EEZG614, Air Pollution Control Technologies

Lecture 2: Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement

Dr. Somak Chatterjee
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering
Review
• Stoichiometry: Mole fraction and mass fraction

• Air Pollution: classification, sources and effects

• Pollutants of global concern

• The Ideal Gas Law

• Concentration Measurements in Gases

• Gas Flow Measurement

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Contents

• Types of Air Pollutant Sampling and Measurement

• Ambient Air Sampling

• Stack Sampling

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Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement

• Sampling and measurement of air pollutants,

generally known as air quality monitoring
• There are two quite different situations in
which the air quality measurement is
undertaken: Ambient air quality
measurement and Stack sampling.

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Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement

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Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement
• Most air pollution monitoring equipment performs
the act of sampling and analysis in one action =
real time measurement
• older equipment = intermittent sampling (time lag
between when the sample was obtained and
when data was available)
• Almost all gaseous pollutants are monitored by
real time analysis - Particulate pollutants are still
mostly monitored by intermittent sampling, even
though real time methods are available

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Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement

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Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement

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Air Pollution Sampling and Measurement

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Ambient Air Sampling
• The most important objective of any air sampling
exercise is to obtain a genuine and representative
sample .
• In addition , the sampling should be carried out long
enough and at a rate that allows collection of an
analytically measurable sample.
• A typical air sampling system consists of a sample
collector, a flowmeter to measure the airflow through
the collector, and a pump to draw the air sample
through the system.
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Conventional Ambient Air Sampling Method

Fig a: Low
Pump pressure drop
Sample
Flowmeter
collector

Fig b: High
Pump pressure drop
Sample
Flowmeter
collector
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Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants

➢ Grab Sampling
➢ Absorption in liquids
➢ Adsorption on Solids
➢ Freeze out Sampling

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Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants
Grab Sampling:
• In grab sampling the sample is collected by
filling an evacuated flask or an inflatable bag
• Grab sample may be taken using rigid wall
containers made from glass of stainless steel
• These containers are first evacuated and them
filled by allowing air to enter.

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Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants
Absorption in liquids:
• Most used method
• Absorption separates desired pollutants
from air through direct solubility into a
liquid medium or through a chemical
reaction
• Many different collectors are in use
• On such device is fritted-glass absorber,
where gas stream is broken into small
bubble for providing higher contact area
between liquid and gas
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Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants

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Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants
Adsorption on Solids:
• Tendency of the gas to get adsorbed on solid materials
• Sample air is passed through a packed bed containing finely
divided solid adsorbents, on whose surface, pollutants are retained
and concentrated
• Most commonly used solid adsorbents are granular porous solids,
such as, activated charcoal and silica gel with high surface area
• After adsorption, sample gases are desorbed for analysis. This may
be accomplished by heating.
• Most organic vapors are analyzed by gas chromatograph (GC)
techniques
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Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants
Freeze-out Sampling: In freeze-out sampling a series of
cold traps, which are maintained at progressively lower
temperature, are used to draw the air sample whereby the
pollutants are condensed.
Coolant Temp Attained (⁰C)
Ice-water 0
Ice-salt -21
Dry ice and acetone -79
Liquid air -147
Liquid oxygen -183
Liquid nitrogen -196
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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
• Sedimentation ( particles >10 μm in
diameter)
• High –Volume Filtration
• Impingement
• Electrostatic Precipitation
• Thermal Precipitation
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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
Sedimentation (Dust fall jar)
• It is effective for collective larger than 10
micron
• Collector consist of plastic jar of about 20 to
35 cm height and 10 – 15 cm diameter at the
base.
• Sample is deposited over a period of one
month and material is dried and weighed
• Dust particles larger then 10 micron seldom
travel more than 1 km. So, dust fall jars
must be spaced near to the emission source.

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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
High-Volume Filtration
• This is a popular method for
measurement of the mass concentration
of suspended particulates < than 10 μm
in diameter
• In this method, a known volume of air is
sucked by a high-speed blower through
a fine filter and the increase in weight
due to the
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trapped particles is measured.
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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
High-Volume Filtration
➢ airflow is measured by a small flow meter
(calibrated in m3 air/minute)
➢ A glass filter has a collection efficiency of
even 99 percent.
➢ particulate concentration measured is
referred to as the, Total Suspended
Particles (TSP) = combination of
settleable particles and suspended particles
(expressed as g/m3 for a 24 hour period
– normally as part of 6 day cycle)

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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
High-Volume Filtration: Sample Calculation

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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
Tape Sampler:
➢ Draw ambient air through a cellulose tape filter
➢ Sampling time 10 min to 2 hour
➢ Air is passed through a nozzle and particulates are collected on the
paper tape forming a spot
➢ Spots are evaluated by analyzing the light that can be transmitted
through the spot.

