concepts are mere extensions of the simple-unit terminal concept.
More sophisticated linear terminals, particularly those that serve high volumes of
passengers, often feature two level structures where enplaning passengers are
processed on one level and deplaning passengers on the other level. Passenger
walking distances from the "curb to the gate" are typically short, on the order of 100
feet. The linear configuration also lends itself to the development of automobile
parking that is close to the terminal building, and provides extended curb frontage for
loading and unloading of ground transportation vehicles.
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Source: FAA
Figure 8.4: Terminal Design Concepts
One of the main disadvantages of linear terminals becomes evident as the length of
the terminal building increases. Walking distances between facilities, particularly
distantly separated gates, become excessive for the passenger whose itinerary requires
a change in aircraft at the airport. Prior to airline deregulation the percentage of these
transfer passengers was insignificant. After 1978, however, this percentage increased
dramatically and the issue of long walking distances between gates became a major
issue, particularly at the hub airports.
Pier Finger Terminals
The pier finger terminal concept evolved in the 1950s when gate concourses were
added to simple unit terminal buildings. Concourses, known as piers or fingers,
offered the opportunity to maximize the number of aircraft parking spaces with fewer
infrastructures. Aircraft parking was assigned to both sides of a pier extending from
the original unit terminal structure. The pier finger terminal is the first of what are
known as decentralized facilities, with some of the required processing performed in
common-use main terminal areas, and other processes performed in and around
individual concourses.
Many airports today have pier finger terminals in use. Since the earliest pier finger
designs, very sophisticated and often convoluted forms of the concept have been
developed with the addition of hold rooms at gates, loading bridges, and vertical
separation of enplaning and deplaning passengers in the main-unit terminal area.
As pier finger terminals expanded, concourse lengths at many terminal buildings
became excessive, averaging 400 feet or more from the main terminal to the
concourse end. In addition, as terminals expanded by adding additional piers,
distances between gates and other facilities became not only excessive in distance, but
also confusing in direction. Moreover, often the main-unit terminal facility and
corridors connecting the individual fingers were not expanded along with the
construction of additional concourses, leading to passenger crowding in these areas.
Another of the disadvantages of pier finger terminals is that expansion of terminals by
adding or lengthening concourses may significantly reduce the amount of apron space
for aircraft parking and movement. Also, the addition of concourses to the terminal
152 tends to put constraints on the mobility of aircraft, particularly those that are parked
Aviation
closer to the main terminal building.
Pier Satellite and Remote Satellite Terminals
Similar to pier finger terminals, pier satellite terminals formed as concourses extended
from main-unit terminal buildings with aircraft parked at the end of the concourse
around a round atrium or satellite area. Satellite gates are usually served by a common
passenger holding area. Satellite terminal concepts, developed in the 1960s and 1970s,
took advantage of the ability to create either underground corridors or Automated
Passenger Movement Systems (APMs) to connect main terminal buildings with
concourses. Such terminals are said to be built on the remote satellite concept.
The main advantage of the remote satellite concept is that one or more satellite
facilities may be constructed and expanded when necessary while providing sufficient
space for aircraft taxi operations between the main terminal building and satellites. In
addition, although distances from the main terminal to a satellite may be quite large,
APMs or other people-mover systems such as moving walkways or shuttle buses are
provided to reduce walking distances.
Source: Figure courtesy Seattle – Tacoma International Airport

Figure 8.5: Terminal Configuration at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport,
One of the First Airports to Employ APMs to Reach Remote Satellite Terminals
Another of the advantages of the satellite concept is that it lends itself to a relatively
compact central terminal with common areas for processing passengers, because
aircraft with large wingspans, which for all intents and purposes dictate the size of
terminal gate areas and thus concourses and satellite, are parked at remote satellites
rather than at the central facility. As with the pier finger concept, the expansion of pier
satellite and remote satellite concept terminals tend to result in terminal facilities that
not only have large distances between key points within the terminal, but also often
become confusing for passengers in their attempts to find their way to their respective
gates, baggage claim areas, or other desired facilities.
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Airport Services
Figure 8.6: The Old Pier Finger Terminal Complex at Detroit’s Metropolitan Airport
Source: Figure courtesy Detroit Metropolitan Airport
Mobile Lounge or Transporter Concept

In 1962 the opening of Dulles International Airport west of Washington D.C.,
designed as the first airport specifically for the new jet aircraft of the day, introduced
the mobile lounge or transporter concept of airport terminals. Sometimes known also
as the remote aircraft parking concept, the Washington Dulles terminal area attempted
to maximize the number of aircraft that may be parked and maximize the number of
passengers that may be processed, with minimal concourse infrastructure. In this
concept, aircraft are parked at remote parking locations away from the main-unit
terminal building. To travel between aircraft and the terminal building, passengers
would board transporters, known as mobile lounges that would roam the airfield
154 among ground vehicles and taxiing aircraft. With the mobile lounge concept, walking
Aviation
distances were held to a minimum because the main, relatively compact, terminal
building contains common passenger processing facilities, with automobile curbs and
parking located in close proximity to the terminal building entrances. Theoretically,
expansion to accommodate additional aircraft is facilitated by the fact that there is no
need to physically expand concourses, piers, or satellites, just merely add additional
mobile lounges, if necessary.
Despite its theoretical advantages, the mobile lounge concept did not on the whole
win approval from passengers. Mobile lounge boarding areas in the main terminal
often became excessively congested as passengers with carry-on baggage would
crowd the area, often arriving early so as not to miss their assigned mobile lounge
boarding time. Moreover, the relatively small mobile lounges offered far less room for
passengers than the aircraft from or to which they are transitioning, especially in
comparison to large "wide-body" aircraft introduced in the late 1960s, leaving
passengers crowded and often uncomfortable while on the mobile lounge. In addition,
mobile lounges require constant maintenance, which over time becomes an excessive
cost element of operations. In the mid-1990s Dulles in effect abandoned the mobile
lounge concept by constructing satellite or midfield concourses on the airfield. Today
(as of 2003) the remaining mobile lounges at Dulles still in service, act as transporters
merely between the main terminal building and the satellite concourses rather than
directly to aircraft. Current plans at Dulles call for construction of an underground
transporter between the main terminal and the remote concourses and removing the
mobile lounges from the terminal area entirely. In the United States, no other airports
have relied entirely on the mobile lounge concept for their terminal areas, with the
exception of providing shuttle bus services to aircraft that must be parked in remote
parking spots because of lack of available gate space at the terminal building or
concourses. In other countries, particularly in the Middle East, the mobile lounge
concept has been met with higher levels of success.
Hybrid Terminal Geometries
With the volatile changes in the amount and behaviour of civil aviation activity, with
increasing numbers of large aircraft (with high seating capacities and large
wingspans), volumes of passengers, and changes in route structures, particularly after
airline deregulation, airport management has had to expand and modify terminal areas
to accommodate almost constantly changing environments. As a result, many airport
terminal geometries expanded in an ad hoc manner, leading to hybrid terminal
geometries incorporating features of two or more of the basic configurations
(Figure 8.7).
Source: Figure courtesy United Airlines

Figure 8.7: Chicago O’Hare International Airport Combining Unit,
Linear, Pier and Satellite Terminal Concepts
In addition, for airports that accommodate an airline's hub, airport terminal planning 155
became necessary to accommodate up to 100 or more aircraft at one time and Airport Services
efficiently handle record volumes of passengers, particularly those passengers

transferring between aircraft. It's no coincidence that during past years public
sentiment for the planning and management of many airport terminals in the United
States was declining. Issues including congestion, long walking distances, confusing
directions, as well as limited amenities and passenger services became popular issues
of criticism. As a result, airport planners began to redevelop terminal area designs,
focusing on strategic planning and design of terminals that can accommodate
requirements of accessing ground vehicles, passengers, and aircraft, with sufficient
flexibility to adapt to ever-changing levels of growth and system behaviour.
Airside–Landside Concept
The most significant terminal area concept to emerge involved a more physical
separation between facilities that handle passengers and ground vehicles and those
that deal primarily with aircraft handling.
The airside–landside concept emerged with the opening of the Tampa International
Airport and has proliferated throughout the United States at airports such as Pittsburgh
International Airport and Orlando International Airport. The airside–landside concept
relies heavily on automated pedestrian movement systems to quickly and efficiently
shuttle passengers to and from two separate facilities. In the landside facility, all
passenger and baggage processing can be performed without being physically close to
an aircraft. In addition, sufficient ancillary facilities, such as concessions, atriums, and
the like, are located in landside facilities to provide amenities to facilitate a
pleasurable experience for the passenger. Airside facilities, which have been built in
various shapes and sizes, from X shapes to long concourses, focus on the efficient
servicing of aircraft, including fuelling, loading, and unloading. Separating each of the
two processes allows greater flexibility in adapting to changes in either environment,
whether it is new aircraft or changes in passenger processing policies.
Off-airport Terminals
In the 1980s the airside-landside concept formed the basis for a series of experimental
concepts known as off-airport terminals. With the notion that certain passenger
processes, such as ticketing and baggage check-in, and certainly automobile parking,
did not need to be within any proximity of aircraft, such processes weren't necessarily
required to be performed on airport property. As a result, facilities located miles away
from the airport itself were introduced whereby passengers could park their personal
vehicles, check themselves and their baggage in for their flights, and then take a
shuttle bus to the airport. With the use of these off-airport terminals, passengers would
avoid the often significantly more crowded passenger processing facilities at the main
terminal. Also the passenger would not be required to find parking at the often more
crowded and expensive parking facilities at the main terminal.
Off-airport terminals serving the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, and Las
Vegas were met with positive response, with increased passenger convenience being
the prime characteristic of the systems. Because of increased security measures
following the attacks of September 11, 2001, however, off-airport terminals have had
to discontinue any passenger or baggage check-in processes, and are now primarily
used merely as off-airport parking facilities. However, the off-airport terminal concept
set the precedent for implementing the idea of passenger processing at sites away from
the main airport terminal, setting the stage for the potential future of airport terminal
planning.
Present-day Airport Terminals
With over 650 million passengers travelling annually, each with different agendas,
itineraries, needs, and desires, airport terminals have become complex systems in their
156 own rights, incorporating both necessary passenger and baggage processing services
Aviation
as well as a full spectrum of customer service, retail shopping, food and beverage, and
other facilities to make the passengers' transition between the airside and landside
components of the airport system as pleasant as possible.
It is clear that no single airport terminal configuration is best for all airports. The
airfield, schedules of airlines, types of aircraft, volumes of passengers, and local
considerations, such as local architecture, aesthetics, and civic pride, dictate different
choices from airport to airport and from one time to another. The airport terminal
planner has the dubious task of anticipating conditions up to 10 years in the future in
an environment that seems to change by the day. To ensure that present-day airport
terminal plans will be effective in the future, the airport planner must rely on the
fundamental requirements of airport terminals and behaviours of passengers, and also
must plan with the idea of flexibility in mind, such as considering facilities that can be
expanded modularly or can provide the opportunity for relatively low-cost, simple
modifications that future circumstances might demand.
For airport management, airport terminal areas, when properly planned and managed,
have provided significant sources of revenue from airline leases to retail concessions.
Airport terminals have also become a sense of pride for communities in general, as
they are typically the first impression that visitors get of their destination city and the
last experience they get before leaving. Several airport terminals today appear more to
be shopping malls than passenger processing facilities, and other airport terminals are
fully equipped with hotels and conference centres. These facilities have actually
encouraged visitors to use the facilities at the airport without ever intending to board
an aircraft.
The size and shape of airport terminal configurations has both an uncertain yet
exciting future. New security regulations imposed by the Transportation Security
Administration have established the need to expand airport security facilities, whereas
advances in information technologies have suggested the ability to reduce the size of
other passenger processing facilities such as staffed ticket counters. No matter how
policies, regulations, technologies, and behaviours change, however, the basic
function of the airport terminal area, that of efficiently linking passengers and cargo to
the airside and landside components of the civil aviation system, should always be
understood by airport managers and planners alike.
8.4.2 Components of the Airport Terminal

The airport terminal area is in the unique position of accommodating the needs of both
aircraft and the passengers that board them. As such, the component systems of the
airport terminal area may be thought of as falling into two primary categories: the
apron and gate system, which is planned and managed according to the characteristics
of aircraft, and the passenger and baggage handling systems, which are planned and
managed to accommodate the needs of passengers and their baggage in their transition
to or from the aircraft.
Apron and Gate System
The apron and gates are the locations at which aircraft park to allow the loading and
unloading of passengers and cargo, as well as for aircraft servicing and pre-flight
preparation prior to entering the airfield and airspace.
The size of aircraft, particularly their lengths and wingspans, is perhaps the single
greatest determinant of the area required for individual gates and apron parking
spaces. In fact, the grand size of airport terminals is a direct result of large numbers of
gates designed to accommodate aircraft of wingspans reaching 200 feet in length. The
size of any given aircraft parking area is also determined by the orientation in which
the aircraft will park, known as the aircraft parking type. Aircraft may be positioned at
various angles with respect to the terminal building, may be attached to loading 157
bridges or Jetways, or may be freestanding and adjoined with air stairs for passenger Airport Services
boarding and deplaning. Some aircraft parking types require aircraft to be manoeuvred
either in or out of their parking spaces by the use of aircraft tugs, whereas other
parking types allow the movement of aircraft in and out under their own power. The
five major aircraft parking types are nose-in parking, angled nose-in, angled nose-out,
parallel parking, and remote parking.
Figure 8.8: Aircraft Parking Positions

