9 Theories of elastic failure

When a structural component is subjected to increasing loads it eventually fails. Failure is a

condition that prevents a structure from performing the intended task.
In practical applications, failure can be defined as:

• Fracture with very little yielding

• Permanent deformation

The resistance to failure of a material is called strength. It is comparatively easy to determine

the strength or the point of failure of a component subjected to a single tensile force. For
example, for the bars shown in Figure 9.1(a), the material fractures when the principal stress
approaches the fracture stress in a tensile test. This failure mode occurs normally for bars made
of brittle materials, such as cast iron, and is best demonstrated by such a bar subjected to
torsion (Figure 9.1(b)), where the maximum principal stress acts in the direction 45 to the
longitudinal axis.
However, if the material of the bars shown in Figure 9.1 is replaced by a ductile material, for
example, mild steel, the failure mode is significantly different. For the bar in tension (Figure 9.2a),
the bar breaks after undergoing permanent local deformation (yielding). Compared with the
bar subjected to torsion in Figure 9.1, the failure surface of the ductile bar is almost normal to
the longitudinal axis (Figure 9.2b), where the shear stress has reached the shear strength of the
material.
From the above simple examples, it can be concluded that material property is a predominant
factor that must be considered in failure analysis.
When a material is subjected to a combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses,
it is far more complicated to determine whether or not the material has failed, and how the
material will fail. Most of the information on yielding or fracture of material subjected to complex
stress system comes from practical design experience, experimental evidence and interpretation
of them. Investigations on the information enable a formulation of theories of failure to be
established for various materials subjected to complex stresses.
The establishment of failure criteria for complex stress system is based on the extension of
the concept of failure criteria for a material subjected to a uniaxial stress to materials subjected
to combined stresses. The basis for this extension is the introduction of an equivalent stress
(eq ) that represents a combined action of the stress components of a complex stress system. It
is assumed that failure will occur in a material subjected to a complex stress system when this
 Theories of elastic failure 167

45°

45°

45°
(a) (b)

Figure 9.1

(a) (b)

Figure 9.2

equivalent stress reaches a limiting value (Yield ) that is equal to the failure (yield or fracture)
stress of the same material subjected to simple tension.
Materials can be broadly separated into ductile and brittle materials. Examples of ductile
materials include mild steel, copper, etc. Cast iron and concrete are typical examples of brittle
materials. Brittle materials experience little deformation prior to failure and failure is generally
sudden. A ductile material is considered to have failed when a marked plastic deformation has
begun. A number of theories of elastic failure are recognized, including the following:

• Maximum principal stress theory

• Maximum shear stress theory (Tresca theory)
• Maximum distortional energy density theory (von Mises theory).

The selection of failure criteria usually depends on a number of aspects of a particular design,
including material properties, state of stress, temperature and design philosophy. It may be possible
that there exist several failure criteria that are applicable to a material in a particular design.
However, in most cases, failure criteria are classified as applicable to brittle or ductile materials.

9.1 Maximum principal stress criterion

This criterion assumes that principal stress is the driving factor that causes failure of materials.
According to this criterion, the following comparison has been made between a complex stress
system and a simple tension/compression test.
168 Theories of elastic failure

Two-dimensional complex state of stress Simple tension/compression at failure

σy σ2 Tension

σx = σ1 = σYield
σx
τxy σ1

Compression
From Equation (7.2) the principal stresses are:
σx = σ2 = σYield
1 
1 = 
x + y  +
x − y 2 + 4xy2 
2
1 
2 = 
x + y  −
x − y 2 + 4xy2 
2

At failure the stresses in the two dimensional complex system are:

(i) when 2 ≥ 0:

eq = 1 = Yield
in tension

(ii) when 1 ≤ 0:

eq = 2  = Yield
in compression (9.1)

(iii) when 1 > 0, 2 < 0:

eq = 1 = Yield
in tension

and

eq = 2  = Yield
in compression

From the above comparison, it is concluded that for an arbitrary state of stress

Failure (i.e. yielding) will occur when one of the principal stresses in a material is equal to
the yield stress in the same material at failure in simple tension or compression.