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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
Tape Sampler:
Measurement is reported as coefficient of haze (COH):

𝐶𝑂𝐻 𝑇0 𝐴
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 105
1000 𝑓𝑡 𝑇 𝑉

COH Degree of Pollution

0-0.9 Light
1-1.9 Medium
2-2.9 Heavy
3-3.9 Very heavy
4-4.9 Extremely heavy
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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
• Impingement
In an impinger the separation of particulates
from the air stream takes place by collision
against a flat surface
• Electrostatic Precipitation
This is a physical process by which particles
suspended in gas stream are charged electrically
and under the influence of the electrical field,
separated from the gas stream.
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Collection of Particulate Pollutants
Thermal Precipitation
It operates on the principle that small particles,
under the influence of a strong temperature
gradient between two surfaces have a tendency to
move towards the lower temperature and get
deposited on the colder of these two surfaces
These temperature gradients are normally of the
order of 3000 degree centigrade per centimeter.

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Stack Sampling

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Stack Sampling

• The major problem in stack sampling is of

obtaining a representative sample
• If a representative sample is not obtained then
the concentration and composition of the actual
gas stream will be different, and serious errors
would result in the analysis
• The important factors in obtaining a
representative sample are the selection of the
sampling site and the number of sampling
points required

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 Stack Sampling

• The gas stream in a stack is

normally under turbulent flow
conditions and any flow
disturbance would cause non-
uniform and unstable gas flow
profiles and non-uniform particle
concentration patterns
• The sampling site should be
located at least eight stack or
duct diameters downstream and
two diameters upstream from
any source of flow disturbance
such as bends, fittings, or
constrictions
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 Stack Sampling

• In some stacks, it is not always possible to ensure

uniform flow, so concentration patterns and, hence,
multiple samples are required to obtain a representative
sample
• The actual sampling must be performed at a number of
traverse points in the stack
• Other problems associated with stack sampling are the
high temperatures and high velocities of the gases
encountered inside the stack
• High temperature, causes difficulties in collecting the
sample and require a number of additional
measurements such as the moisture content, pressure,
temperature, the flow rate of the gases and their
compositions
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 Stack Sampling
Sampling System
• Stack sampling is carried out by diverting a part of the gas stream
through a sampling “train” of which a general arrangement is shown
below.
General arrangement of sampling train
6
1 2
3 4 7
1. Nozzle 5
2. Sampling Probe
3. Particulate collector
4. Cooling and/or gas collector
5. Gas flow meter
6. Flow control valve
7. To vacuum pump
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 Stack Sampling

Traverse Points
For the sample to become representative, it should be collected
at various points across the stack.
The number of traverse points may be selected as given below:

http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Publications/Publication_522_LAT80_SourceEmissionMonitoring.pdf
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Stack Sampling

http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Publications/Publication_522_LAT80_SourceEmissionMonitoring.pdf
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 Stack Sampling
• In circular stacks, traverse points are located at the center of equal
annular areas across two perpendicular diameters

• In case of rectangular stacks, the area may be divided in to 12 to 25

equal areas and the centers for each area are fixed

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 Stack Sampling
Particulate Sampling
• The common technique employed for sampling particulate-laden gas streams is
the so called “isokinetic technique”.
• Under isokinetic conditions, the static pressure at the tip of the probe must be
equal to the static pressure in the free stream at the same cross-section.
• This implies that when two pressures are equalized then the corresponding
velocities must be equal

u up = u 

Isokinetic
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 Stack Sampling
Particulate Sampling
• When a sharp-edged probe is introduced into a single-phase fluid stream, then
the flow pattern around the probe may be represented as in the case of simple
pitot tube.
• The velocity inside the probe is zero and the pressure at the tip of the probe
becomes equal to the stagnation pressure
• If the gas velocity (up), less than the free stream velocity (u), is maintained
inside the probe, then the gas flow pattern at the tip of the probe may be
represented by given figure. In this case the static pressure at the tip of the probe
is greater than the free stream static pressure at the same cross section

u up< u

Probe
Sub-isokinetic
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Stack Sampling
Particulate Sampling
➢ If the gas velocity (up), greater than the free stream velocity (u), is
maintained inside the probe, then the gas flow pattern at the tip of
the probe may be represented by given figure. In this case the
static pressure at the tip of the probe is less than the free stream
static pressure, and too much gas will be sampled in proportion to
the probe area.