Nose-in Parking: Most large jet aircraft at commercial service airports park nose-in to
gates at the terminal and connect directly to the terminal building by loading bridges.
Aircraft are able to enter nose-in parking spaces under their own power, and tend to be
pushed out by an aircraft tug and oriented so that they may move forward on the apron
without coming into contact with any other structures. The primary advantage to nose-
in parking is that it requires less physical space for aircraft than any other aircraft
parking type. The majority of commercial service airports, particularly those with
large volumes of jet aircraft operations, have primarily nose-in parking. With nose-in
parking, only the front-entry door on the aircraft is used for boarding, because the rear
doors are typically too far from the terminal building to extend a loading bridge. This
has some, but not an entirely significant, impact on the efficiency of passenger
boarding and deplaning.
Figure 8.9: Nose-in Parking

Angled Nose-in Parking brings aircraft as close to the terminal building as possible
while maintaining enough manoeuvring room so that aircraft may exit the parking
space under its own power.
Angled Nose-in Parking is typically used by smaller aircraft, such as turboprops or
small regional jets. Air stairs are typically used to board and deplane passengers,
removing the necessity for loading bridges. Angled nose-in parking requires slightly
more parking area over nose-in parking for aircraft of similar size. However, because
smaller aircraft tend to use angled nose-in parking, the difference in sizes of the two
parking areas is not significantly different.
158 Angled Nose-out Parking brings aircraft slightly farther from the terminal building
Aviation
than nose-in and angled nose-in parking, because the blast from jets or large
propellers has the potential of causing damage to terminal buildings if too close to the
facility. Angled nose-out parking is typically used by larger general aviation aircraft
and at facilities with relatively low levels of activity.
Parallel Parking is said to be the easiest to achieve from an aircraft manoeuvring
standpoint, although each space tends to require the largest amount of physical space
for a given size of aircraft. In this configuration, both front and aft doors of the aircraft
on a given side may be used for passenger boarding by loading bridges. Typically,
however, parallel parking is employed only by smaller general aviation aircraft with
relatively large amounts of parking space near the terminal building. In addition,
cargo aircraft may parallel park at their respective cargo terminals to facilitate the
loading and unloading of their respective loads.
Remote Parking may be employed when there is limited parking area available at the
terminal building itself or when aircraft parked may be stationed there overnight or for
longer durations. Remote parking areas are typically comprised of a series of rows of
parking spaces, sized to accommodate varying sizes of aircraft. Smaller commercial
and general aviation aircraft may be boarded and deplaned from the remote parking
areas with the use of shuttle buses or vans. Larger commercial aircraft are typically
taxied to a close-in parking space prior to passenger loading.
Most airports have more than one aircraft parking type to accommodate the various
types of aircraft that serve the different terminal geometries and air carrier or general
aviation activities. Furthermore, airports with a high number of based aircraft or air
carrier aircraft that remain overnight (RON) at the airport, must take into
consideration higher volumes of remote parking that is flexible to accommodate
aircraft of various shapes and sizes. Taxilanes are found on airport aprons to direct
aircraft taxiing between airfield taxiways and aircraft parking areas on the apron.
Taxilanes exist as single-lane taxiways, where there exists sufficient room for one
aircraft, and dual-lane taxiways, with sufficient room for two aircraft taxiing in
opposite directions to move simultaneously. Dual-lane taxilanes are typically found at
the busiest of airports serving larger aircraft.
Aircraft Gate Management
One of the most important and sometimes most challenging aspects of planning and
managing the apron concerns the number of aircraft parking areas, or gates, that are
required for efficient operations. The number of commercial aircraft gates required at
an airport, for example, over any given operating day is dependent on a series of
factors, including: the number and type of aircraft scheduled to use a gate, each
aircraft's scheduled turnaround time (also known as gate occupancy time), and the
type of gate usage agreement that each air carrier has with the airport. The number
and type of each aircraft scheduled to use a gate is of course vital to the planning of
gate facilities. For each type of aircraft that uses the airport, there should be at least
one aircraft parking area that can accommodate the aircraft.
For smaller airports that are frequented by larger aircraft on a sporadic basis, a remote
parking facility with sufficient space may be appropriate, whereas aircraft that operate
more often should be considered for their size when constructing permanent gate
facilities. At many airports, gates for larger aircraft are planned for the ends of linear
terminals or satellite configurations, where aircraft wingspans are accommodated with
minimal sacrifice of space for additional aircraft, and gates for smaller aircraft tend to
be located nearer the centre of the terminal.
The turnaround time of each aircraft directly affects the number of aircraft that can
use a gate over the course of a day. Turnaround times of aircraft vary widely, based in
part on the size of aircraft, the itinerary of the aircraft, the number of passengers, the
volume of cargo to be loaded and unloaded, and the schedules of the air carrier. 159
Turnaround times of smaller commercial service aircraft flying relatively short routes, Airport Services
carrying less than 50 passengers, for a regional airline, for example, may be as low as
15 minutes, whereas wide-body aircraft flying on international routes may require 3 or
more hours turnaround time. As such, a gate serving small regional air carrier aircraft
gates may serve 30 or more aircraft in an operating day, and gates serving
international flights may accommodate only two or three aircraft per day. The gate
usage agreement that each air carrier has with airport management also plays a
significant role in the total number of required gates at the airport terminal. The three
most common types of gate usage agreements are exclusive-use, shared-use, and
preferential-use agreements.
As the name implies, under an exclusive-use agreement, an air carrier retains sole
authority to use a particular gate or set of gates at an airport terminal. This agreement
gives the air carrier flexibility when adjusting flight schedules, assuring the carrier
that gates will always be available when needed. Operationally, however, this type of
agreement leads to inefficiencies in overall gate use, because when the air carrier is
not currently using its gates, the gate sits idle, despite the fact that another air carrier
may desire a gate parking space at that time. Air carriers signing exclusive-use
agreements, usually do so for a premium, and for a relatively long contract period, and
thus are identified typically as signatory carriers at the airport. Signatory carriers tend
to have the majority of operations at the airport, thus warranting exclusive-use
agreements. Under shared-use agreements, air carriers and other aircraft schedule use
of gates in coordination with airport management and other air carriers serving the
airport. Thus individual gates may be shared by multiple air carriers. Shared-use
agreements are usually arranged by air carriers that have relatively few operations
scheduled at the airport. For example, international air carriers tend to arrange shared-
use agreements with United States airports, because they each have perhaps only a
few operations per day at any given airport. For air carriers that have many operations
at an airport, shared-use agreements reduce the flexibility in schedule planning. From
an airport management perspective, however, shared-use agreements are operationally
efficient, maximizing the number of aircraft that may use gates over the course of a
schedule day.
Preferential-use agreements are hybrids of the exclusive-use and shared-use
agreements. Under a preferential-use agreement, one air carrier has preferential use of
the gate. However, should that air carrier not be using the gate during some period of
the day, other air carriers subscribing to the agreement may use the gate, as long as its
use does not interfere with upcoming operations from the preferential carrier.
Preferential-use agreements are typically signed by one carrier that has moderate
levels of service at the airport, and one or more carriers or charter aircraft that have
relatively few operations. From an operational perspective, the overall number of
aircraft utilizing gates under shared-use agreements depends primarily on the number
of operations served by, as well as the typical turnaround time of, the preferential
carrier. The greater number of operations and greater turnaround time of, the
preferential carrier tends to lead to fewer numbers of aircraft using the gates over the
course of an operating day.
Gantt Charts
The management and planning of gate utilization at airport terminals can be a
challenging venture, particularly when high volumes of operations occur during busy
or peak periods. One tool used to assist with the scheduling and management of gate
operations is a variation of a graphical scheduling management tool developed by
Henry Gantt in 1917. A Gantt chart (or ramp chart) is a graphical representation of the
utilization of aircraft gates over a given period of time.
160 On the basis of each aircraft's operating schedule and scheduled turnaround time, and
Aviation
on the basis of each gate's gate-usage agreement, aircraft are allocated gate space,
represented by rows on the Gantt chart, during their projected gate utilization periods,
represented by columns on the chart. From plotting each aircraft's operation on the
Gantt chart, terminal planners and gate managers can visually identify inefficiencies
in gate utilization and potential conflicts, particularly during irregular operations, such
as when an aircraft must stay at the gate past its scheduled push back time because of
unforeseen circumstances, or when an aircraft arrives early to the airport.
Figure 8.10 represents a Gantt chart example for a given set of flight schedules, with
gates 1 and 2 operating under shared-use agreements and gate 3 operating under an
exclusive-use agreement.
Figure 8.10: Sample Gantt Gate Utilization Chart
Figure 8.11: Loading Bridges are Part of the Flight Interface

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………………….-use agreements are hybrids of the exclusive-use and
shared-use agreements.
2. The ……………………. time of each aircraft directly affects the number
of aircraft that can use a gate over the course of a day.
8.5 LET US SUM UP

Airside is acknowledged as a dangerous place to work. Ground Handling and Ramp
Safety are the most important aspects of airport operations. A number of incidents
take place involving collision of vehicle with aircraft or with another vehicle. Extra
precautions have to be taken by vehicle drivers for driving at night or in bad weather.
FOD or Foreign Object Damage is caused due to ingestion of loose objects by aircraft
engines, or due to hitting of such material with the aircraft. Fuel handling is an
important safety issue not only to fuel handlers but also to other airport personnel,
passengers, and to the operations of the aircraft.
Cargo airlines (or airfreight carriers) are airlines dedicated to the transport of cargo. 161
Products which are often transported by air freight are: perishable goods (fruits, Airport Services
vegetables, fresh fish, flowers), high-value goods (gold, banknotes); high-tech goods;
pharmaceuticals; spare parts (to prevent production line stops in factories); live
animals; goods with a short economic lifecycle (radioactive material, newspapers).
The airport terminal area, comprised of passenger and cargo terminal buildings,
aircraft parking, loading, unloading, and service areas such as passenger service
facilities, automobile parking, and public transit stations, is a vital component to the
airport system.

Prepare a project on the various services offered by Indian airports.
8.7 KEYWORDS
Ramp Area: It is usually the area where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded,
refuelled or boarded.
Airside Area: Airside areas include all areas accessible to aircraft, including runways,
taxiways and ramps.
De-icing: To make or keep free of ice.
Runway Incursion: Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence
of an aircraft vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the
landing and takeoff of aircraft.
Gantt chart (or ramp chart): It is a graphical representation of the utilization of
aircraft gates over a given period of time.
Apron and gates: These are the locations at which aircraft park to allow the loading
and unloading of passengers and cargo, as well as for aircraft servicing and pre-flight
preparation prior to entering the airfield and airspace.

1. What do you mean by ramp area? Discuss the activities involved in ramp areas.
2. What do you mean by airside vehicle operation?
3. Explain freight warehouse management.
4. What are the typical air cargo products?
5. Write a brief note on the historical development of airport terminals.
6. What are the components of the airport terminal?

CYP 1
1. False
2. False
CYP 2
1. Preferential
2. Turnaround
162
Aviation 8.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
Group Publishing
163
LESSON Airport Handling
9
AIRPORT HANDLING
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Flight Information Counter/Reservation
9.3 Ticketing − Check-in/Issue of Boarding Pass
9.3.1 Boarding Pass
9.4 Custom Formalities
9.4.1 Role of Air Cargo Complexes (ACC)
9.5 Immigration Formalities
9.5.1 Instructions for Foreigners
9.5.2 Immigration Process
9.5.3 Registered Foreigners Formalities
9.5.4 PIO (Person of Indian Origin) Card
9.5.5 Health Regulations
9.5.6 Co-ordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments
9.6 Security Clearance − Baggage
9.6.1 Security Screening of Checked Baggage
9.7 Let us Sum up
9.9 Keywords

z Discuss flight information counter/reservation
z Describe the ticketing process and issues related to check-in and boarding pass
z Explain immigration and custom formalities
z Discuss security clearance of baggage
164
In this lesson you will study about the flight information counter, ticketing – check-in
issues and boarding pass. Further you will study about immigration and custom
formalities at airports and security clearance of baggage.
9.2 FLIGHT INFORMATION COUNTER/RESERVATION

Flight information counter or reservation is the place at the airports from where the
passengers can collect information about the arrival and departure related information
of various airlines and the related fares. Also passengers can make reservation for
both ways at these counters by making choice according to their convenient date and
timing. We will discuss the entire process of ticketing and how check-in is done at
airports in the subsequent sections.
9.3 TICKETING − CHECK-IN/ISSUE OF BOARDING PASS