The criterion was intended to work for brittle and ductile materials, while experimental evidence
shows that it is approximately correct only for brittle materials. For brittle materials, both tensile
and compressive strength should be checked upon since they are usually different.
 Theories of elastic failure 169

9.2 Maximum shear stress criterion (Tresca theory)

This criterion assumes that shear stress is the driving factor that causes failure of a material.
According to this criterion, comparisons are made between the maximum shear stress of a
material subjected to a complex stress system and that of the same material at failure when a
simple tension is applied.

Two-dimensional complex state of stress Simple tension at failure

σy σx = σYield

σx
τxy
Since there is no shear stress,
x
= Yield  and y
= 0 are the
two principal stresses. At the
moment of failure the maximum
From Equation (7.4) the maximum shear
shear stress of the above state of
stress is:
stress is:
1
max =
x − y 2 + 4xy2 1 − 2  
2 max = = x = Yield
2 2 2
or
1 − 2
max =
2

At failure the stresses in the two-dimensional complex system are:


eq =
x − y 2 + 4xy2 = Yield (9.2)

or

eq = 1 − 2 = Yield

From the above comparison, it is concluded that for an arbitrary state of stress

Failure (i.e. yielding) will occur when the maximum shear stress in the material is equal to
the maximum shear stress in the same material at failure in simple tension.

9.3 Distortional energy density (von Mises theory) criterion

This criterion assumes that distortional energy density (shear strain energy per unit volume) is the
driving factor that causes failure of a material. According to this criterion, comparisons are made
between the maximum shear strain energy per unit volume of a material subjected to a complex
state of stress and that of the same material at failure when a simple tension is applied. Thus,
170 Theories of elastic failure

Two-dimensional complex stress system Simple tension at failure

σy σx = σYield

σx
τxy
Since there is no shear stress,
x
= Yield  and y
= 0 are the two
principal stresses. At the moment of
failure the shear strain energy per
The shear strain energy per unit volume
unit volume is:
is:
1
1 Us =  2 + 22 − 1 2 
Us = 
 − 2 2 + 22 + 12  6G 1
12G 1
1 2
1 = 
=  2 + 22 − 1 2  6G Yield
6G 1
or
1
Us =  2 − x y + y2 + 3xy2 
6G x

At failure the stresses in the two-dimensional complex system are:


eq = 12 + 22 − 1 2 = Yield (9.3)


eq = x2 − x y + y2 + 3xy2 = Yield

From the above comparison, it is concluded that for an arbitrary state of stress

Failure (i.e. yielding) will occur when the shear strain energy per unit volume in a material
is equal to the equivalent value at failure of the same material in simple tension.

The application of the failure criterions depends on the modes of failure (e.g. failure by yielding
or fracture). In general, the maximum principal stress criterion is valid for failure mode dominated
by fracture in brittle materials, while Tresca and von Mises criterions are valid for general yielding
mode of failure in ductile materials.

9.4 Special forms of Tresca and von Mises criterions

In many practical applications, at a surface point of a material there exists normal stress in one
direction only. For example, at a surface point of the beam shown in Figure 9.3, the normal
stress in the vertical direction is far smaller than that in the longitudinal direction and is usually
ignored in the stress analysis of beams. If the longitudinal direction is defined as the x direction,
y = 0. Thus, Tresca and von Mises theories (Equations (9.2) and (9.3), respectively) are reduced
to the following:
 Theories of elastic failure 171

τxy
x
σx

Figure 9.3

Tresca theory:

x + 4xy2 = Yield (9.4a)

von Mises theory:


x2 + 3xy2 = Yield (9.4b)

It is clear from Equation (9.4) that Tresca theory is more conservative than von Mises theory
since the shear stress is factorized by 4 rather than 3.

9.5 Key points review

• A brittle material is likely to fail by fracture, and thus has higher compressive strength
(holds greater compressive loads).
• A ductile material is likely to fail by yielding, i.e., having permanent deformation.
• The maximum principal stress theory is best for brittle materials and can be unsafe for
ductile materials.
• The maximum shear stress and the distortional energy density theories are suitable for
ductile materials, while the former is more conservative than the latter.
• For brittle materials having a weaker tensile strength, reinforcement is usually required
in the tension zone to increase the load-carrying capacity.