u up > u 

Super-isokinetic
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 Stack Sampling
Particulate Sampling
Iso-kinetic sampling can be achieved by two ways:
• By computing the point velocity of the free stream with a pitot tube located
as near to the sampling probe as possible without interfering with the free
stream, and then adjusting the sampling velocity
• By using a null-type sampling probe
• In a null type sampling probe, the static pressures measured between the
inner and outer probe walls is balanced
• This (assumes) that the velocity within the probe is equal to the free
stream velocity
• In practice numerous problems are encountered while trying to maintain
true iso-kinetic conditions because a null pressure balance does not
necessarily indicate a matched velocity conditions
• The difference in turbulence for duct and probe flow, the nozzle shape, its
surface non-uniformities, possible plugging of the inner static tap by fine
particles, and the location of the static holes- all these may contribute to
non[isokinetic conditions

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 Stack Sampling
Gaseous Sampling
• The basic routine for obtaining a gas sample from stack emission is
similar to that employed in sampling of particulate matter
• The sampling is much easier because it is not necessary to sample at
isokinetic conditions
• The sample can be withdrawn from the stack at a constant rate
independent of the flow rate in the stack
Precautions for obtaining a representative sample
• Particulate matter must be filtered upstream of the collection system to
prevent downstream line plugging as well as to minimize losses of
gaseous pollutants due to reaction with particulates on cooling
• If moisture is present in stack gases it could get condensed in the
sampling line and dissolve the gaseous constituents of interest
• Suction through the nozzle draws a known volume of the gas from the
stack into a collection device which removes the constituent gas of
interest and the remaining gas is measured with a flow meter located
downstream of the collection device

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Calculation for Stack Sampling
The Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids is
(without friction)
P1 u 21 P2 u 22
+ gZ1 + = + gZ 2 + − − − − − (1)
1 2 2 2
Each term in above equation is a scalar and has the dimension
of energy per unit mass, representing a mechanical energy
effect based on a unit mass of the flowing fluid

Measurement of Temperature
Let 𝑇𝑆 be the stack gas temp in K.

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Calculation for Stack Sampling
Measurement of Velocity:
From Bernoulli's principle
P1 u 21 P2 u 22
+ gZ1 + = + gZ 2 + − − − − − (2)
s 2 s 2

ρs be the density of the gas stream, at point 2 in 𝑈2 =0 and since point

1 and point 2 are at the same datum , 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 , equation 2 is written
as follows:
u 21 P2 − P1
= − − − − − − − − − − − −(3)
2 S
2( P2 − P1 )
This implies that u1 = − − − − − − − − − (4)
S
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Calculation for Stack Sampling
Measurement of Velocity
The pressure drop 𝑃2 - 𝑃1 can be written from
manometer reading:

ΔP = ρmgH-----------(5)

Substituting equation 5 in 4 we get

2 gH m
u =K − − − − − − − − − (6)
S
Since molecular weight of stack gas is same as that of air, static
pressure inside the stack is close to atmospheric pressure.
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Calculation for Stack Sampling
Measurement of Velocity
From ideal gas we can write
ρsTs = ρaTa---------------------------(7)
Substituting ρs in equation 6, we get
2 gH mTs
u =K − − − − − − − − − (7)
aTa
Let Ta = 25 ⁰C and ρa = 1.25 kg/m3 g = 9.81 m/s2

Substituting above values in 7 we get

u = K 0.0527 m HTs − − − − − − − − − (7)
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Calculation for Stack Sampling
Measurement of Iso-kinetic flow rate and nozzle
selection
Sampling flow rate (Q) in m3/s = u * An

where An -area of nozzle at tip of probe in 𝑚2 ; u- velocity

of stack flue gas m/s


An = Dn 2 − − − − − − − − − (8)
4

Dn= Diameter of nozzle, m

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SO2 Measurement

– UV fluorescence analyser

– Flame photometric detector (with or

without gas chromatograph)

– Electrochemical (coulometric detector)

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SO2 Measurement

• SO2 molecules absorb ultraviolet (UV) light and become

excited at one wavelength
• Then decay to a lower energy state emitting UV light at a
different wavelength
• The intensity of fluorescence is proportional to the SO2
concentration
• Fluorescence SO2 Analyzer consists of a hydrocarbon
scrubber, fluorescence chamber, light source, photoelectric
detector, electronics, etc