The ticketing process has come a long way since the early days of passenger
processing at airport terminals, although some characteristics dating back to the
original ticketing policies, including the term ticketing, remain. Traditional ticket
counters are facilities staffed by air carrier personnel. As with gates, ticket counters
may be configured for exclusive use or common use.
Exclusive-use ticket counters are typically configured with information systems,
computers, and other equipment specific to one air carrier. The number of positions at
the ticket counter is typically determined by the airline on the basis of the estimated
number of departing passengers over the course of the operating day, particularly at
busy, or peak, times. Most scheduled air carriers with consistent volumes of scheduled
operations, tend to have exclusive-use ticketing facilities at commercial service
airports. Common-use ticket counters are typically configured for use by multiple air
carriers. Many common-use ticketing facilities are equipped with Common Use
Terminal Equipment (CUTE), a computer-based system that can accommodate the
operating systems of any air carrier that shares the ticketing facility. A growing
number of airport terminals serving air carriers that have infrequent service to the
airport, charter carriers, and international carriers have implemented common-use
ticketing facilities, which provide the ability to serve more air carriers and passengers
with less physical ticket counter space than their exclusive-use counterparts.
The traditional processing that occurs at an airline ticket counter includes the
purchasing of airline tickets for trips either on the day of purchase or for future travel,
the assignment of seats, and the issuance of boarding passes. For passengers checking
in baggage, the ticket counter has traditionally served as the location where bags
would be checked and entered into the baggage handling system. For the first 60 years
of commercial aviation, much of the functions performed at the ticket counter were
done manually.
In recent years, the implementation of computer technology, information sharing, and
automation have allowed much of the traditional processes to be distributed among
other locations, many of which are not located at the airport terminal itself.
The purchasing of airline tickets through travel agents, over the telephone, and
increasingly through the Internet comprises the vast majority of airline ticketing
transactions. Furthermore, the ability to acquire seating assignments, and in some
cases boarding passes, through automated systems renders the airport terminal's
ticketing process an unnecessary part of many departing passengers' travels through
the terminal.
Most recently, the introduction of automated kiosks by many air carriers, located near
traditional ticket counters, perform many of the essential services of the traditional
ticket counter, at least for those passengers travelling on electronic tickets. In addition, 165
some airports have employed Common Use Self-Service (CUSS) kiosks, which offer Airport Handling
check-in for multiple air carriers.
Figure 9.1: CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment)

with Variable LED and CRT Signage
Despite the vast changes in technology and policies over time, the traditional ticket
counter may never become obsolete. During periods of irregularity, such as when
flights are delayed or cancelled, or when passengers need special assistance with their
itineraries, the ticket counter often becomes the first location that passengers go to in
order to find an airline representative for assistance. Ticketing has from time to time
shared a portion of the passenger and baggage security screening processes at the
airport. During past time, bombing of Pan Am 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, initial
passenger screening was performed by air carrier ticket agents by asking questions of
each passenger checking in baggage. Those questions were:
1. "Did you pack your own baggage?"
2. "Have your bags been with you at all times since you packed them?"
The purpose of these questions was to prevent the stowage of explosives in checked
baggage; on the philosophy that no passenger would willingly board an aircraft with
explosives set to destroy the aircraft in his or her baggage. In 2002, the Transportation
Security Administration (TSA) discontinued this process.
Figure 9.2: Common Use Self-service (CUSS) Kiosk

166 In 2003, ticketing facilities began performing first phases of security screening by
Aviation
directing all checked-in baggage to explosive detection screening stations. In addition,
experimental TSA policies at some airports, which require all passengers to be in
possession of a boarding pass prior to entering the passenger security screening
processing area, have put new burdens on ticketing areas to issue boarding passes to
passengers who, before the policy was implemented, would not receive their boarding
passes until reaching their gates, beyond security checkpoints.
Service counters that are located at commercial airports handling commercial air
travel are used for the purpose of airport check-in. The check-in process is normally
handled by an airline itself or an agent involved in handling on behalf of an
airline. Passengers are required to handover their baggage that they do not wish or are
not permitted to carry on to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding pass before they
can go on to board their aircraft.
When a passenger arrives at the airport, check – in is the first process, for the reason
that airline regulations need passengers to check in by particular time frame prior to
the departure of a flight. Generally, the time frame required for check-in range from
quarter-hour to four hours depending on the destination and airline. The passenger ask
for special accommodations during this process of check – in, These special
accommodations include inquire about flight or destination information, seating
preferences, accumulate frequent flyer program miles, make changes to reservations,
or pay for upgrades.
However, the main function of the airline check-in is to go in the aircraft's cargo hold
and issue of boarding passes.
Check-in procedures and options vary from airline to airline with some airlines taking
into account certain restrictions while other airlines have in place, and rarely the same
airline at two separate airports may not have similar check-in procedures. Such
differences are usually not well-known by the average passenger and sometimes lead
to service interruptions when one carrier refuses to stand by the procedure that another
carrier generally would be willing to do.
In-town check-in service is a service extended by some cities such as Abu Dhabi,
Delhi, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Seoul, Stockholm, Taipei, Vienna and where
passengers may check in luggage in designated places inside the city but outside the
airport. This cuts down check-in time and queuing at the airport.
z Passenger Identity Registration: During the time of check-in, one of the Agent's
main responsibilities is to check for valid documents. Valid documents take
account of tickets, invitation letters, passports, visas, etc. depending on the type of
visit, the arrival and destination of the trip. A number of airlines, though, do not
require this for domestic and intra-EU flights, allowing passengers to travel
without their ID checked at any point unless they are checking-in baggage.
In countries like the United States, which has special requirements, passengers
have to furnish information such as their name, address and contact details of
places where they live, from which they are taking the flight and in which they
intend to stay once in the United States. This information, known as Advance
Passenger Information, is now usually collected online with or after the flight
booking.
z Baggage registration: Baggage is handed over by the passengers during the time
of check – in, which is checked by the security at airport and sealed. Any extra
luggage that is above the weight limit or luggage that are not allowed to be carried
by the passenger himself to the aircraft cabin is usually handed over to the agent
at the time of check-in. The baggage allowance, if any, is prescribed by the airline
and anything in excess will warrant additional surcharges. These baggage
restrictions depend upon the class the passenger is traveling, for instance 167
Economy Class, First Class, Executive Class, etc. Airport Handling
z Seating registration: Generally at the time of check-in, a choice of selecting the

seats is offered. The Agent might ask if a window or aisle seat is wanted.
z Online check-in: Online check-in is the process in which passengers confirm
their presence on a flight by the use of the Internet and normally print their own
boarding passes. Based on the carrier and the specific flight, passengers may also
enter details for example options of meal they would like to have, and baggage
quantities and select their choice of seating.
This service is generally promoted by the airlines to passengers as being easier
and faster for the reason that it decreases the time a passenger would usually
spend at an airport check-in counter. Certain airlines, on the other hand, would
still need passengers to go on to a check-in counter at the airport, irrespective of
preferred check-in method, for document verification for example, to travel to
countries where a visa is compulsory or to make sure the credit card used at
purchase matches the identity of the person who made the purchase. If passengers
want to continue the check-in process at the airport after carrying out an online
check-in, a special lane is usually offered to them to decrease wait times.
Additionally, online check-in for a flight is often available earlier than its in-
person counterpart.
Alaska Airlines was the first to offer online check-in. in September 2009 the
system was first offered on a limited basis, and was available to the general public
on selected flights the subsequent month. Later then, a growing number of airlines
have introduced the system.
z Mobile check-in: During the late 2000s, checking in was made possible by
making use of a passenger's mobile phone or PDA. A GPRS or 3G-capable
smartphone or an internet-capable PDA is essential, and the check-in
characteristic may gain access by keying in a website on the mobile phone's
browser or by downloading a particular application. The process is then similar to
that which one would expect when checking in using a personal computer.
At the end of the mobile check-in process, a number of airlines send a mobile
boarding pass to a passenger's mobile device, which can be scanned at the airport
in the course of security checks and boarding. Though, others send an electronic
confirmation with a barcode that can be presented to the staff at check-in or
scanned at the kiosks to continue the check-in process viz., to have boarding
passes issued).
z Change of reservations: There are circumstances where a passenger needs to
change his travel plan; such situations are taken care of by the check-in counter.
This may encompass changing itinerary, upgrading class of travel, changing to an
earlier or later flight, however such changes are subject to the conditions of the
tickets issued.
z Premium check-in and lounge access: In case a passenger is having a first or
business class ticket or shows a certain frequent flyer program membership card
(usually the higher-level tiers), or any other arrangements with the carrier,
admission to the premium check-in area and/or the lounge may be extended.
Premium check-in areas differ among airlines and airports. The main airport in
which an airline hub is located normally offers a more thorough and exclusive
premium check-in experience, normally inside a separate check-in lounge. For
example, Air New Zealand's Auckland International premium check-in lounge
offers a dedicated customs clearance counter and direct shortcut admission to the
security checkpoints. Airlines operating in minor airports normally offer an
168 exclusive and separate premium check-in queue lane, often combined for its first,
Aviation
business, and/or premium economy passengers.
9.3.1 Boarding Pass

A document provided by an airline to the passenger at the time of check in is known
as boarding pass. It is a document that authorizes a passenger to board the airplane for
a particular flight. As a minimum, it identifies the passenger, the flight number, and
the date and scheduled time for departure. In some cases, flyers can check in online
and print the boarding passes themselves.
Usually a passenger with an electronic ticket will only need a boarding pass. In case a
passenger carries a paper airline ticket, that ticket may be required to be attached to
the boarding pass for him or her to board the aircraft. The paper boarding pass, or
portions, are sometimes collected and counted for cross-check of passenger counts by
gate agents, but more commonly are scanned by means of barcode or magnetic stripe.
The standards for bar codes and magnetic stripes on boarding passes are published
by IATA. The Bar Code Standard (BCBP) defines the 2D bar code printed on paper
boarding passes or sent to mobile phones for electronic boarding passes. The magnetic
stripe standard (ATB2) expired in 2010. For "connecting flights" there will be a
boarding pass needed for each new flight (distinguished by a different flight number)
regardless of whether a different aircraft is boarded.
Mobile Boarding Passes

Many airlines have started issuing electronic boarding passes, whereby the passenger
checks in either online or on a mobile device, and the boarding pass is then sent to the
mobile device as a SMS or e-mail. Upon completing an online reservation, client can
tick a box offering for a mobile boarding pass. Most carriers offer two ways to get it:
have one sent to mobile device by way of e-mail or text message when check in
online, or use an airline application to check in and the boarding pass will appear
within the application.
The mobile pass is furnished with the same bar code that a standard paper boarding
pass would be, and it is completely machine readable. The gate attendant simply scans
the code displayed on the phone.
Airlines on Board
In 2007 Continental Airlines (now United) was the first started testing Mobile
boarding passes. Now most of the major carriers offer mobile boarding passes at many
airports.
Airlines that issue electronic boarding passes include Air India, United Airlines, Air
Asia (The first airline to introduce SMS boarding passes), Singapore Airlines, Air
Canada, WestJet (the first in North America to do so), Cathay Pacific Airways, Delta
Air Lines, JetBlue Airways, American Airlines, Alaska Airlines, Lufthansa,
Scandinavian Airlines, Jetstar Airways, Iberia, US Airways, KLM (selected
destinations only), Aer Lingus, and Qantas (domestic market).
Benefits
z Ecological: It is also much more environmentally friendly than constantly using
up paper for boarding passes.
z Practical: Travellers don’t do not always have access to a printer, so choosing a
mobile boarding pass eliminates eradicates the hassle difficulty of stopping at a
kiosk at the airport.
z Safe: The Transportation Security Administration, the federal agency that
oversees security for airports, appreciates the electronic boarding passes, because
the two-dimensional bar codes are harder to forge than the one-dimensional bar 169
codes that are used today on many tickets printed online. Airport Handling
Drawbacks
In case of mobile boarding the risk of low battery or dead battery is involved or there
are any problems reading the electronic-boarding pass. Mobile boarding pass can also
be a challenge in case you are traveling with multiple people in one reservation
because not all airline apps handle multiple mobile boarding passes. A number of
airlines, like Alaska Airlines, do allow you to switch between multiple boarding
passes within their apps.
9.4 CUSTOM FORMALITIES

Customs procedures and the functioning of Air Cargo Complexes.
In accordance with international practice, all goods imported into the country or
exported out of the country by air or other routes are governed by the provisions of the
Customs Act, 1962 and other laws related to entry/exit from the country. Customs
administration ensures that the import and export of goods are in compliance with the
Customs Act and other laws in force.
Accordingly, customs procedures are intended to provide definite, predictable
methods by which the goods can enter the country and get cleared on payment of
applicable import duties, fulfilling the requirements of the law of the land.
To regulate and to exercise effective control over import and export activities, goods
are allowed for import/export at notified places under section 7 of the Customs Act,
1962. Custodians are appointed under section 45 of the Customs Act, 1962 for safe
storage of goods till they are cleared for home consumption or warehoused. Clearance
of goods involves classification, assessment, examination and payment of Customs
duty on imported cargo on the basis of Bill of Entry presented by the importer or his
authorized agent. The Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBEC) has prescribed
the procedures which are implemented by field formations. These are updated and
modified according to need, the demands of trade and to improve the efficiency of the
system.
9.4.1 Role of Air Cargo Complexes (ACC)

ACC is a place where cargo is aggregated/segregated and export/import of cargo takes
place. With the growing volume of international trade, the need for expeditious
clearance of goods within the minimum possible time has been gaining importance.
This is more so for goods required 'just in time' for processing or use by industry and
in the case of express cargo/courier industry.
Further, for optimal utilization of existing infrastructure, space and equipment, goods
that are landed at ACC need to be evacuated straight away without any loss of time.
Hence there is a need for efficient clearance procedures from all concerned agencies.
Present Procedure for Customs Clearance of Imported Goods at Air Cargo

