Fundamentals of Robot n and advantages duction of roo! Functions of 2 | Robot v/s NC | 4.7 Objectives idcrations; 1.2 Defi i 1g factors for the intro Jd; 1. Robot ~ Definition of robot on t and an automated machine ~ 1.6 History of robots; d disadvantages of rot >t8/ 1.9 Types jassifications — Standard 4,12 Mechanical design ~ Philosophical consid ws of robotics; 1.4 Motivatin 1.1 Robot robotics; 1.3 La vstems to the industrial wor sy robot’ = Difference between a robo technology ~ Capabilities of industrial robots: of using industrial robots; 1.8 Advantages 2% of ndvstrial robots; 1.10 Robotic systems; 1-12 Robot cl: classification - Broad classification — General classification; . of a robot; 1.13 Types of mechanical joints; 1.14 Robot arms; 1.15 Robot hands; 1.16 Robots qualities; 1.17 Robot specifications; 1.18 Robots performance testing: 1.19 Robots kinematic control — Robot arm kinematics - Robot arm dynamics — Kinematic chains - The manipulator ~ Robot control system - Types of controllers used in robotics.- Trajectory planning and motion control of manipulator; 1.20 Conversion of motion; 1.21 Techniques of robot calibration; 1.22 Robot sensing ‘and vision; 1.23 Robot programining languages. Questions with Answers — Highlights Objective Type Questions ~ ‘Theoretical Questions. 1.1 ROBOTICS - PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS During the last century, the modern science grew at a fast pace in “stages” given below. ’ @ First stage - Invention of tools. ; Second stage’ - Invention of steanv and 1.C. engines. Technological development; a brand of numerically controlled (NC) machines came into existence in the early 1950s. @ Fourth stage ~ Invention of computers/microprocessors etc.; development of vg computér numetically controlled (CNC) machines. GB) Final stage» ~ Development of concept of Robotics. Robotics, conceptually, differs from conventional automation in. the following respects: ° (i) Its ability to perform on its own, going to the extent of -unmanning several operations. . . (ii) -To relieve. man of tedious and mindless, répetitive and hazardous jobs. \® Robotics is an exciting, dynamic interdisciplinary field of study. QThird stage © — Important areas of robotics : The important areas, of robotics are : 1&sProsthesis : =. It'deals with artificial replacements for-parts of the human body.Exeskelctons Mobotien and indus Asonaton } $2 - % with frames which surros ans for amplification of a id the human limbs or frames ailable power me 1 mea and devices Teh ~ Mis concerned with remote in Locomotive devices : ; hipulation — This area deals with robots d ned to walk on legs. 19 DEFINITION AND ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTICS JJ <.Y cRobotics may be defined as follows : Ub “Robotics is the science of designing and building 1 i ions fr Ain eee of designing and building robots suitable fr real-life applications id other non-manufacturing environments.” Or “Robotics is the art, krowledge base and know how of designis i i in the juman endeavors.” ‘ alagag east ama Tee © co idhotics is an interdisciplinary subject that benefits from mechanical engineering! electrical and electronic,engineering, computer science, and several other disciplines. Advantages : if The main advantages of robotics are : S 1. Reliability. . No} 2. Increased flexibili OW COs the long run. 13 WS OF ROBOTICS 2 Following are the laws (philosophical in nature) of robotics (Sir Issac Asimoy proposes three basic laws; ‘zeroth law’ was added later on): Zggoth law. A robot must not injure humanity or, through inaction, allow humanit to come to harm. 4 | .. First law. A robot must not harm a human being or, through inaction, allow’one “FY come to harm:* - Second law. A robot must always obey human beings unless it is in contict with’ ay higher order law. ~ y “‘Thiedlaw. A robot must protect itself from harm unless that is in conflict with'3 higher order law: . : 1.4 MOTIVATING FACTORS FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF ROBOTIC? SYSTEMS TO THE INDUSTRIAL WORLD 3 ‘The following are the factors which vouch for the irttroduction of robotics systems the industrial world + a Improved quality of products. 