9.6 Recommended procedure of solution

It is possible that a material may fail at any point within the material, but, in general, starting
at a point where an equivalent stress defined above reaches a critical value first. Therefore, in a
practical design, the application of the above criterions relies on identification of, for example, in
the design of a beam, critical cross-sections where maximum bending moment, twist moment or
axial force may exist. On these critical sections, maximum normal and shear stresses are found.
A recommended procedure of solution is shown in Figure 9.4.

9.7 Examples

EXAMPLE 9.1
Explain why concrete is normally reinforced with steel bars or rods when tensile forces
are applied to a structure.

[Solution] This question tests your understanding of the failure mode of brittle materials. This
type of materials usually has different strength in tension and compression.
172 Theories of elastic failure

(a) section of maximum

deflection;
(b) sudden change of section
Identify critical sections geometry;
(c) point of concentrated force;
(d) support.
Compute bending
moment, twist moment
and axial force on critical (a) boundary points;
sections (b) points along neutral axis;
(c) points on sections where cross-
sectional shapes change
abruptly.
Identify critical points
on critical sections

σy
σx
Compute normal stress and
τxy
shear stress at the points to
establish the state of stress

(a) brittle or ductile

Compute equivalent stress using material.
a design criterion (Tresca, von (b) plasticity or fracture.
Mises, etc.)

Compare with failure stress

of the material and make a
judgement

Figure 9.4

Concrete is a typical example of brittle material that is weaker in tension, and has higher load
capacity in compression. When concrete is subjected to tension, fracture is initiated at imper-
fections or micro-cracks, whereas the imperfections and micro-cracks are closed in compression
and fracture is unlikely to occur. Therefore, steel or other types of reinforcements are needed in
the tension zone to increase the tensile strength of the structure to prevent early fracture failure.

EXAMPLE 9.2
Codes of practice for the use of structural steel uses either Tresca or von Mises criterion.
For a beam member subjected to bending and shear, the criterions can be expressed as
Tresca:

x2 + 4xy2 = Yield

Von Mises:

x2 + 3xy2 = Yield

Verify the expression and state which criterion is more conservative.

 Theories of elastic failure 173

[Solution] The answer to this question is a direct application of Equations (9.2) and (9.3) to the
state of stress where one of the normal stresses is zero.

For the beam shown in Figure E9.2(a) subjected to bending and shearing, the state of stress at
the arbitrary point is represented by Figure E9.2(b), where only one normal stress exists.

(a) (b)

Figure E9.2

Assuming that the horizontal and vertical directions are, respectively, the x and y directions,
y = 0. Thus the two principal stresses at the point are:

1 
1 = x +
x 2 + 4xy2 
2
1 
2 = x −
x 2 + 4xy2 
2

Introducing the obtained principal stresses in to Equations (9.2) and (9.3) yields, respectively,
the special form of the two criterions.
 
Since x2 + 4xy
2 > x2 + 3xy
2 , for the same value of 
Yield a design by Tresca criterion
demands smaller x or/and xy , that is, a reduction of applied loads or an increase of material
usage. Thus Tresca criterion is more conservative than von Mises criterion.

EXAMPLE 9.3
Consider a bar of cast iron under complex loading. The bar is subjected to a bending
moment of M = 39 N m and a twist moment of T = 225 N m. The diameter of the bar
is D = 20 mm. If the material of the bar fails at Yield = 128 MPa in a simple tension test,
will failure of the bar occur according to the maximum principal stress criterion?

M
σx
A τxy
T
Figure E9.3

[Solution] On any cross-section of the beam, the maximum shear stress due to twisting is along
the circumference and the maximum tensile stress due to bending is at the lowest edge. Thus,
the state of stress at a point A taken from the lowest generator must be considered. The stresses
at this point can be calculated from Equations (3.2) and (5.1a). The principal stresses can then
be calculated from these stresses.
174 Theories of elastic failure

The shear stress due to torsion is:

Tr TD/2 32 × 225 N m × 20 × 10−2 m/2

xy = = =
J D4 /32  ×
20 × 10−3 4
= 14324 × 106 N/m2 = 14324 MPa

The normal stress due to bending is:

My MD/2 64 × 39 N m × 20 × 10−3 m/2

x = = =
I 4
D /64  ×
20 × 10−3 4
= 4966 × 106 N/m2 = 4966 MPa

From Equation (7.2), the principal stresses at the point are:

1 
1 = 
x + y  +
x − y 2 + 4xy2 
2
1 
= 
4966 MPa + 0 +
4966 MPa − 02 + 4 ×
14324 MPa2 
2
= 16996 MPa

1 
2 = 
x + y  −
x − y 2 + 4xy2 
2
1 
= 
4966 MPa + 0 −
4966 MPa − 02 + 4 ×
14324 MPa2 
2
= −1203 MPa

1 > Yield

The material has failed according to the maximum principal stress criterion.

