Module 1 - SAPP • A – attainable

5 REASONS TO STUDY STATISTICS • R – ealistic

1. To effectively Conduct Research • T – ime bound

2. To read Journals
2. Define the Population of the Study
3. To further develop critical and analytic thinking skills
4. To be an informed consumer • Population – all subjects under investigation – the set of all
5. To know when to need to hire a statistician elements of interest in a particular study
STATISTICS • Sample - a subset of the population
Definition: A branch of science which deals with the collection, 3. Identify the variable/s of the study
organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
data. • Variable – measurable characteristic or attribute of the
subject that is the focus of the study that can take on different
A body of techniques and procedures dealing with the values
collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of information that can be stated numerically. This is NOT a problem if a census is conducted –if a census is
conducted, then the conclusion is straightforward.
The backbone of (Quantitative) Research.
However, if only a sample was taken from the population for
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS the study, the conclusion should NEVER be about the sample;
it should still be about the population, hence, its form will be
Descriptive statistics - are used to organize or summarize a
quite different from the anticipated conclusion as in the
particular set of measurements. These deal with organizing
example above (inferential statistics can provide a template
and summarizing observations so that they are easier to
for specific types of objectives).
comprehend. The census of households conducted by the
Philippine Statistics Authority every five years represents an
example of how descriptive statistics are generated. The
information that is gathered concerning gender, race, income, ANALYTIC GOALS - Directed toward finding out from the data
etc. is compiled to describe the population of the Philippines one or more of the following attributes of characteristics of the
at a given point in time. Collection, Organization, Presentation, group being studied
and Analysis are part of descriptive statistics.
Each state objective can be differentiated according to the
Inferential statistics - use data gathered from a sample to following classification. This will guide the researcher to
make inferences or generate conclusions about the larger anticipate the type of analysis and interpretation that is
population from which the sample was drawn. Opinion polls required of the objective.
and television ratings systems represent some uses of
1. Central Tendency - general characteristic of the group.
inferential statistics. For example, a limited number of people
are polled during an election and then this information is used a. To determine the mean weekly allowance of USLS College
to describe voters as a whole. Interpretation falls under Freshmen for the second semester, AY 2021 – 2022. (MEAN)
Inferential Statistics.
b. To determine the percentage of USLS CBA students who
THE RESEARCH PROCESS prefer a Samsung over a Realme cellphone for the second
semester, AY 2021-2022. (MODE)
“Research is a procedure for carefully finding accurate
solutions to important and relevant questions by the use of 2. Variance in the Group - how individual members of the
scientific method of gathering and interpreting information. group vary from the average characteristic of the group.
Doing research is a multidimensional skill. Carrying out
successful research must exceed the bounds of printed paper, a. To determine the age range of the students in this class.
and leap out to influence opinions and opinion shapers.” b. To determine if the final grades in this class are similar.
Step 1. Formulate the research problem (this could be your 3. Difference within the Group/between Groups - whether or
general or specific objective) not subgroups of the group/two separate groups being studied
• S – pecific are different or similar on certain traits investigated (special
case: comparison between/among two or more groups with
• M - easurable regards to a particular variable).
a. To compare the mean number of Coke Sakto bottles Example: Determine the Categories or Levels of each of the
consumed in December 2021 between the male and female following Variables: Sex (Male;Female)
USLS students.
Categories - Do NOT have/possess an intrinsic order; they are
b. To determine if there is a significant difference in the mean all considered equal
number of text messages sent in a day among the students
Levels - Possess intrinsic or inherent order from one "category"
from the five different colleges of USLS for the second
to the next (Ex. Good, Average, Poor)
semester, AY 2021-2022.
Characteristics of Categorical Variable:
4. Relationships within the Group - if relationship between
certain variables covered in the study exists. - Exhaustive - should cover all possible answers
(oftentimes, the use of "Others, please
a. To establish if there is a significant relationship between
specify_____" serves the purpose of including all
choice of cellphone brand and the college a USLS student
possibilities, especially those categories with
belongs to for the second semester, AY 2021-2022.
small frequencies). This will prevent the
b. To determine if relationship status and final grades in respondent from being confused about what
Statistics are independent for the second semester, AY 2021- answer to tick (✓) or mark with an 🄧 since
2022. his/her desired response is not among the given
options.
5. Prediction - establishing a mathematical/statistical model to
predict future outcomes. Mutually Exclusive - should make sure that the
categories do not overlap in order to ensure that the
a. What factors influence a graduate’s ability to land a job
respondents provide only one answer. This will
within one year after graduation?
prevent the respondent from being confused as to
b. What is the estimated sales of a particular restaurant for which category to tick (✓) or mark with an 🄧 if there
next week if the present conditions hold? is more than one possible answer. This holds true
even for multiple response questions.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS
2. Quantitative or Numerical
1. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
- The variable has numerical properties which are
- limited to the description of the particular group
the values by which the said variables can be
being studied. A conclusion cannot be applied to
measured, manipulated and/or controlled. The
cases outside the study group
attributes are in terms of counts (discrete) or
2. INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
measurements (continuous)
- limited to the description of the particular group
being studied. Application of the findings or Discrete - ‣ uses the process of counting to generate data.
conclusions from a small group to a large group values of attributes are in terms of whole numbers only.
from which the smaller group was drawn
Examples: [1] Number of t-shirts owned [2] Number of books
AVOID any one of these two possible procedural ERRORS: read

1. You did a population study but you used inferential statistics Continuous - uses the process of measuring to generate data
to arrive at the conclusion. (with the use of a measuring instrument). values of attributes
may have fractional or decimal parts.
2. You did a sample study but you did not use inferential
statistics to arrive at the conclusion. Examples: [1] Weight of a package [2] Volume of water [3]
Temperature
Note: Inferential Statistics is applied only in order to generate
conclusions about the population BASED ON SAMPLE DATA. NOTES:

TYPES OF VARIABLES • For discrete variables, the value of a number remains the
same regardless of the variable:
1. Qualitative or Categorical - Attributes are in terms
of categories or levels - the descriptions that you give 5 chairs vs 5 students.
a variable that help to explain how variables should
be measured, manipulated and/or controlled. See here that the value of 5 is the same for both.
• For continuous variables, the value of a number depends on
the unit of measurement, even if the same variable is being
measured:

5 inches vs 5 feet.

See here that the length measuring 5 inches is shorter than the
length measuring 5 feet.

Functions of the Variables

❧ Not an intrinsic property of the variable; it depends on the

role of the variable in a study.

❧ Important if the investigation is about cause & effect.

1. Independent Variables

‣ sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable

‣ is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in

order to observe the effect this has on a dependent variable

‣ what the researcher (or nature) manipulates - a treatment or

a program or a cause

2. Dependent Variables

- sometimes called an outcome variable

‣ is a variable that is dependent on an independent variable(s)

‣ what is affected by the independent variable - the effects or

outcomes

EXAMPLE:

Study/Problem: The Effects of a New Educational Program on

Student Achievement

What are the Independent and Dependent Variables?

Independent - The Program ; Dependent - Measures of

Achievement

Note: a variable may function as an independent variable in

one study and a dependent variable in another.