7 4 2. Lesser preparation time than hard automation. : F Techni 3. Lower rejects and less waste than. labour intensive-production. 4. Higher flexibility of product type and variation. SwSinamentals of Robot : Goo 3 Skilled labotir shortage. ». Constant demand for improvement in quality, 7. Rising costs. echnical factors, market 8 Pressure to inerease production rates to compete the <5 ROBOT = The origin of word ‘robo!’ is in the Czech word ‘roboia’ meaning, either a slave or a mechanical item that would help its master. A robot therefore carries out the task done by a human being. The word *robot always refers to an automated multifunctional manipulator that works bj energy, to perform a variety’ of tasks. ~ A robot is.any mechanical device operated automatically to perform ina seemingly human way. By this definition, a garage door opener, which automatically opens e door by remote control is also a robot; obviously this is not an industrial robot. Robot, once a creature of science fiction, is today a reality. It is the off-shoot of the second industrial revolution. A robot by virtue of its reprogrammability and versatility is productive, dynamic and flexible to an extent. ,. ® Robots range from toys to automated assemibly lines, 15.1. ‘Definition of a Robot 7 : Sy "_ 8 robot may be’defined’as follows : yr 7 The definition adopted by Intemational Standards Organisation (ISO) and agreed |; upon by most’ of the users dnd manufacturers is : MArcindustrial robot is: reprogrammable multifunctional manipylatordesigned to move iaterials, parts, tools or specialized de'vices through various programmed motions for the performance q variety of tasks" : Or According;to the Robotics Industries Association (formerly the Robotics Institute of America) : _ industrial robot is a reprogrammable midltifunctional manipulator designed to move atecal, parts, tools oF specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance a riety of tasks”. : “ras definition is compatible with the classification of programmable automation, but robots ai > resis Wrist Manipulator Shoulder, ZY swivel Power source Atm 15 ea ease EP Fig. 1.1, Robotic system — Main components of a robot and the basic motions. — The simplest robot may be a two or three-axes arm. The axis is meant to understand independent movement or degree of freedom (*DOF). — A robotic manipulator arm consists of several separate links making a chain. _ The arm is located relative to the ground on either a fixed base‘or a movable base. It has a free-end where an end-deflector or gripper or sometimes a specialised tool holdér (for Kolding, say, a welding gun) or any powered device (say, a drill) is attached. —_In a fixed base, six degrees of freedom robot, the first three links of the na ; manipulator constitute the body and they help to place the end-effector at a desired locagion inside its work environment or working volume. The remaining three links make up the ‘wrist of the manipulator and are used to define the orientation of the manipulator-end points. © A robot is essentially a movable open chain of successively coupled bodies with one end fixed to tlie ground and the free end containing an end-effector. The bodies of the open chain are usually links which are joined together by 5 some lower pair connectors. The most common types of lower pair connectors - are: . () Revolute pair (R) ... (1 DOF) : \ — It permits relative rotation about a unique pair axis and has a single nae degree of freedom. ". "(iy Prismatic pair (P) ... (1 DOF) : - — It allows 'relative sliding parallel with a unique pair axis and has one degree of freedom. (iii) Cylindric pair (C) ... (2 DOF) : — It permits independent relative rotation about and relative sliding parallel to a pair axis and it has two degrees of freedom The number of independent movements that an object can perform ina 3-D space 6 called the number of domrace af feandam (MEYHerical pair (8) 44. (3 DOF): ball and socket joint that Hon-coplanar interacting, axe (%) Hooke's joint (1)... 