Complexes
In respect of the cargo stored at the ACC, the importers or their agents have to file the
Bill of Entry at the Air Cargo Unit of the Customs Administration. In respect of
transhipment cargo the Airlines would likewise file the transhipment applications in
the Cargo Unit of the Customs. In case any cargo covered by a Bill of Entry requires
examination, necessary instructions for examination are given in the form of an
examination order and the packages are delivered on that basis by the custodian for
examination. The packages are examined in the presence of the importers or their
representatives as well as the representative of the AAI. All the examined packages
170 are sealed with the Customs seal and delivered back to the custodian through the
Aviation
importer or his agents in case they are not cleared immediately. Arrangements for
presenting the packages to the custodian for examination and delivery are made by the
importer.
The delivery of the imported cargo is effected by the custodian on verification of the
out of charge order given on the Bill of Entry by the Customs. The custodian of the
Ground Handling Agency may require a gate pass for delivery of the imported cargo.
Gate pass is countersigned by the same Customs Officer giving out the charge order.
In the case of Cargo directly delivered, the IFO signs the gate pass after verifying and
noting the number of the Kutcha Bill of Entry and endorsing it on the gate pass. The
duplicate bill of entry received by the custodian after delivery of the cargo and sent to
the Cargo Unit of the Customs is matched with the original (except in the case of
Kutcha B's/E by the Cargo Unit which is processed and regularised by the Air Cargo
Unit).
Cargos like plants, human body, life saving drugs, radio active materials, etc. that
need immediate attention/storage/disposal are permitted to be cleared under Kutcha
Bill of Entry system. The importer (with necessary supporting documents) files a
Kutcha Bill of Entry well in advance to the Assistant/Deputy Commissioner (AC/DC)
for permission for direct delivery of the goods. The importer also gives advance
intimation to the custodian.
AAI regarding the arrival of such goods and the importer has to be present at the time
of receipt of the cargo in the Air Cargo Complex. The IFO after verifying the prior
permission granted by Assistant/Deputy Commissioner (AC/DC) will pass an order
for direct delivery against Kutcha Bill of Entry. Notwithstanding direct delivery, the
custodian, accounts for such goods in his warehouse, registers and also notes the
disposal particulars.
Present Procedure for Clearance of Export Goods at Air Cargo Complexes (ACC)
Exporter files a Shipping Bill which is assessed by Customs and the goods are also
subject to examination by Customs before LEO (Let Export Order) is given. This
document can be filed with Customs up to 15 days before the goods are actually
exported. To encourage exports, the Government has introduced various export
promotion schemes i.e. Drawback, DEEC, DFRC, DEPB, EPCG, etc. and the exporter
can choose to avail any of them. However, certain schemes cast an export obligation
on the exporter for which he is required to execute Bond and Bank Guarantee for a
specific period.
The Airlines ensure that only such cargo for which 'Let Export' has been given by
Customs are taken into their storage area. The Airlines also ensure that cargo that has
not been examined is not mixed with the cargo already examined and cleared. The
Freight Officer monitors the Airlines' compliance with these requirements.
Both Imports and Exports are governed by the Customs Act, 1962 and the EXIM
Policy and are subject to prohibitions and restrictions imposed under various other
Acts e.g. CITES, NDPS Act, Arms Act, Antiques Act, Drugs & Cosmetics Act,
Chemical Weapons Convention Act, etc.
9.5 IMMIGRATION FORMALITIES

The Bureau of Immigration (BOI) is responsible for immigration services at
major International Airports in India and the foreigners' registration process in five
major cities.
The field officers in charge of immigration and registration activities at Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata and Amritsar are called Foreigners Regional Registration Officers
(FRROs). The designation for the equivalent in Chennai (Madras) is Chief 171
Immigration Officer (CHIO). Apart from the FRROs/CHIOs who handle the Airport Handling
immigration/registration functions in the above-mentioned five cities, the concerned

SPs (Superintendents of Police) function as Foreigners Registration Officers (FROs)
in the other districts in different States in the country.
9.5.1 Instructions for Foreigners

1. Foreign Nationals desirous of coming into India are required to possess valid
passport of their country and a valid Indian Visa.
2. There is no provision of 'Visa on Arrival' in India and no fee is charged for
immigration facilities at the airports. Foreign passengers should ensure that they
are in possession of a valid Indian Visa before they start their journey to India
except nationals of Nepal and Bhutan who do not require visa to enter India and
nationals of Maldives who do not require visa for entry into India for a period up
to 90 days (a separate Visa regime exists for diplomatic/official passport holders).
3. However, there is a provision of granting TLF (Temporary Landing Facility)/TLP
(Temporary Landing Permit) to allow entry of foreigners arriving in emergency
situations like death/serious illness in the family, without an Indian Visa on cash
payment of US$40 (Indian Rupee equivalent of ` 1935/-, kindly confirm current
rates as applicable). This facility can also be extended to transiting foreigners
having confirmed onward journey tickets within 72 hours. Apart from this,
foreign tourists in groups of four or more arriving by Air or Sea, sponsored by
recognized Indian Travel Agencies and with a pre-drawn itinerary can be granted
collective landing permit for a specified period of time on the written request of
the Travel Agencies to the Immigration officer giving full personal and passport
details of the group members and undertaking to conduct the group as per the
itinerary and an assurance that no individual would be allowed to drop out from
the group at any place.
4. The above mentioned provisions of TLF/TLP, however, are not available to the
nationals of Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Somalia, Nigeria,
Ethiopia and Algeria.
9.5.2 Immigration Process

1. Immigration check is done for all passengers, Indians or foreigners, both at the
time of arrival and departure. The passports are duly stamped at arrival as well as
departure. Passengers should be careful to see that their passports are duly
stamped before leaving the immigration counter.
2. All passengers, Foreigners as well as Indians, coming to India or departing from
India are required to fill-up D (Disembarkation) Card and E (Embarkation) Cards
on arrival and departure respectively. The following information is required to be
provided by the passengers in these cards:
(a) Name and Sex
(b) Date of Birth, Place of Birth, Nationality
(c) Passport details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry
(d) Visa details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry (for arriving
foreigners only)
(e) Address in India
(f) Flight number and date of arrival/departure
(g) Occupation
(h) Purpose of visit to/from India
172 Registration for Foreigners
Aviation
1. Foreigners entering India on a Student, Employment, Research or Missionary
Visa which is valid for more than 180 days, are required to register with the
Foreigners Registration Officer under whose jurisdiction they propose to stay.
This should be done within 14 days of arrival in India, irrespective of their actual
period of stay.
2. Foreigners, visiting India on any other category of long term VISA which is valid
for more than 180 days, are not required to register themselves if their actual stay
does not exceed 180 days on each visit. If such a foreigner intends to stay
in India for more than 180 days during a particular visit, he/she should get
registered within 180 days of arrival in India.
3. The following categories of foreign nationals are exempt from registration:
(a) Those visiting India on any short term VISA i.e. valid for 180 days or less,
(b) Children below 16 years of age (any type of VISA)
4. Pakistan nationals are required to register within 24 hours of their arrival
in India. Afghanistan nationals are required to register within 7 days of their
arrival in India.
5. There is no fee charged for registration. However, US$ 30 (Rupees equivalent to
` 1395/-, please check current rates as applicable) is charged for over-stay and/or
late registration, if overstay is condoned by the competent authority.
6. Registration facilities are not provided at the airport. Registration is done in the
offices of FRRO/CHIO or the Superintendents of Police/districts.
Documents for Registration

z Registration form
z 4 photographs
z Proof of residential address in India
z Photocopy of main pages of passport i.e. those containing the photograph,
personal particulars, Indian Visa and latest arrival stamp in India.
Note: HIV test for Visa holders of more than one-year duration was required earlier at
the time of registration. This requirement is now dispensed with, according to MHA
circular No. 319 vide No. 25022/149/2002-F I dated 22.11.2002.
Following additional documents are also required in case of:

z Student Visa: Bona fide certificate from School/College by authorized signatory
of the Institute mentioning the course being undertaken.
z Business Visa:
Business related papers showing the authenticity of the business.
Copy of the approval from Government of India in case of joint venture or
collaboration (in duplicate).
Copy of permission from the RBI (Reserve Bank of India) in case of
business/joint venture, etc.
z Journalist Visa: Accreditation certificate from the Press Information Bureau with
the approval of MEA (Ministry of External Affairs)
z Employment Visa:
Letter of terms and conditions from the employer.
Copy of contract with concerned Indian company.
Covering/request letter from the company. 173
Airport Handling
Undertaking from the Indian company on the following lines:
Undertaking
We take full responsibility for the activities and conduct of Mr./Mrs.
__________________ national of _______________ during his/her stay in India. If
anything adverse comes to notice during this period, we undertake to repatriate
him/her on our cost.
Date: Signature of competent authority
Seal:
9.5.3 Registered Foreigners Formalities

1. A registered foreigner is issued a registration booklet containing his latest
photograph, details of residence etc. An endorsement is made in the passport also
regarding registration. The foreigner is required to intimate any permanent change
in his address to the Registration Authorities. A foreigner is also required to
inform the registration officer if he proposes to be absent from his registered
address for a continuous period of 8 weeks or more. Similarly, a foreigner, who
stays for a period of more than 8 weeks at any place other than the district of his
registered address, shall inform the Registration Officer of that district of his
presence.
2. Registration formalities for foreigners are guided by the Registration of
Foreigners Act, 1939 and Registration of Foreigners Rules, 1992.
Foreigners Staying at Hotels

Foreigners, visiting India on Tourist Visa and not staying continuously for more than
six months in India, are not required to register themselves. However, all foreigners
including even tourists and others who are not required to register, are required to fill
up a form called Form-C (Rule-14, Registration of Foreigners Rules, 1992) at the time
of their stay in any hotel (which includes any boarding-house, club, dak bungalow,
rest house, paying guest house, sarai and other premises of like nature). It is the
responsibility of the hotel owner to get this form filled up by the foreigner.
Visa Extension/Conversion
The powers of Visa conversions and visa extensions to foreigners present in India,
vests with the Ministry of Home Affairs. For this purpose the foreigners can approach
the Foreigners Division, MHA, Lok Nayak Bhawan, Khan Market, New Delhi
between 10 AM to 12 AM on all working days (Monday to Friday). The change of
visa status from one category to another category is normally not allowed. It can be
considered by MHA only in extraordinary circumstances. For this purpose, the
foreigner should normally come in person to the office. In exceptional cases and
where allowed, a duly authenticated representative may be sent. Foreigners not
residing in Delhi may approach the FRRO/CHIO/FRO concerned who would forward
their case in MHA for approval. Applications for extensions/conversions should be
made well in advance.
For the convenience of the foreigners, however, the FRROs/CHIO/FROs are
empowered to make extensions/conversions for certain types of Visas without
referring the same to MHA. The details of such powers vested with FRROs, etc. are:
In case of foreigners of Indian origin/foreigner married to Indian citizen/foreigner
staying in India for more than 20 years, extension can be given on entry Visa by
FRROs for a period of 5 years.
174 FRRO can extend the VISA for three months in case of Employment & Business
Aviation
VISAs and forward the case for further extension up to 1 year, to MHA. After
obtaining approval from MHA, FRRO can extend that VISA for further four years on
year-to-year basis.
FRRO can convert visa and grant extension of stay to foreign students studying up to
12th standard, whose parents are of Indian origin or whose parents are Indian
nationals on year-to-year basis. Same facility is also available for children of
foreigners residing in India on long-term basis (studying up to 12th Standard) on valid
visas such as Employment, Business, Research, Entry Student etc.
FRRO can grant 15 days extension of stay on all types of visas on production of
confirmed ticket for departure.
For student VISA holders: FRRO can extend the Student Visa for duration of the
course or for a maximum period of 5 years, whichever is less, to bonafide students
coming to India to join well-known institutions subject to fulfilment of conditions
prescribed. The visa fee for a student for the duration of the course or for a maximum
period of 5 years, whichever is less, is US$ 75, but it remains a one time fee for
duration of the course and all extensions within this duration are given free of cost. An
additional fee of US$ 75 has to be charged for change in course/subsequent course.
FRRO may allow change in Institution/course (on payment of fee) provided the new
institution and course are also fully recognized/approved and are full-time proper
courses. In case of PG Courses, fee has to be charged (except ICCR Scholars and
students of gratis countries) for extension of visa on the basis of bonafide certificates.
For Research VISA holders: FRRO can extend the VISA on the accreditation of the
Ministry of Human Resource Development till the completion of Research work.
In case of Bangladeshi Nationals: FRRO can extend the short term single journey
Visa in case of non-tourists up to a maximum of 3 months on medical grounds.
For journalist VISA holder: FRRO can extend the VISA on the accreditation of Min.
of external Affairs
FRRO can condone overstay only up to 3 months, after charging overstay fees of US
$ 40 equivalent. Cases of overstay exceeding 3 months are decided by MHA.
FRRO can convert the category of the visa from Tourism to Entry visa in case of
foreigners of Indian origin and grant extension up to 5 years with multiple entry
facility. For other foreign nationals, only MHA is empowered to convert the category
of the visa.
Visa Fees
1. ` 1860/- (US$ 40) All kinds of visa other than transit and student visas valid up to
to 6 months (multiple entry)
2. ` 3025/- (US$ 65) All kinds of visa other than transit and student visas valid for
over 6 months and up to 1 year (multiple entry)
3. ` 6050/- (US$ 130) All kinds of visa other than transit and student visas valid for
over 1 year and up to 5 years (multiple entry)
4. ` 470/- (US$10) Transit visa (valid for 15 days-single/double entry)
5. ` 3490/- (US$ 75) Student visa (valid for the duration of the course or for a period
of five years, whichever is less-multiple entry)
6. ` 1395/- (US$ 30) Overstay or Late Registration Charges
7. ` 1860/- (US$ 40) Service Charges in case of Russians (No Visa fees)
8. ` 135/- VISA fee for single entry for Sri Lankans
9. ` 270/- VISA fee for double entry for Sri Lankans 175
Airport Handling
10. ` 405/- VISA fee for multiple entry for Sri Lankans
11. ` 390/- VISA fee for Japanese
12. ` 300/- Service Charges for Romanian nationals (No Visa fees)
The newly introduced visa fee charges for Hungarian nationals are:
1. 38 US $ Transit-Single Entry
2. 65 US $ Transit-Double Entry
3. 150 US $ Transit-Multiple Entry
4. 40 US $ Visa valid up to 6 months (Single Entry)
5. 75 US $ Visa valid up to 6 months (Double entry)
6. 180 US $ Visa valid up to 6 months (Multiple entry)
7. 65 US $ Visa valid up to 1 year (Single entry)
8. 180 Us $ Visa valid up to 1 year (Multiple entry)
9. 180 US $ Visa valid more than a year
10. ` 700/- Express service (Same day service)
Documents Required for Extension of Visa

z Extension Form
z One photograph
Following additional documents are also required in case of:
1. Employment Visa:
(a) Request letter from the company
(b) Copy of contract with the company
(c) Company registration with whom he/she is working
(d) Undertaking on the following lines:
Undertaking
We take full responsibility for the activities and conduct of Mr./Mrs.
…………………… national of …………………… during his/her stay in India. If
anything adverse comes to notice during this period, we undertake to repatriate
him/her on our cost.
Date:
Seal: Signature of competent authority
2. Business Visa: Business related documents including request on letterhead of the
company, etc. with whom he/she is doing business.
3. Journalist Visa: Approval letter from MEA.
4. X Visa:
(a) Proof of Indian origin
(b) Request from company that his/her VISA may be extended co-terminus to
his/her spouse (the spouse being on Employment Visa)
176 5. Student Visa: Bonafide certificate from school/college by the authorized
Aviation
signatory of the institute mentioning the course being undertaken.
9.5.4 PIO (Person of Indian Origin) Card