SO2 + UV SO2*
SO2* SO2 +light
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SO2 Measurement

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 𝑵𝑶𝒙 Measurement

• Determined using chemiluminescence

• Specific for NO, but total oxides of nitrogen determined by
passing sample over a catalyst to convert NO2 to NO
• Suitable for ambient air containing NOx (NO and NO2) at
levels less than 1 mL/m3
• Reaction of NO with ozone in a dark enclosed chamber to
produce light - detected by a pmt
• Provided the ozone is present in excess the light output is
directly proportional to the concentration of NO
NO + O3 NO2* + O2
NO2* NO2 + h (light)

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 𝑵𝑶𝒙 Measurement
• Atmospheric nitrogen and any nitrogen in fuel is converted
into its oxides, mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(𝑁𝑂2 ) during combustion. The NO oxidizes in presence of O3
(ozone) to form 𝑁𝑂2 in the atmosphere
• NO is an odorless and colorless gas
• 𝑁𝑂2 is a reddish, brown, pungent, acidic gas
• 𝑁𝑂2 is 4 times more dangerous than NO
• 𝑁𝑂2 can irritate the lungs, increase susceptibility and severity
of asthma and lowers resistance to infections such as the flu
• Children exposed to 𝑁𝑂2 are at increased risk of respiratory
infection.

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 𝑵𝑶𝒙 Measurement
• The nitrogen oxides are responsible for acid rains that affect the terrestrial
and aquatic life.
• Nitrogen oxides are critical components of photochemical smog - it is
nitrogen dioxide that produces the yellowish-brown color of the smog and
significantly affects visibility
• The chemiluminescence method principle is based on the fact that nitric
oxide (NO) reacts with ozone to form nitrogen dioxide (𝑁𝑂2 ). This reaction
is accompanied with the release of light (chemiluminescence). This occurs
in the reaction chamber. If excess ozone is present, the light emission is
proportional to the amount of nitric oxide (NO) present in the sample.
• The emitted light is measured by the multiplier tube and then converted
into an electrical signal. 𝑁𝑂2 concentration in air is determined as the
difference between measurements made with and without catalytic
conversion of 𝑁𝑂2 to NO
NO + O3 ==> NO2+ O2 + hv (0.6 – 3 μm) Chemiluminescent reaction
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NOx Measurement

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CO Measurement

• Non-dispersive infra red (NDIR) devices,

suitable for detection from 0-500ppm by
volume
• Sample through a flow cell in the instrument
where it is irradiated with infrared radiation
• Essentially just a modified dual beam
infrared spectrophotometer

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CO Measurement
IR source

Chopper
CO free
air in Ambient sample in

Reference Sample cell

cell
Ambient sample out
CO free
air out IR transmitting
windows
0.1
Detector
2
diaphragm &
capacitance plate
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 Measurement of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC)
• Volatile Organic Compounds or VOCs are organic chemicals that easily vaporize
at room temperature
• They are called organic because they contain the element carbon in their
molecular structures
• VOCs have no colour, smell, or taste. VOCs include a very wide range of
individual substances, such as hydrocarbons (for example benzene and toluene),
halocarbons and oxygenates
• Some VOCs are quite harmful, including benzene, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 1,3 butadiene
• Benzene may increase susceptibility to leukemia, if exposure is maintained over a
period of time
• There are several hundred different forms of PAH, and sources can be both
natural and man-made
• PAHs can cause cancer
• Sources of 1,3 butadiene include the manufacturing of synthetic rubbers, petrol
driven vehicles and cigarette smoke
• There is an apparent correlation between butadiene exposure and a higher risk of
cancer
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 Measurement of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC)
• A Photo-Ionization Detector measures VOCs and other toxic gases in
low concentrations from ppb (parts per billion) up to 10,000 ppm
• A Photo Ionization Detector (PID) uses an Ultraviolet (UV) light source
(Photo= light) to break down chemicals to positive and negative ions
(Ionization) that can easily be counted with a Detector
• Ionization occurs when a molecule absorbs the high energy UV light,
which excites the molecule and results in the temporary loss of a
negatively charged electron and the formation of positively charged ion
• The gas becomes electrically charged
• In the Detector these charged particles produce a current that is then
amplified and displayed on the meter
• The ions quickly recombine after the electrodes in the detector to
“reform” their original molecule
• PIDs are non-destructive; they do not “burn” or permanently alter the
sample gas, which allows them to be used for sample gathering

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Measurement of Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC)
Photo-Ionization Detector (PID)

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 Thank you

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