2 DOL) + — permit an ang independent rotati ea and has two degree ever, the most bas matic pair (P) and th manipulators, End-effeetor ; Of freedom, ¢ joints ave the one-DOF revalute uo pairs are excessively used in Mir (®) aydane-DOF pri combination in the robots 3 7 Robot end-ettector is the gripper or end of arm tooling, mounted on the vn Of the robot manipulator arm, : “A robot performs a variety of tasks for which vari Srippers are required to be designed. — A tobot manipulator is flexible and ailaptable, but its end-effector is tasks cif — Asripper designed for picking up a tool to be fitted toa CNC'machine tor is*not suitable for welding a railway vagon, ‘The wide range of gripping methods include’: : (Mechanical clampings; (i) Magnelic gripping > (iii) Vacuum (suction) gripping 4: Actuators and Transmissions : {Actuators : i y The robot arm can be put to a desiied motion withits payload if actuator modu Lae fitted in to provide:power drives to the systems. There are three different types of power drives in.common use, They are : (i) Pneumatic drives : — These systems use compressed air to move the robot arm. | — The pneumatic systems may employ a linear actuator, ie:, double actin; cushioned cylinders of it may employ rotary actuators like vane motor: However, linear actuators are more’ popular. — The “adonniages” of pneumatic actuators are : Simple construction, relative) inexpensive, fast and reliable. The."disadoantages” of pneumiatic system ati smaller payloads, the mass inertia,and delayed resporse of the robot arm due \ the sponginess and reduced repeatability. : © Non-servo robots can be built up with pneumatically powered actuators. | ous tooling and special Gum (ii) Hydraulic drives : a ; — In avhydraulic system, the electric motor pumps {uid (cil) from a resery tank to’the’ hydraulic actuatots which are,.in general, donble.acting psi cylinder assemblies. Fluid at a higher pressure passes through control vali before its entry into the linear actuafors. On the other hand, roy a comprising some motors or hydraulic motors which rotate’ continuously also be employed. 5 ss © The hydraulic drives haye high payloa capacities_and are ors " Nee i maintain. They are, however, rather expensive and nof_as accural u ~ pneumatic ‘or clectric drives. .. *.Fundamentals of Robot (R) iElectrical drives : : ee sla and quiet with a high« degree of accuracy and reliability also offer a wide range of payload capacity, a ie ; wide range of costs, 8¢ Of payload capacity, accompanied by an equally e DC servo motors, Brushless 1.¢ motors are important ele Transmissions motors, Revers ible A.C. servo motors and 5 ‘clrical drives, Stepper “Transmissions” are elemenis between the actuators and the joints of the. mechanical tinkage. They aie generally use : 'd for the following, three reasons (© Often the actuator output is not directly suitable for driving, the robot linkage Bxayiple: The high speed D.C, motor running at 3000 r.p.m. (say) may not be suitable for ninning'a robot at slower speeds, However, with appropriate gearing or transmission, the speed may be reduced to 30 r-p.m. (ie. 4 rotation per second) which is 1 fast. In addition, the ra © efficient- gearbox). nat ted torque at 3000 r.p.m. is amplified by 100 (assuming a hi y (ii) The output of the actuator may be kinematically different from the joint motion. (iii) The actuators are usually big and heavy and often it is not practical to locate the actuator at the joint. + — Firstly, big actuators have large inertias and they are harder to move around in © Space than the links that comprise the mechanical linkage. Sot is desirable to locate them ata fixed base. =F. Secondly, because of their size, they can iinpede the motion of one or more links of the robot. Thus, it is not uncommon to find linkages or gear train that transmits the power from. the actuator over a large distance to the joint. 