PIO card scheme, 1999 has been revised. The new PIO Card Scheme, 2002, is in
operation since 15th September, 2002. According to the revised scheme, the PIO Card
is valid for 15 years and a fee of ` 15,000/- charged for issue of the same. In the case
of minor, i.e. below 18 years of age, the fee is ` 7,500/- for 15 years validity card.
Authority to which application is to be made:
1. An application for issue of a PIO Card shall be made to an Indian Mission in the
country where the applicant is ordinarily resident.
2. Applicants already in India on Long Term Visa (more than one year) shall make
the application for issue of a PIO Card to the following authorities:
(a) Those residing in:
(i) Delhi - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,
(ii) Level-II, East Block-VIII, Sector-I, R.K. Puram,
(iii) New Delhi-110066
(b) Mumbai - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,
(i) 3rd Floor, Special Branch Building,
(ii) Badruddin Tayabji Lane,
(iii) Behind St. Xaviers College,
(iv) Mumbai-400001
(c) Kolkata - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,
(i) 237, Acharya Jagdish Chandra Bose Road,
(ii) Kolkata-700020
(d) Amritsar - Foreigners Regional Registration Officer,
(i) 123-D, Ranjeet Avenue,
(ii) Amritsar-143001
(e) Chennai - Chief Immigration Officer, Bureau of Immigration,
(i) Shastri Bhavan, 26, Haddows Road,
(ii) Chennai-600006
3. Those residing in areas other than (A) above:
Joint Secretary (Foreigners), Ministry of Home Affairs, Ist floor, Lok Nayak
Bhavan, Khan Market, New Delhi - 110003.
Possession of a PIO card, entitles a foreigner to enter or leave India without the
requirements of any other VISA. Registration, however, is required with the
concerned FRRO/CHIO/FRO office for a PIO card holder also if he stays
in India for more than six months continuously like foreigners on any other types
of long-term vis Nationals of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan,
Bhutan, Nepal and China are ineligible for grant of PIO card. Iranian nationals of
Indian Origin can be granted PIO card after MHA approval.
Benefits Available to a PIO Card Holder

A PIO Card holder does not require a separate visa to visit India. The PIO Card
holders will not require "Student Visa" for undertaking studies in India and similarly
no "Employment Visa" will be required for taking up employment in India. However, 177
they will be required to fulfil other pre-requisite conditions and other formalities in Airport Handling
connection with their studies/employment as prescribed by concerned authorities from

time to time.
Separate counters for immigration are provided to PIO Card holders at International
airports in India.
Parity with Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in respect of facilities available to the latter
in economic, financial and educational fields.
All facilities in the matter of acquisition, holding, transfer and disposal of immovable
properties in India except in matters relating to the acquisition of agricultural/
plantation properties.
Facilities like those available to children of NRIs for getting admission to educational
institutions in India including Medical Colleges, Engineering Colleges, Institutes of
Technology, Institutes of Management, etc. under the general categories.
Facilities available under the various housing schemes of LIC, State Governments and
other Government agencies.
Instructions for Indians
Indian nationals travelling abroad require a valid Indian passport and travel authority
for the destination country. The travel authority is normally in the form of Visa, which
is obtained prior to the journey, except in case of countries where "Visa on Arrival" is
available.
Even for re-entry into the country, an Indian national is required to be in possession of
a valid Indian passport or travel document issued by Govt. of India.
Immigration check is conducted for all passengers, Indians or foreigners, both at the
time of arrival and departure. The passports are duly stamped at arrival as well as
departure. Passengers should be careful to see that their passports are duly stamped
before leaving the immigration counter.
All passengers, Foreigners as well as Indians, coming to India or departing from India
are required to fill-up D (Disembarkation) Card and E (Embarkation) Cards at arrival
and departure respectively. The following information is required to be provided by
the passengers in these cards:
z Name and Sex
z Date of birth, Place of Birth, Nationality
z Passport details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry.
z Visa details viz. number, place and dates of issue/expiry (for arriving foreigners
only)
z Address in India
z Flight number and date of arrival/departure
z Occupation
z Purpose of visit to/from India
For some categories of Indians going to specific countries, there is a requirement of
obtaining "Emigration Clearance". It is a requirement of Ministry of Labour, Govt. of
India. For further details see the topic ECNR/ECR/POE.
ECNR/ECR/POE
z ECNR (Emigration Check Not Required)
z ECR (Emigration Check Required)
z POE (Protector of Emigrants)
178 As per the Emigration Act, 1983, certain categories of Indian passport holders require
Aviation
to obtain "Emigration Clearance" from the office of Protector of Emigrants (POE) for
going to certain countries.
As per Emigration Act, "emigration" means going out of India of any Indian citizen
with a view to taking up employment in a foreign country.
All Indian passports are divided into two categories as follows:
z Passports with endorsement: "Emigration Check Required (ECR)"
z Passports with endorsement: "Emigration Check Not Required (ECNR)"
The Indian passport holders who have the stamp of ECR, are required to get
emigration clearance from Protector of Emigrants if going out to any country
except Pakistan, Bangladesh, European countries (excluding CIS countries), all
countries of North America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Singapore,
South Korea and South Africa. Indian passport holders, who have the stamp of ECNR,
do not require to take any emigration clearance from POE for going to any country.
Categories of Indians entitled for ECNR Category

Indians applying for passport are required to specify the desired category i.e. ECR or
ECNR in the application form itself. The following Indians are entitled for ECNR
stamp:
z Persons going abroad in managerial capacity in Hotels/Restaurants, Tea-Houses
or other places of Public resort etc. possessing specialized Degrees in these fields.
z All Gazetted Government servants.
z All Income-Tax payers (including Agricultural Income-Tax Payers) in their
individual capacity. Proof of assessment to Income-Tax and actual payment of
Income-Tax for last three years is required and not merely payment of advance
tax. However in most cases as an assessment order is not issued separately by the
Income Tax Department., Income Tax Return stamped by Income Tax authority is
accepted.
z All professional Degree holders, such as Doctors holding M.B.B.S. Degree in
Ayurveda or Homoeopathy, accredited Journalists, Engineers, Chartered
Accountants, Cost Accountants, Lecturers, Teachers, Scientists, Advocates, etc.
z Spouses and dependent children up to the age of 24 years of category of persons
listed from (2) to (4).
z All persons who have been staying abroad for more than three years (the period of
the three years could be either at a stretch or broken), and spouses and children up
to the age of 24 years of such persons.
z Seamen who are in possession of CDC or Sea Cadets.
Deck Cadets:
1. who have passed final examination of three years B.Sc. Nautical Sciences courses
at T. S. Chanakya, Mumbai; and
2. who have undergone three months Pre-Sea training at any of the Government
approved Training Institutes such as T. S. Chanakya, T. S. Rehman, T. S.
Jawahar, MTI (SCI) and NIPM, Chennai, after production of identity cards issued
by the Shipping Master, Mumbai/Calcutta/Chennai.
All holders of Diplomatic/Official Passports.
Dependent children of parents whose passports are classified as ECNR in the case of
such children ECNR classification to be restricted until they attain 24 years of age.
Persons holding Permanent Immigration Visa, such as the Visas of UK, USA and 179
Australia. Airport Handling
Persons holding Graduate or higher Degrees. (If final certificate not available,
provisional certificate plus marksheet to be attached).
Persons holding 3 years Diploma equivalent to degree from recognized Institution like
polytechnics.
Nurses possessing qualifications recognized under the Indian Nursing Council Act,
1947.
All persons above the age of 60 years.
No emigration clearance is required for persons possessing certificates of vocational
training from Government/Government recognized institutions.
If the passport of a person has been wrongly categorized as ECR, while he was
entitled for ECNR category, he will have to get it rectified from the issuing Regional
Passport Office (RPO) only before he undertakes a journey to the countries for which
emigration clearance is required. The immigration officers at Airports are empowered
to grant exemption only in emergency cases.
The POE offices in India are situated at the following places:
Jaisalmer House,
Canteen Block, Man Singh Road,
New Delhi.
Tel No. 011-2338 2472
Building "E" Khira Nagar,

S.V. Road,
Santacruz (West)
Mumbai-400 054
Tel No. 022-2614 7393
Room No. 116 A Wing,

3rd MSO Building, DF Block,
Salt Lake, Kolkata-700 064
Tel No. 033-2334 3407
Tamil Nadu Housing Board Complex,

Ashok Nagar,
Chennai-600 083
Tel No. 044-2489 1337
8th Floor, Chandra Vihar Complex,
Opp. Exhibition Ground, M.J. Road,
Hyderabad.
180 Suganth, 24/846 (I),
Aviation
Thycaud,
Trivandrum-695 014
Tel No. 0471-2324835
Kendriya Sadan,
5th Block, Ground Floor,
Sector-9-A,
Chandigarh
Tel No. 0172-2741790
9.5.5 Health Regulations

1. For entry into India:
Any person, Foreigner or Indian, (excluding infants below six months) arriving by
air or sea without a vaccination certificate of yellow fever will be kept in
quarantine isolation for a period up to 6 days if:
(a) He arrives in India within 6 days of departure from an infected area.
(b) He/she has come on a ship which has started from or transited at any port in a
yellow fever affected country within 30 days of its arrival in India, provided
such ship has not been disinfected in accordance with the procedure laid down
by WHO.
2. For leaving India: There is no health check requirement by Indian Government
on passengers leaving India.
Persons leaving for a yellow fever infected area are advised in their own interest
to be in possession of valid yellow fever vaccination certificates before they leave
the country. The Government of Guyana requires that all persons including
diplomats travelling to that country from India to possess valid yellow fever and
cholera inoculation certificates before they leave India.
An administrative Arrangement for the health control of sea, air and land traffic
exists between the Government of India and the Government of Bangladesh. It
implies that if any aircraft or ship or land traffic from a third country arrives first
at any airport or port or border check post in either of the agreement countries and
then directly (without touching any other third country enroute) reaches the
second country of the agreement, all health checks will be completed in the
country of first arrival and the travellers will be exempted from any further health
check on arrival in the second country.
Persons exempted from production of vaccination certificate
The under mentioned persons are exempted from production of yellow fever
vaccination certificate:
3. Infants below the age of six months.
4. Crew and passengers of an aircraft transiting through an airport located in yellow
fever infected area provided the Health Officer is satisfied that such persons
remained within the airport premises during the period of stay.
Countries regarded as yellow fever infected.
The following countries are regarded as yellow fever endemic: 181
Airport Handling
Africa: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic,
Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia,
Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast (Cote D'Ivoire), Kenya,
Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra
Leone, Somalia, Sudan (South of 15° N), Togo, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia.
America:
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname,
Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Panama.
A Yellow fever vaccination certificate is valid only if it conforms to the model. The
validity period of international certificate of vaccination or re-vaccination against
yellow fever is 10 years, beginning 10 days after vaccination.
Foreign nationals residing or who have passed through the Yellow fever endemic
countries during the preceding six days, are granted visas only after the production of
vaccination certificate of Yellow Fever. After checking the vaccination certificate an
entry read as "Valid Yellow fever Vaccination Certificate Checked" is made in the
passport of the foreigner.
9.5.6 Co-ordination of Supporting Agencies/Departments