EXAMPLE 9.4
In a tensile test on a metal specimen having a cross-section of 20 mm × 10 mm failure
occurred at a load of 70 kN. A thin plate made from the same material is subjected to loads
such that at a certain point in the plate the stresses are y = −70 N/mm2 , xy = 60 N/mm2 .
Determine from the von Mises and Tresca criterions the maximum allowable tensile stress,
x , that can be applied at the same point.

σy = –70

σx = ?
τxy = 60

Figure E9.4
 Theories of elastic failure 175

[Solution] For the state of stress shown in Figure E9.4, the equivalent stresses of Equations (9.2)
and (9.3) can be calculated and they are functions of x . Comparing the equivalent stresses with
the failure stress of the material at simple tension test yields the maximum allowable x .

From the simple tension test:

70000 N
Yield = = 350 N/mm2
20 mm × 10 mm

Tresca criterion (Equation (9.2)):


eq =
x − y 2 + 4xy2 ≤ Yield


x −
−702 + 4 × 602 ≤ 350

Therefore:

x + 702 + 4 × 602 ≤ 3502

x2 + 140x − 103200 ≤ 0

Thus,

x ≤ 259 N/mm2

von Mises criterion (Equation (9.3)):


eq = x2 − x y + y2 + 3xy2 ≤ Yield

x2 − x
−70 +
−702 + 3 × 602 ≤ 350

Therefore:

x2 + 70x − 106800 ≤ 0

Thus:

x ≤ 2937 N/mm2

From the above solutions, it can be seen that the maximum allowable value of x from Tresca
criterion is smaller than that from von Mises criterion, and hence the resulting design is more
conservative.
176 Theories of elastic failure

9.8 Conceptual questions

1. Describe the differences between failure by fracture and failure by yielding.
2. Describe the failure mode of a cast iron bar subjected to a uniaxial tensile force. If the bar
is made of mild steel, describe how the failure mode is different.
3. Describe the failure mode of a cast iron bar subjected to torsion. If the bar is made of mild
steel, describe how the failure mode is different.
4. What is the definition of the maximum principal stress criterion? What type of material is it
useful for?
5. What is the definition of the Tresca failure criterion? What type of material is it
useful for?
6. What is the definition of the von Mises failure criterion? What type of material is it
useful for?
7. Explain the term ‘equivalent stress’ as used in connection with failure criterions.
8. On what conditions the simplified form of Tresca and von Mises criterions can be used?

9.9 Mini test

Problem 9.1: Explain why different failure criterions are needed in design and discuss what
aspects should be considered in a typical design.

Problem 9.2: In a ductile material there are four points at which the states of stress are,
respectively, as follows:

σ y = –σ σy = σ

σx = σ σx = σ σx = σ
1 2 3 4
τxy = σ

Figure P9.2

Which point fails first and which point fails at last? What conclusion can you draw from your
analysis?

Problem 9.3: The stresses at a point of a two-dimensional structural member are found as
follows:

x = 140 N/mm2
y = −70 N/mm2
xy = 60 N/mm2

The material of the member has a yield stress in simple tension of 225 N/mm2 . Determine
whether or not failure has occurred according to Tresca and von Mises criterions.

Problem 9.4: On the beam section shown in Figure P9.4, there exists an axial force of 60 kN.
Determine the maximum shear force that can be applied to the section using the Tresca and von
Mises criterions. The material of the beam breaks down at a stress of 150 N/mm2 in a simple
tension test.
 Theories of elastic failure 177

60 mm

P = 60 kN
100 mm

V=?

Figure P9.4

Problem 9.5: A cantilever of circular cross-section is made from steel, which when subjected
to simple tension suffers elastic breakdown at a stress of 150 N/mm2 . If the cantilever supports
a bending moment of 25 kN m and a torque of 50 kN m, determine the minimum diameter of
the cantilever using the von Mises and Tresca criterions.

Figure P9.5