5. Controller : The “controller” provides the intelligence that is necessary to control the manipulator system It looks at the sensbry information and computes the control commands that must be © sent to-the actuators to carry out the specified tasks. It generally includes : () Memory to store the control program and the state of the robot system obtained frdm the sensors. : (iQ, A coinputational unit that computes the control commands. (iii) 188 appropriate hardware to interface with the external world (Sensors and actuators) (iv) The hardware for a user interface. © The “user interface” allows the use of a human operator to monitor or contro! the © operation of the robot. = It must have a display that shows. the status of the system. 5 Temust also have an input device that allows the human to enter commands to ee a interface may be a ‘personal computer’ with the ‘appropriate sofware’ or a “teach pendant’. 6. Sensors : ‘The Sensors perform the following functions : © (To act as feedback devices to direct further the end effector (gripper), an ions of the manipulator arm andHlobotica aud Industrial Automation N's working, environment, are two basic Lypes. of senaorn. Thene are + BO Tactile sensors 2— (weed Sees ery These are “contact sensors” that must be brought in contact with the object to obtain to measure the necessary qualities (1) To interaet with the robo % Usually th signals When the tactile ¢ or digital s make physical contact w generated and s obtained through the cont ith the object, an electrical analog M to the robot controller, Electrical signals may be acls of micraswiteh Iso be obtained through s which change re of electrical strain ¢y electrical potentials in piezoe | Signals may mechanical pressures ances Bes OF general lectric crys Typical contact type robotic s (a). For t nsors include ; (8) Torque sensors ; (0) Touch sensors ; (1) Non-tactile sensors + These are (d) Position sensors “contactless sensors" which sense the Specitied range of distance from the object, ~ They detect and measure magnetic fields, infrared and ultraviolet light, X-rays, electrical fields, ultrasonic sound waves or electromagnetic waves. — Typical non-contact robotic sensors include (a) Proximity sensors ; (b) Electro-optical sensors ; () Range imaging sensors ¢ 2. Basic Motions : Refer Jo Fige1.a. ‘ Tv TRG Fir se rags deg of freedom (DOF) are as follows : Refer'to Fig. 1. 1. Vertical motion/ne entire manipulator arm can be méved up and down vertical; either by means of the shoulder swivel, te, turning it about a horizontal axis, or by slidiny it in a vertical slide. signals remotely, but only within the 2. Radial motion. Radial movement, ic., int and out movements, tothe manipulate arm is provided by Elbow gtension by extending it and drawing back, EN 3. Rotational motioit. Clockwise or anticlockwise rotation about the vertical axis t \O}\' the manipulator arm is provided through Arm sweep. ; ; Pitch motion. ‘Tt-enables up and down'movement of the wrist and involv: rotational movement s well. It is also known as wrist bend. ; <> EE Roll motion.Also known as wrist swivel, it enables rotation of wrist @ YaweAlso called wrist yaw, it facilitates rightward or leftward swivelling moveme of the wrist. 7 . The most versatile robots can have following degrees of feedom (DOFs) : (i) Horizontal travel. (ii) Rotary movement. (iii) Radial arm movement. (iv) Vertical arm movement. (0) Rotary wrist movement. ) (vi) Wrist bend. / (vii) Wrist sweep.2 Fundarggntals of Robat. . X2 : so? swe Woy 3 These axes of movement enable movements to be programmed that duplicate i : a {> of a human operator in performing. a job. hose ©" © Fig. 1.2, shows the basic components of micropracessor-bnsed pneumatic robotic system ¥ i 7 Sensing signals REET Interface’ —=— . ef Power |-s{Compressor| of Preumatic: source logic Control Micro- " console_|*| processor | —>|_Display "an Interface lenoid contiol sk Wanvat |_| Inerta Solenoid contro! signal contrat a Fig. 1.2. Basic components of a microprocessor-based robotic system: © HB 13(a) shows a six axes puma manipulator and Fig. 1.346) shows a scheme of computer-controtled puma robotig system. Waist rotation Flange rotation Gripper mounting (a) Six axes Puma manipulator Puma - manipulator \ Teach Tele Microprocessor pendant based —— typewriter | — Fon controller too cRT oN gE () A scheme of computer-controlled Puma robotic system. . Fig. 1.3. Puma robotic