As per the guidelines of the IATA Coordination can be explained as follows:
There are currently 155 fully coordinated level-3 airports in the world. These are
airports where the demand for runway and gate access exceeds the capacity of the
airport, resulting in the need for slots to be allocated to airlines through the slot
coordination process. Level-2 airports have slot controls in place only at peak times.
Europe has 98 fully coordinated level-3 airports. Greece alone has 23. By contrast, the
United States has two level-3 and four level-2 international airports. Asia-Pacific still
has 45 level-3 airports. The remaining level-3 airports are in the Middle East, South
Africa, and Canada.
IATA has developed industry standards for the scheduling process, detailed in the
IATA Worldwide Scheduling Guidelines (WSG). The existing system of allocating
slots at coordinated airports is based on the principle of grandfather (historic) rights
coupled with the 80/20 rule. Beyond that, airlines can swap and exchange slots
between themselves in a secondary trading process.
If any new slots become available at coordinated airports, they go into a slot pool—
half of which must be made available to ‘new entrant’ carriers currently operating less
than two pairs of slots per day).
Schedules are planned in six-monthly seasons. Schedules for the following season are
fixed at the twice-annual IATA scheduling conferences. Most allocations are sorted
out before the conferences start.
The conferences are, however, vitally important, allowing airlines and slot
coordinators to meet face-to-face to review their portfolios, fine-tune schedules that
could not be agreed in detail, and swap slots with other airlines.
1. Immigration check is conducted for all passengers, Indians or foreigners,
only at the time of departure.
2. A PIO Card holder does not require a separate visa to visit India.
182
Aviation 9.6 SECURITY CLEARANCE − BAGGAGE
Baggage handling services include a number of activities involving the collection,
sorting and distribution of baggage. An efficient flow of baggage through the terminal
is an important element in the passenger handling system. Departing passengers
normally check their baggage at one of a number of sites including curbside check-in
and at the ticket counter in the terminal building. The bags are then sent to a central
sorting area, where they are sorted according to flights and sent to the appropriate gate
to be loaded aboard the departing aircraft. Arriving baggage is unloaded from the
aircraft and sent to the central sorting area. Sorted bags are sent to a transferring flight,
to the baggage claim areas, or to storage for later pickup. At most airports, baggage
handling is the responsibility of the individual air carriers. Some airports operate a
consolidated baggage service, either with airport personnel or on a contract basis. One
of the simplest and most widely applied methods to expedite baggage handling is
curbside check-in. This separates baggage handling from other ticket counter and gate
activities, thereby disencumbering those locations and allowing baggage to be
consolidated and moved to aircraft more directly. Another method is replacement of
the baggage claim carousel with loop conveyor belts that allow passengers greater
access to their luggage without increasing the size of the claim area.
Sorting baggage, moving it to and from the apron, and aircraft loading and unloading
are time-critical and labour-intensive operations. Technologies to improve this process
include high-speed conveyors to transport baggage between the terminal and the flight
line, often used in conjunction with pallets or containers that can be put on and taken
off aircraft with labour-saving equipment. Computerized baggage-sorting equipment,
capable of distributing bags with machine-readable tags, has been installed at some
airports.
9.6.1 Security Screening of Checked Baggage

All baggage checked in by passengers boarding commercial air carrier aircraft must
be screened for explosives and other prohibited items upon check-in at the airport
terminal.
Baggage Claim
For passengers who checked baggage at the airport prior to departure, facilities for
claiming their baggage must exist at the airport as well. Baggage claim facilities are
typically located in an area conveniently positioned near facilities that accommodate
ground transportation from the airport, including parking lots, shuttle vans, taxi cabs,
and rental car counters. Baggage is typically presented to arriving passengers in the
baggage claim area by use of a baggage claim carousel, configured in such a way as to
provide sufficient carousel frontage to accommodate all passengers desiring access to
their baggage, while minimizing the total amount of space required for the claim area.
Carousels are typically shared between air carriers in a given terminal. This is feasible
because limited infrastructure is required specifically for one particular carrier in these
areas. Typically, however, each air carrier will have its own administrative area,
primarily to handle cases of lost, unclaimed, or damaged baggage.
Fill in the blanks:
1. An efficient flow of baggage through the terminal is an important element
in the …………………. handling system.
2. All baggage checked in by passengers boarding commercial air carrier
aircraft must be …………………. for explosives and other prohibited
items upon check-in at the airport terminal.
183
9.7 LET US SUM UP Airport Handling
Flight information counter or reservation is the place at the airports from where the
passengers can collect information about the arrival and departure related information
of various airlines and the related fares. The ticketing process has come a long way
since the early days of passenger processing at airport terminals.
Airport check-in uses service counters found at commercial airports handling
commercial air travel. Passengers usually hand over any baggage that they do not
wish or are not allowed to carry on to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding
pass before they can proceed to board their aircraft. A boarding pass is a document
provided by an airline during check-in, giving a passenger permission to board the
airplane for a particular flight.
In accordance with international practice, all goods imported into the country or
exported out of the country by air or other routes are governed by the provisions of the
Customs Act, 1962 and other laws related to entry/exit from the country. Customs
procedures are intended to provide definite, predictable methods by which the goods
can enter the country and get cleared on payment of applicable import duties,
fulfilling the requirements of the law of the land.
The Bureau of Immigration (BOI) is responsible for immigration services at
major cities. Baggage handling services include a number of activities involving the
collection, sorting and distribution of baggage. All baggage checked in by passengers
boarding commercial air carrier aircraft must be screened for explosives and other
prohibited items upon check-in at the airport terminal. For passengers who checked
baggage at the airport prior to departure, facilities for claiming their baggage must
exist at the airport as well.

Prepare a presentation on general immigration procedure at airports.
9.9 KEYWORDS
Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE): It is a computer-based system that can
accommodate the operating systems of any air carrier that shares the ticketing facility.
Online check-in: It is the process in which passengers confirm their presence on a
flight via the Internet and typically print their own boarding passes.
Boarding pass: It is a document provided by an airline during check-in, giving a
passenger permission to board the airplane for a particular flight.
ACC: It is a place where cargo is aggregated/segregated and export/import of cargo
takes place.
Bureau of Immigration (BOI): It is responsible for immigration services at
major cities.

1. Explain the process of airport check-in.
2. How is online check-in is done?
3. What do you mean by boarding pass? Discuss it relevance.
4. Describe customs procedures and the functioning of air cargo complexes.
184 5. What is the present procedure for customs clearance of imported goods at air
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cargo complexes?
6. Describe domestic/foreign immigration process.
7. What are the benefits available to PIO (Person of Indian Origin) card?
8. Describe security clearance of baggage.

CYP 1
1. False
2. True
CYP 2
1. Passenger
2. Screened

Group Publishing.
Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board.
Scientific Publishing.
Transportation Research Board.
Senguttuvan. P S (2007), Principles of Airport Economics, Excel Books, New Delhi.
New Delhi.
185
Crisis Management at Airport
UNIT V
186
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LESSON 187
10
CRISIS MANAGEMENT AT AIRPORT
CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Various Crises at Airports
10.3 Bomb Threat Standard Operating Procedures
10.4 Mitigating the Hijack Crisis
10.5 Response of Acts of Unlawful Interference
10.5.1 General Principles
10.5.2 Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference
10.6 Developing Plans
10.6.1 Aircraft Accidents
10.6.2 Managing the Crisis
10.7 Let us Sum up
10.9 Keywords

z Understand the various crisis at airports
z Explain the procedure of the SOP for bomb threat
z Describe the mitigating hijack crisis situation
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Crisis management is the practice by the help of which an organization handle the
major event that threatens to harm the organization, its stakeholders, or the common
people. Crisis management originated as a study for the large scale industrial and
environmental disasters since 1980s.
We may say that crisis consist of the following:
1. A short decision time,
2. A threat to the organization,
3. The element of surprise, and
188 Venette argues that "crisis is a method of alteration where the old system can no
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longer be retained." Therefore the fourth important quality is the requirement for
change. If change is not required, the occasion could more precisely be termed as a
failure or incident.
As compared to risk management, that comprises estimating potential pressures and
defining the best ways to avoid those fears, crisis management includes dealing with
fears before, during, and after they had occurred. It is a discipline enclosed by the
wider context of management comprising skills and methods obligatory to recognize,
assess, understand, and manage a serious situation, particularly from the instant it has
occurred to the point that recovery processes started.
Crisis management consists of different aspects including;
z Communication that occurs within the response phase of emergency-management
scenarios.
z Crisis-management methods of a business or an organization are called a crisis-
management plan.
z Establishing metrics to define what scenarios constitute a crisis and should
consequently trigger the necessary response mechanisms.
z Methods used to respond to both the reality and perception of crises.
Crisis management is sometimes referred to as incident management; even though
several industry specialists such as Peter Power argue that the term "crisis
management" is more perfect.
A crisis mindset needs the skills to think of the worst-case scenario while all together
suggesting various solutions. Trial and error is a recognized discipline, as the first line
of defence may not work. It is essential to maintain a list of possible plans and to be
all the time on alert. Organizations and persons should always be ready with a fast
reaction plan to emergencies which would need analysis, drills and exercises.
The reliability and status of organizations is deeply affected by the observation of
their responses at time of crisis situations. The organization and communication helps
in responding to a crisis in a timely manner makes a challenge in the businesses.
There must be open and reliable communication all through the hierarchy to
contribute to an effective communication process.
The related terms emergency management and business-continuity management
emphasis respectively on the rapid but short lived "first aid" type of answer and the
longer-term recovery and restoration phases. Crisis is also an aspect of risk
controlling, though it is perhaps incorrect to comment that crisis management
represents a let down of risk management, since it will never be possible to totally
mitigate the chances of disasters' occurring.
10.2 VARIOUS CRISES AT AIRPORTS

During the crisis management practice, it is significant to find out the types of crises
in that diverse crises impose the use of various crisis management tactics. Potential
crises are massive, but crises can be grouped. Lerbinger categorized eight types of
crises:
z Confrontation
z Malevolence
z Natural disaster
z Organizational Misdeeds
z Rumors
z Technological crises
z Terrorist attacks/man-made disasters 189
z Workplace Violence
Airport Managers only consider accidents on or nearby to their own airport whereas
Airline Managers are not that much lucky approximately half of the incidents and
accidents occur at a distant place from their home airport. Nevertheless an airline have
an accident away from an airport where few of its own staff are stationed, airport and
other local staff is required to take on further responsibilities unless and until the
airline staff arrive.
The accidents should be avoided and yet plan must be ready for them might be
established by means of the comprehensive simulation of an mishap with senior
management staff making the Crisis Management Team and having to reply to the
varied range of difficulties reaping up resulting to the 'accident'. A Crisis Management
simulation of an 'away' accident is described.
Airport and Airline Safety Managers are well known about the fact that there is a fine
difference between having an incident and having a major accident. They are also
very well aware of the benefits of having well managed Emergency Procedures to
decrease the effects that can be either it is social or financial. Senior managers, despite
new requirements originating from the USA, may be less likely to appreciate the wide
variety of problems that they may have to face in the aftermath of a major accident
and may thus be reluctant to give safety the backing necessary if we are to maintain,
let alone improve, the air transport industry's existing excellent safety record during
the coming decade.
By chance accidents are infrequent but this leads to the unfortunate fact that very rare
managers have had the chance of acquiring the necessary knowledge to deal with the
kind of emergency likely to grow in the come around of an accident. There is a strong
requirement for various important people to be aware with everything concerned with
what it is fervently hoped will never happen. This can occur by means of the wide
training of all who are nominated to be involved if and when an accident or other such
event does occur.
There are various areas which are quite important, including:
z Establishing good communications;
z Finding out what has occurred and where;
z Checking that those on board, whether fatalities, casualties or unhurt survivors,
are being or soon will be looked after appropriately;
z Similarly that next-of-kin and other 'meeters and greeters' will be looked after and
kept informed;
z Establishing good relations with the media, it being vitally important that the
airline is seen by the media to be doing all that it can to help those involved.
While airport staff will also be concerned with all these topics they may be more
directly involved in matters of direct concern to the airport, including establishing the
state of the airport, will it be closed to other traffic and if so for how long? Fire covers
status, organizing accommodation for next-of-kin, etc. the media.
The airport and the airlines should working together, although the airport is not likely
to go out of business, as the airline, its profits could be cut permanently if airlines and
passengers perceive it to be in any way responsible.
Numerous diverse range of problems arise after the damage of an aircraft, regarding
the emergency response, engineering, operations, legal matters and others, if anyone
not dealt with efficiently could undesirably affect the capitals of the airport and/or the
airline.
190 It is very essential that it should be recognized that different parties will have different
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priorities yet the airline is the chief or perhaps the single source of information
important to other parties. One problem clear to the airline is that it must not only
keep up its plans while being one aircraft short but may also have to carry a large
number of people to the accidental place - or as close as is possible to it since the
accident may have occurred far from an airport or, if on it, the airport may still be
closed. Also if they can be got there - where will they stay?
Similarly the airport need to deal with extra passengers and other people of the public
than normal because of flight delays but have to do so with less space and fewer staff
since some large rooms or areas may have to have been allocated to the various
groups associated with the accident.
The airline will request to continue its jobs with the least disruption, if required by
diverting flights and passengers to other airports. The airports do not have this choice
but also request to restart usual processes as soon as possible. Holiday locations,
mainly islands have a tendency to be filled at peak times of year. If an airplane lands
with a fresh load of tourists and then crashes on or shortly after take-off, closing the
airport, pressure upon housing may be stressed beyond its limit. If the accident
happened on US territory or if US citizens are involved, then the requirements of the
National Transportation Safety Board's (NTSB's) Federal Family Assistance Plan will
need to be met, putting an even greater strain on resources. Furthermore if it is
believed by the media to be a significant accident then the media will be there in force
and the media is renowned for fixing its lodging needs very well.
Legal action may be started against the airline, airport or both even before the dust has
settled at the accident site and even if this does not occur there is still the need to copy
any documents that might become pertinent to the accident before the originals are
seized by investigation or judicial authorities.
Such matters and many more are all part of crisis management and therefore a part of
Air Transport Management that may affect the whole industry and its future.
10.3 BOMB THREAT STANDARD OPERATING