system. pad(8) To interact With the robot's To tater 5 Working Usually there are two basic types of se a 8. These are : nvironment, that must be brough ject to sigrial Hf it contact with. the gt Hiect to obtain signals ; le sensors make GAT signal is generated and Benerated and sei obtained through the mechanical Pressures which ch; electrical potential: Physical contact with the ject, an elec n, a object, i Sona ject, an electrical arg lectrical si es wi ange re: Pol "\ iezoclectric crystals, — Typical contact type ro} () Force sensois ; (©) Touch sensors ; (i) Non-tactile sensors : These are “contactless sensors” Specified range of distance from th = They detect and measure electrical fields, ultrasonic sound —. Typical non-contact robot (a) Proximity sensors; - (0) Electro-optical sensors ; (c) Range imaging sensors « Basic Motions : Refer to Fig. 1.1. ont The six basic motions or degrees of freedom (DOFs) are as' follows : Refer to Fig, 1. Vertical motion. The entire manipulator arm can be méved up and down vertically cither by means of the shoulder swivel, ie. turning it about a horizontal axis, or by sliding it in a vertical slide. otic sensors include : (®) Torque sensors ; +(d), Position sensors magnetic fields, infrared and ultraviolet light, Xrays, waves or electromagnetic waves. ic sensors include : 2. Radial motion. Radial movement, ie,, in and out movements, to:the manipulator arm is provided by Elbow extension by extending it and. drawing. back. 3. Rotational motion. Clockwise or anticlockwise rotation about the vertical axis to the manipulator arm is provided through Arm sweep. 4. Pitch motion. It enables up and down movement of the wrist and involves idtational movement as well. It is also’ known as wrist bend. ; J 5. Roll motion. Also known as.wrist swivel, it enables rotation of wrist, 6. Yarw. Also called wrist yu, it facilitates tightward or leftward swiveling moversen " ‘te inet versatile robots.can’have following degrees of feedom (DOFS):: (i) Horizontal travel. (ii) Rotary movement. (iii) Radial arm movement. (iv) Vertical arm movement. (v) Rotary wrist movement. (vi) Wrist bend. : (vii) Wrist sweep. :} Fundamentals of Robot, 13 ate those e These axes of movement enable of a human operator in performing © Fig. 1.2, shows the basic ¢ movements to be a job. Programmed that duplic nonents of microprocessor-based pmeumatic robotic ° Intertace| enning signals (ee) i ae fra system. Manual fotertace Solenoid controt signal controt and drive Fig. 1.2, Basic components of a microprocessor-based robotic system, © Fig. 1.3¢a) shows a six axes puma manipulator and Fig, 13(b) shows a scheme of computer-controlled puma robotic system. ‘Waist rotation Shoulder. rotation fee ; Elbow rotation wrist beng Flange rotation x Gripper mounting ‘ 35) wist ation PAE a “ (a) Six axes Puma manipulator Puma manipulator Teach Tak ieroprocessor pendant ; oni base Foy Lypewter controller tee cRT ic system. (b) A scheme of computer-controlled Puma robotics Fig. 1.3. Puma robotic system.Robotics and Industrial Automation ‘ows a general structure of an advanced robot ‘ional unit consists of “articulated mechanical 1 kinetic joints), transmissio ‘tion of each articulation, 7 Fig. 14 — The op Of tigid links: and configu 4 ‘ system" (AMS ~ comprising m and actuators which control the Environment Tasks j i ; | eau ; Operatonat | &| i : unt [a2 i = £3 3 i Convo commands | men y Fig. 1.4, General structure of an advanced robot, —_ The “internal sensors" " aré provided to indicate the position, velocity and forces of the end-effector. : , ’ — The “external sensors” aré provided to serise the environment. —_ A ‘computer’ is provided which gets instructions from the operator depending on the tasks to be performed. The computer also receives feedback data regarding the joint variable from internal sensors. The computer gives necessary commands to locate the end- effector at desired position and orient it in the required way. : 1.11 ROBOT CLASSIFICATIONS Robot classifications are oe and discussed below : 1. Standard classification 2. Broad classification. 3. General classification. 1111. Standard Classification’ ” © rus standard daasificatons sligedted by Engelbergetare : 1. Mechanical: configuration based. 2. Control method based. o © The classification -based-on~mechanical configuration’ considers the ian and links comprising the-physical structure of the robot and.their relationship j s : : i lemented tc . a The classification by ‘control’ pertains to the type of ee imp lem -ontrol the robot. This classification considers. the following subcl i« su ‘0 endamentals of Robot ql. Mechanical configuration Hy available robots can be grouped into four \; t basic The majority of comme (je) Jointed-arm configuration (Revolute)- 1 coordinate configuration : Refer to Fig. 1.5. © The cartesian or rectilinear robot also termed as gantry robot, has three mutually { perpendicular axes which define a rectangular work yolume. ||. @_In this, the simplest of configurations, the ‘links of thé manipulator are constrained to move in a linear manner, Axes of a robotic device that behave 7 ™ in this way are referred to-as “prismatic. ©, The'cartesian devices may be of two types : (a) Cantilevered cartesian : — Such devites tend to have a limited extension from. the support frame, are less rigid, but have a less re- Stricted workspace than other ro- bots. — ‘They have good repeatability and accuracy (even better than SCARA types) and are easier to program be- cause of the “more natural” coordinate system. Fig. 1.5. Cartesian configuration, (b) Gantry-style cartesian + — Such robotgare used when extremely heavy toads must be precisely moved. = They are often mounted on the ceiling. —— Theyare generally more rigid but may provide Tess accesso the workspace. (i) Cylindrical configuration : Refer to Fig. 1 — Gylindrizal. configured robots use a vertical column with the robot arm attached to a side which . can move lipsand down the column. Simultaneously, thearm can move radially with respect 10 the column. — Usually, a full 360° rotation in 0 is not permitted, due to restrictions imposed by ‘hydraulic, a tiectrical, or pneumatic connections or lines. Also, there is minimum, as well as maximum extension (ie. R), dug to mechanical requirements. Consequently, the overall volunie or work envelope is a portion of7 fA This configuration ha: which pivot rolates about eS OCTET 00 7 " telescopic arm About a horizontal axis and algo. a vertical axi _. = Owing to mechanical and/or ac connection limit such a robot is " lor ations, the work envelope of a portion of sphe Fig. 1.8 shows the worki spherical coordinate robot, 5 volume of a of io "300" Shoulder ae se) C 2 os ‘Shoulder nla height 43 em Fig..1.8. Range of motion’ of a spherical coordinate robot. ) Jointed-arm configuration (Revolute) : Refer to. Fig. 1.9. — The jointed-arm robot most resembles an human arin and consists of a series of links connected by rotary joints which when referenced from base are referred to as the shoulder, arm and wrist joints. There. are actually three different types of jointed arm robots : (a) Pure spherical. (b)-Parallelogram spherical. (©) Cylindrical. © A subclass of the. jointed cylindrical manipulator is the Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA) type of robot (See Fig. 1.10); its shoulder and elbow. rotational axes are vertical. . — Typically, these devices are relatively inexpensive and are used in applications that require rapid and smooth motions. : — One particularly altractive feature, ‘selective compliance’, is extremely useful in assembly operations requiring insertions of objects into holes (e.g. pegs or screws). Because ig, 4.19, SCARA body-and-arm of ils construction, the SCARA is extremely stiff assembly configufation,7 lateral “give” (ie. compliance), thereby facilitating — Some SCARAs even permit the | tion by reducing appropriate elec 1.1.1.2. Control classification Several techniques have been develo) imultancously. The two general cl () Non-servo controlled robots the lateral com \ pliance to be increase tronic amp c ed during an F gains, ped to control the various es are : axes of a robot — Non-servo-controlled robots are also. and place robots or, bang-bang robots. S»-Such a robot is