PROCEDURES
The main objective of these Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) is to take care of
the life of the travellers, inhabitants, staff and the residence when any bomb threat
broke out, maintain principles of care, and address safety apprehensions.
Approve that your staff drill consist of how to take delivered packages and phone
protocols for getting calls as well as making calls to specialists. Train staff to pay
responsiveness to your property and your community for doubtful persons, vehicles,
or packages. Keep in mind that the bombs today can resembles anything; the only
common feature is that they will explode.
In the event of a bomb warning to the residence, clearing may be necessary until fire
or police personnel give an all clear. Show them you’re SOPs. It is useful to practice
this procedure.
z Take all bomb threats seriously.
z Be aware of potential areas of your property that could be vulnerable to attack,
including stairwells, boiler rooms, and dumpsters. Combustible materials should
be properly disposed of or secured.
z Bombs being delivered by car or left in a car are a reality. Parking should be
restricted if possible. Employee cars should be parked closest to the building;
visitor parking should be farther away.
z Call 911 while the caller is on the line and ask for specific instructions. . Identify 191
yourself and give them the name and address of your residence. Follow the Crisis Management at Airport
instructions from 911 operators. Use the accompanying Bomb Threat sheet (here,
use the actual name of the document) to help emergency responders decide how
you should handle the threat. Follow their in If they tell you to start evacuating,
follow these procedures.
z Decide what other parts of your emergency operations plan to activate because of
this threat.
z Evacuate to your pre-determined location away from the residence.
z Follow your residence's evacuation procedures.
z Grab staff "Go-Kits" if you have to evacuate. Make sure they include your
residence's emergency operations plan, care plans, Administration Manual, critical
medications and face sheets for all residents, if there is time.
z Have policies in place for notifying residents' emergency contacts, local support
agencies, transportation providers. Create a scripted message if you have more
than one call to make. Talk with your emergency manager to determine what to
do if they find a bomb. You may be out of your building for hours.
z If your residence receives a bomb threat, it could be part of a bigger, community-
wide event such as a terrorist threat. Check with local emergency managers to
understand the community-wide plan for such events. Instead of evacuating, local
emergency personnel may tell you to shelter-in place.
z Inform staff. Stop all activities, including using electrical devices, such as phones,
cell phones, or turning on or off lights. These activities may activate a bomb.
Note: If anything looks suspicious in your evacuation area, choose another
location.
z The Emergency Alert System may broadcast community emergency information
on the NOAA weather radio or via TV stations during terrorist attacks. Make sure
your residence has one, as well as fresh batteries. To hear local newscasts, you
might also consider a wind-up, solar powered or battery operated radio.
z These procedures should include several copies of the floor plan of the building to
make searching easier for emergency personnel.
10.4 MITIGATING THE HIJACK CRISIS

Hijackings have turn out to be a terrifyingly everyday offense in South Africa as many
people are victimized by this every year than the other countries of the rest of the
world. Emergency services are so occupied with the work that is why it is the
responsibility of the people to be cautious against the hijacking. A hijacking can take
place anywhere and at any particular but by taking little preventive measure you can
make sure that you are a little safer from a probable hijacks.
In advance you can sufficiently protect yourself by the hijacking. So it is important to
understand how hijackers work. Emergency services have recognized a series of
common techniques that are being used by the hijackers to achieve their intended
goals. Most hijackings:
z Take place in quiet parking areas where you can be easily followed.
z Take place in the driveways of homes while the driver is waiting for the gate to
open or close.
z Take place when a car is stationary along the side of the road – for example when
people are talking on their cell phone.
192 z Take place while you are loading or unloading passengers or goods and the
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vehicle is idling.
These are the most common ways to hijack a vehicle but there are many ways that you
should take care of to avoid the circumstance of hijacking at your place.
When you come in your driveway emergency services offer some comprehensive
advice to sidestep a hijacking situation. You should be alert and attentive all time and
always check your driveway and the area for any doubtful persons that may be
waiting. Your doubts should be stir up if you see people meeting and sitting in a
parked car for a long time or unfamiliar people walking or sitting in the region that do
not appear to belong them. If you want to leave the vehicle to open the gate, turn off
the ignition, leave the keys in the ignition and don’t forget to close the door and only
when the children are sitting in the car you should remove the keys from the ignition.
A large number of hijackings take place at night so make sure that there is sufficient
light all over the place like driveway and the area near the gate of your home.
Emergency services also advise to make a call ahead to let someone know that you are
about to reach so they can open the gate for you or at least act as an extra pair of eyes
for any suspicious persons.
When the vehicle is parked at some other place, make sure that the surroundings are
safe for your vehicle. Regularly check your mirrors to make sure that you are not
being followed by anyone and observe your surroundings to take note of any places
that there is no any auspicious person who can harm you. It should also be kept in
mind that never sleep in a parked car unless you have any reliable person with you
and make sure that the surrounding is safe. Take not of security guards and other
people so you are able to go for help if required.

1. Natural Disaster is not a type of Crisis.
2. Having knowledge about the surrounding cannot help in avoiding hijacking.
3. Management should be kept away from the crisis.
4. Media create nuisance during crisis.
10.5 RESPONSE OF ACTS OF UNLAWFUL

INTERFERENCE
Source: http://www.icao.int/Security/SFP/Pages/Acts.aspx
The reporting of acts of unlawful interference with civil aviation provides ICAO with 193
data that is serious in estimating and analysing security instances and styles. Crisis Management at Airport
Contracting States are grateful by legal instruments to the Chicago Convention to

report to ICAO as soon as possible after a happening has been decided. Through
analysis of such occurrences, experts are able to develop effective measures that form
the basis of an aviation security programme.
10.5.1 General Principles

Applicability
z The delivery of this Portion would be applied by the concerned specialists to the
prevalent pressures of acts of unlawful interference against civil aviation to which
each airbase or airport within Bangladesh is exposed.
z The Chairman must make sure that processes planned to defend against acts of
unlawful interference are applied to native operations to the level practicable,
based upon a safety risk valuation carried out by the pertinent national authorities.
Objectives
z The main aim is the safety of passengers, crew, ground personnel and the general
public in all matters related to safeguarding against acts of unlawful interference
with civil aviation.
z The Chairman shall improve and implement regulations, practices and procedures
to defend civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference taking into account
the safety, regularity and efficiency of flights.
z The Chairman shall make sure that such regulations, practices and processes
safeguard the safety of commuters, crew, ground personnel and the general public
in all matters related to the protection against acts of unlawful interference with
civil aviation; and are capable of responding quickly to come across any increased
security hazard.
z The Chairman should at any time arrange for the safety controls and events to
cause slightest of intervention with, or interruption to the activities of, civil
aviation provided the efficiency of these controls and procedures is not
compromised.
z The Chairman should make sure for the proper protection of aviation security
information.
Cooperation and Coordination

z The Chairman must make sure that requests from other Contracting States for
further security measures in respect of a specific flight by operators of such other
States are met, as far as possible.
z The Chairman shall cooperate with other States in the development and exchange
of information concerning national civil aviation security programmes, training
programmes and quality control programmes, as required.
z The Chairman should establish and implement certain methods to share with other
Contracting States danger information that relates to the aviation safety interests
of those States, to the level possible.
z The Chairman shall establish and implement appropriate safeguard and
management processes for safety information shared by other Contracting States,
or safety information that affects the security interests of other Contracting States,
in order to ensure that inappropriate use or disclosure of such information is
avoided.
194 z The Chairman should share, as appropriate, and consistent with the sovereignty of
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Bangladesh, the results of the audit carried out by ICAO and the corrective actions
taken if requested by another State.
z The Chairman should include in each of its bilateral agreements on air transport a
clause related to aviation security, taking into account the model clause developed
by ICAO.
z The Chairman should make available to other Contracting States on request a
written version of the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation security
programme.
z State shall give consideration to alternative measures of the other State that are
equivalent to those requested.
Organization
1. National organization and appropriate authority:
(a) The Chairman shall establish and implement a written national civil aviation
security programme to protect civil aviation procedures against acts of
unlawful interference, through regulations, practices and procedures which
take into account the safety, regularity and efficiency of flights.
(b) The Chairman shall be accountable for the growth, implementation and
preservation of the national civil aviation safety programme.
(c) The Chairman shall keep in persistent analysis the level of threat to civil
aviation within the territory for e.g. Bangladesh, and establish and implement
policies and procedures to regulate pertinent elements of nationwide civil
aviation security programme accordingly, based upon a security risk valuation
carried out by the pertinent national authorities.
(d) The Chairman shall describe and assign farm duties and organize events
between the departments, agencies and other organizations of the
Government, airport and aircraft operators and other entities concerned with
or accountable for the implementation of several features of the national civil
aviation security programme.
(e) The Chairman shall, on the direction of the Government, start a national
aviation security board to be called the Civil Aviation Security Committee for
the determination of coordinating security activities between the
departmental, agencies and other organizations of the Government, airport
and aircraft operators and other bodies concerned with or accountable for the
enactment of several features of the national civil aviation security
programme.
(f) The Chairman shall ensure the development and implementation of a national
training programme for personnel of all entities involved with or accountable
for the implementation of different features of the national civil aviation
security programme. This drill programme shall be planned to make sure the
efficiency of the national civil aviation security programme.
(g) The coaches and the training programmes should encounter values as defined
by the Chairman.
(h) The Chairman shall assemble for the assisting resources and services required
by the aviation security services to be offered at each airport serving civil
aviation.
(i) The Chairman shall make offered to the airport and aircraft operators
operating in the territory like Bangladesh and other objects concerned, a
written form of the suitable parts of its national civil aviation security
programme and/or relevant information or rules allowing them to come across 195
the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme. Crisis Management at Airport
2. Airport Operations:
(a) The Chairman shall entail each airport serving civil aviation to start,
implement and preserve a written airport security programme suitable to meet
the necessities of the national civil aviation security programme.
(b) The Chairman shall confirm that a power at each airport aiding civil aviation
is accountable for bring together the implementation of security controls.
(c) The Chairman shall confirm that an airport security board at each airport
serving civil aviation is recognized to assist the authority declared under sub-
rule.
Of this rule in its role of coordinating the implementation of security controls and
procedures as specified in the airport security programme.
(a) The Chairman shall make sure that commercial air transport workers
providing provision like in Bangladesh have established, implemented and
preserved a written operator security programme that meets the necessities of
the national civil aviation security programme in Bangladesh and shall be
satisfactory to or accepted by the Chairman.
(b) The Chairman should make sure that every person conducting general
aviation.
(c) Operations, including corporate aviation operations, using aircraft with a
supreme take-off mass greater than 5700 kg, has established, implemented
and maintained a written operator security programme that meets the
requirements of the national civil aviation security programme of Bangladesh.
(d) The Chairman should make sure that each entity accompanying aerial work
processes has recognized, implemented and sustained a written operator
security programme that encounters the necessities of the national civil
aviation security programme of Bangladesh. The programme shall contain
operations features specific to the type of operations conducted.
3. Quality control:
(a) The Chairman shall make sure that the individuals implementing safety
controls are subjected to contextual checks and selection procedures.
(b) The Chairman shall make sure that the persons implementing security
controls keep all capabilities essential to accomplish their duties and are
suitably trained according to the necessities of the national civil aviation
security programme and that suitable records are kept up to date. Pertinent
standards of presentation shall be recognized and initial and periodic
valuations shall be bring together to uphold those standards.
(c) The Chairman shall make sure that the individuals carrying out transmission
procedures are qualified according to the necessities of the national civil
aviation security programme to make sure that performance standards are
constantly and consistently achieved.
(d) The Chairman shall improve, implement and uphold a national civil aviation
security feature control programme to regulate compliance with and
authenticate the efficacy of its national civil aviation security programme.
4. Preventive security measures:
(a) General: The Chairman shall create procedures to avoid weapons, explosives
or any other hazardous devices, articles or substances, which may be used to
196 obligate an act of illegal interference, the carriage or bearing of which is not
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approved, from being presented, by any means whatever, on board an aircraft
engaged in civil aviation.
(b) Measures relating to access control:
(i) The Chairman shall make sure that the access to airside regions at airports
serving civil aviation is controlled so as to avoid unauthorized record.
(ii) The Chairman must make sure that security controlled areas are
recognized at each airport portion civil aviation based upon a security risk
assessment carried out by the relevant national authorities.
(iii) The Chairman shall make sure that identification systems are recognized
in respect of individuals and vehicles so as to prevent illegal access to
airside spaces and security restricted areas. Identity shall be confirmed at
designated checkpoints before access is allowed to airside areas and
security restricted areas.
(c) Measures relating to aircraft:
(i) The Chairman must ensure that aircraft security checks of creating aircraft
involved in commercial air transport actions are done or an aircraft
security search is carried out. The purpose of whether it is an aircraft
security check or an examination that is suitable shall be constructed upon
a security risk valuation carried out by the significant national authorities.
(ii) The Chairman must confirm that the measures are taken to ensure that
passengers of commercial flights disembarking from the aircraft at any
time do not leave items on board the aircraft.
(iii) Commercial air carriage operators shall take methods as suitable to ensure
that during flight unapproved persons are prohibited from arriving the
flight crew compartment.
10.5.2 Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference

Prevention
The Competent Authority in coordination with suitable national authorities shall,
when reliable information come into picture that an aircraft might get subjected to an
act of unlawful interference, safeguard the aircraft if it is still on the ground and
provide as much earlier notice as possible of the coming of such aircraft to related
airports and air traffic services if the aircraft by that time has proceeded.
The Competent Authority in coordination with suitable national authorities and
concerned Airport Operator shall make sure that the aircraft is examined for hidden
arms, explosives or other hazardous devices, articles or elements, when there is
trustworthy information exists that an aircraft might get subject to an act of unlawful
interference. Prior notification of the search should be provided to the Aircraft
Operator concerned.
Airport Operators have to make all arrangements required to do the investigation,
render safe and/or dispose of, if necessary, suspected dangerous devices or other
potential threats at airports.
The Competent Authority in coordination with appropriate national authorities and
Airport Operators need to make sure that emergency plans are developed. Airport
Operators shall confirm that resources are made available to protect civil aviation,
against acts of unlawful interference. The emergency plans shall be verified on a
regular basis in a systematic manner.
Airport Operators in coordination with appropriate national authorities must arrange 197
for placement of authorized and trained personnel to help in allocating the suspected, Crisis Management at Airport
or actual, cases of unlawful interference with civil aviation.
Response
Airport Operators in coordination with suitable national authorities must make sure
about the safety of the troop of an aircraft, who are exposed to an act of unlawful
interference, while on the ground, until their journey can be continued.
The Competent Authority in coordination with the concerned Airport Operator who is
responsible for providing air traffic service that is subjected to the act of unlawful
interference, shall bring together all relevant information on the flight of that
particular aircraft and pass on that information to Air Traffic Services units concerned,
comprising those at the airport of known or supposed destination, so that timely and
proper safeguarding act may be reserved on the way and at the aircraft’s known, likely
or possible destination. Management of Response to Act of Unlawful Interference Car
Part VII Aviation Security Regulation 5-215 July 2013.
The Competent Authority in coordination with the concerned Airport Operator shall
deliver help to an aircraft put in danger to an act of unlawful capture, containing the
facility of course-plotting aids, air traffic services and authorization to land as may be
needed by the situations.
The Competent Authority in coordination with suitable national establishments and
concerned Airport Operator shall take actions, as it may find attainable, to confirm
that an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful capture which has landed in the area of
the United Arab Emirates is imprisoned on the ground unless its leaving is required by
the superseding duty to safeguard human life.
When an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference has landed in the
territory of the United Arab Emirates, the Competent Authority in coordination with
appropriate national authorities shall notify by the most expeditious means the State of
registry of the aircraft and the State of the operator of the aircraft about the landing.
Subsequently, all other relevant information, when available, shall be expeditiously
transmitted to:
1. Each State whose citizens are known to be on board the aircraft;
2. Each State whose citizens suffered fatalities or injuries;
3. Each State whose citizens were detained as hostages;
4. The International Civil Aviation Organization; and
5. The two above mentioned States.
Exchange of Information and Reporting

The Competent Authority shall deliver International Civil Aviation Organisation with
all relevant figures regarding the safety features of an act of illegal interference which
has happened, as soon as possible, after the act is resolved.
10.6 DEVELOPING PLANS

A major emergency have variety of forms, not only an aircraft accident but perhaps an
aircraft hijack, an aircraft trapped in a war zone, the contamination of aircraft catering,
a bomb explosion in the airport or in an airline sales office or any other major event
associated with the airline or airport. Unfortunately not all airlines can cope properly,
some will muddle through, and others may go out of business. Others again may face
the world and be seen to be giving every possible assistance to the survivors, to the
198 next-of-kin and to the investigators; such airlines may come through relatively
Aviation
unscathed.
As the actual accidents are unusual it is obligatory for the staff of the airport and
airline to take part in systematic full scale disaster movements, employed with all the
emergency facilities. Airports must run such trainings to preserve their authorizations
but all parties can learn a great deal if they are properly run.
Such trainings are tremendously valuable but they are almost unavoidably limited to a
'home' airport and, however important, are an exclusive way to acquire the basic
programs, many of which may be learned initially just as effectively from small scale
and relatively inexpensive 'table-top' simulations.
The vital fact is that around a half of an international airline's mishaps are likely to be
at distant place. Thus a table-top simulation may be the only way to become involved
in and appreciate the additional problems surrounding 50% of its accidents, those in a
foreign country, somewhere that the airline has only a handful of staff or perhaps
where it does not operate and thus has no staff at all.
10.6.1 Aircraft Accidents

The effects of a major accident are broadly categorises into several distinct yet
overlapping stages.
z If hazardous problems came into picture prior to landing, the Emergency Services
at the projected destination and the airline itself can be notified and emergency
procedures brought into action in advance the accident, if any, occurred. If there is
no such warning then inevitably action starts only after the accident has occurred,
in which case the location of the accident site may or may not be known
immediately. Thus there may still be a period of uncertainty before any real action
takes place.
z As soon as the accidental site is known the Emergency Services take control of
the safeguarding of life taking total priority. The Fire and Rescue Services will
ordinarily be in control of the wreckage and the Police of everything else,
allowing triage and drive to hospitals and elsewhere to take place smoothly. All at
once the airline will take care for the information both for its own use and should
be given to others and will work to offer housing for the uninjured, the 'meeters
and greeters', relatives who have been waiting at the airport or who arrive soon,
and for the media as well.
z Once the accidental site is cleared of people and the debris is secure the
Emergency Services soon stand down and the accidents investigators take control
of the site. Even though the examination of site may only take a small number of
days, allowing the wreckage to be moved and the site is organized again, the
whole investigation often take months, even a year or more to complete and will
study happenings that led up to the accident, the impact itself and any fire that
followed, and the actions of the airline and Emergency Services since these may
have affected the continued survival of those on board.
z The airport's and the airline's participation may start beforehand the emergency is
declared and remain until after the investigation report is issued. It may
commence with the initial problem of an aircraft, with the crew notifying Air
Traffic Control who will prepare airport and airline ground staff; remain in
equivalent to the work of the Emergency Services through the initial stages after
the accident; and continue both with the supply of information relating to
passengers and crew and with that concerning the aircraft, its maintenance, its
cargo and everything else is required by the accidents investigators. Nevertheless
as the principal joins between those on the aircraft and their next-of-kin the
involvement may continue for several years, as counselling of staff.
The crisis management simulation define later is primarily proposed to cover the first 199
two or three days after an accident but it also points to issues that are likely to arise at Crisis Management at Airport
some substantial time in the upcoming.
Emergency Procedures
While it is clear that the airline's emergency actions are important, in certain cases the
effectiveness of an airport's emergency techniques may also significantly affect the
result, for improved or for of poorer quality.
10.6.2 Managing the Crisis

This Forbes Group disaster response plan is a specification of how to respond after a
disastrous event. It is planned to help system of government to think through what
they should do. There are three parts of crisis management:
z Preparedness
z Reaction
z Response
Preparedness consists of safety of physical and knowledgeable resources. Response
comprises communications and restoration. Reaction contains the demonstrative toll
of a disaster.
Every association should have thorough emergency response and communications
strategies. In developing these plans, it is useful to make circumstances of possible
disastrous events to permit staff and leaders to define how to deal with them before
the fact. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has a comprehensive
guide to help organizations prepare for emergencies. It is available at the FEMA
website.
The Forbes Group: The Forbes Group is a 20-year-old tactical management
counselling organization headquartered in Fairfax, VA. The mission of the
organization is to help various other organizations to create their preferred future by
thinking, planning and acting strategically.
Seven-Step Crisis Management Formula

z Define the scope of the crisis:
Local, regional or national.
Organizational areas involved.
What have others done in similar situations?
z Establish unified response:
Designate one authorized spokesperson and one alternate; tell staff and
members who they are, where they are and how they can be reached day or
night.
Designate one person authorized to clear statements to the media and the
public; responsible for getting clearances from lawyers, public safety officials,
etc. make arrangements in advance.
Develop and maintain a unified position and supporting messages.
Keep messages simple, clear and consistent.
Tailor messages to audiences.
200 z Create a central information service:
Aviation
Set up an adequately staffed and equipped media headquarters away from the
crisis site; know how to arrange for additional phone lines.
Staff and volunteers should refer all crisis questions to the central source.
Arrange for the receptionist and voice mail to refer calls to the crisis centre.
Have emergency numbers (police, fire, public safety, medical) available.
Request stakeholder cooperation.
To avoid inconsistencies in media responses, have all requests funnelled
through information central.
z Act promptly:
Actions being taken by organization, stakeholders.
Arrange for a news conference for the designated spokesperson as soon as
facts are known.
Console the stricken, reassure the affected, offer help.
Different crises have different focuses.
Disasters/industrial accidents/environmental problems affect local
communities first.
Extent of problem, damages, injuries.
Gather facts calmly.
Immediately make a simple statement indicating awareness of the situation,
action being taken and willingness to inform media and public of details when
they are known.
Keep stakeholders informed of developments (staff, leaders, association
members, government officials.
Make spokesperson available for interviews.
Notify media and cooperate with reporters.
Openly and honestly provide as much detail as possible.
Product recalls/consumer boycotts affect customers, stakeholder sales
forces, suppliers, distributors.
Staff, leaders, stakeholders, government officials, media.
Takeovers, mergers, acquisitions affect financial markets and media.
Target communications to those affected by the crisis and who can effect
action.
Use facts to squelch rumours.
Work with hospitals/public safety organizations to designate spokespersons.
z Establish media response policy:
Arrange for photographer/videographer to document important developments
for media, lawyers, insurance companies, organizational records.
Do not stonewall or deny that there is a crisis.
Have media monitoring plan.
If appropriate and acceptable to public safety officials, arrange for access to 201
disaster area. Crisis Management at Airport
Keep media away from families until approved by appropriate person.

Keep records of all replies (media, reporter name, date, time, respondent,
summary of response, follow up requests).
Limit statements to the immediate problem.
Provide no information about victims until families have been notified.
Schedule regular briefings to relay data, correct misconceptions and maintain
positive media relations.
Stick to the facts.
Treat all media equally; no exclusives.
z Document everything:
Keep thorough and accurate records of everything - planning sessions, crisis
management team meetings, reports and all public conferences; tape thoughts
and reasons for making decisions because these will give a solid basis for
quotes; document decision making and protect from blame fixing.
z Conduct a post-crisis review:
Appoint a crisis evaluation team to assess handling of the crisis and
recommend changes in crisis procedures. Evaluation team members should be
different from crisis management team members.
Questions to ask - Did the crisis plan work? Where did it break down? What
should be added? What was unnecessary and obsolete? Who should be on the
next crisis management team?

Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………… and ……………… are the types of natural crisis.
2. SOP stands for ………………………
10.7 LET US SUM UP

A detailed simulation of the events that may follow an airline accident can help
prepare both airport and airline staff for such an unlikely eventuality. Having
experienced the problems rather than having merely read about them staff are in a
better position to review and possibly change their emergency procedures and to
improve their colleague's appreciation of the problems that they may have to face.

Go to any airport and observe the preparation to handle any crisis.
10.9 KEYWORDS
SOP: Standard Operating Procedure
Aviation: Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use
of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft.
202
Aviation 10.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Briefly describe the different types of the crisis.
2. Explain standard operating procedure of Bomb blast.
3. How one can avoid the hijacks?

CYP 1
1. False
2. False
3. False
4. True
CYP 2
1. Cyclone, Floods
2. Standard Operating Procedure

Aviation Maintenance Management- HArryA. Kinnison- McGraw Hill
Risk Management and error reduction in Aviation Maintenance- Manoj
S. Patankar and James C. Taylor- AShgate Publishing Ltd.
Model Question Paper
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

BBA (Annual Pattern)
Second Year
Sub: Aviation
Time: 3 hours Total Marks: 100
Direction: There are total eight questions, each carrying 20 marks. You have to
attempt any five questions.
1. Explain the growth drivers of the aviation industry and the initiatives taken by the
government for the development of aviation sector in India.
2. Describe with the help of diagram the principle units of airframe of a fixed-wing
aircraft.
3. Discuss the competition between the Airbus industries and the Boeing company.
4. Write a brief note on passenger and cargo terminal.
5. What were the objective behind the formation of IATA and ICAO?
6. Describe in detail giving necessary figures the layout of an airport.
7. What do you mean by flight catering system? Discuss in detail. Also briefly
discuss ways of handling unaccompanied passengers at airports.
8. What are the components of Airport terminal? Discuss in detail.
201
International Business
202

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School of Distance Education

Copyright © 2014, Bharathiar University

Produced and Printed

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.2 GROWTH DRIVERS

1.2.1 Economic Factors

1.2.2 Political Factors

Source: Airport Authority of India

1.2.3 Government Initiatives

1.3 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Source: IATA Airport and Air Navigation Charges Manual

1.4 GLOBAL AVIATION INDUSTRY

Global Airport Market Overview

1.4.1 Aviation’s Global Economic Profile

Wider Catalytic (spin-off) Benefits

Air Transport Stimulates Tourism

Contribution to World Trade

Passenger Air Services’ Role in International Trade

Paying Our Way

Air Transport: A Stimulus for Greater Productivity

Measuring the Impact on Productivity

1.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY

1.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

2.2 INDIAN AVIATION

carrying such an operation.

2.2.1 Size of the Industry

Top Leading Companies

2.2.2 Modernization of Airports

Foreign Equity Participation in Air Transport Services

2.3.1 Major Structural Stresses

Figure 2.3: Principal Airframe Units

resistance or counterforce that opposes distortion, whereas strain is the level of

Figure 2.6: An Airframe using Monocoque Construction

Figure 2.7: The Most Common Airframe Construction is Semi-monocoque

Figure 2.8: Various Wing Design Shapes yield Different Performance

depends upon. Some of these factors are as under:

Figure 2.9: Wing Attach Points and Wing Dihedrals

Figure 2.10: Externally Braced Wings, also called Semi-cantilever Wings,

Figure 2.11: Wing Structure Nomenclature

Figure 2.12: Box Beam Construction

Figure 2.14: Fuel is Often Carried in the Wings

Figure 2.16: Components of a Typical Empennage

2.4 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

2.4.1 Primary Flight Control Surfaces

Figure 2.18: Aileron Location on Various Wings

2.4.2 Secondary or Auxiliary Control Surfaces

Secondary/Auxiliary Flight Control Surfaces

Name Location Function

Allows control at low speeds for short field

Allows control at low speeds for short field

Allows control at low speeds for short field

Check Your Progress 2

2.5 LET US SUM UP

2.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY

2.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Check Your Progress: Model Answers