controlled by setting mechanical stops of limit switches to establish end points of travel of each joint, The mechanical set-up to give the proper position and quence of stops serves as a rudimentary programming approach rather than s computer intensive robot Programming language. (ii) Servo-controlled robots : — These robots are normally sub-d Called limited-sequence robots, end-point robots, livided into either ‘continuous-path’ (CP) or ‘point. -point’ (PTP) devices. In either case, however, information about the pésition and velocity SY(and perhaps other physical quantities) is continuously monitofed and fed back to the { h of the joints of the robot. Consequently, each axis =~ Use of closed-loop control permits the manipulator’s members to be commanded to move, gnd Stop anywhere within the limits of travel for the individual axes, : ition, it is possible to control, the velocity, acceleration, deceleration, and ,-timé derivative ‘6 accelération) for:various axes between the end points: Manipulator vibration, as a consequence, is reduced significantly: ; i "| @ Regardless of configuration, the fuaction of the robot arm configuration is ® sition a wrist ‘assembly, which orients an endzeffector to, the Proper position an ientation (jointly referyed to as the POSE) dictated by the task’at hand. Fig. 1.11 shows the degrees of freedom (DOFs) associated with a robot wrist. ‘Robot arm Face plate (To attach end effector) ‘Wrist pitch \ (Bend) (Swivel) wisl yaw é i oe : i f freedom associated, with a robot wrist. : Fig. 1.11. Degrees of fr ee ing of pulley cords, leakage of : i rati include gear backlash, stretching of p > construction or operation. These-incl F construc Pp i that cat © Mechanical inaccuracies result from the various errors all accuracy of imperfections. Such errors degrade the over. i i ctural imperfections. Suc ee aids ofp and srt Seas fully extended. Metal rea i al 7 sonsible for repeatability errors. A robot at asia a ‘apeatabilty 25 the radius ofan idealised sphere and expeeses ppeatability a1 ei Robotics and Industrial Automatloy oF minus value. The’ majority of robe em or Tess) but many. of the: rat eats have extremely high repeatability (can be # 0.0025 ‘ols can have comparatively greater inaccuracy values.’ 1.11.2, Broad Classification < oa can be broadly classified + Programmabletreprogrammable generat Pegnin r seneral purpose robots : )~ These robots operate fully by programmed computer centrol. \ robot is taught before hand to perform ‘cessary action in the teacl we S taugh re hand to perform the nek mode. It.can then take ove xt operation repet ively such a5 in a - < Va : Ha ind execute the operation repetitively 1 —These are most useful for all Structured operations. 2 Tele-operated, man-controlled robots or man-inet — These robots differ from totally, machine-cot as ftbin the-loop manipulator : The servodriven master-slave. manipulator with force feedback, or vehicle! mounted heavy duty multi-axis power manipulator performs the necessa work in hazardous environment, taking commands from a human controlle; who can manipiulate the slave arms at the scene of operation from safe location, relying for viewing on closed circuit television. . Intelligent. robots + — These are very advanced state ‘of art robots and possess adequate artificial ‘of 24 machine intelligence, somewhat. analogous to the sensory’ perception of the; neuro-muscular coordination that human beings are capable of. — They cari nit only explore the enivironment on theit own machine perceptions and evaluate them in real time, but also execute the necessary motor functions, matching the action of their sensory inputs. ; — Advanced robots have been built with mobility to not only move ovet floors | but also to climb, ability to avoid obstacles, high power-to-weight ratios, A) compactly assembled, with on board sensors, instruments and power supplies. | y9 uonpadsut Supper “Suipjem “Supro| ‘Sapeonm/Smpeo, | ‘Aiqurasse ‘raysues} yed Joo aurypeur ‘Buyseo joo aye | ‘SuIpeo] joo) aunpeyy quaunsaaut ‘Buidi0g suonvayddy “ unt ¢9'0 wur QO = un STL = Anpquiveday 9 S41 34 ¢ 34 001 pooping s opeumaug ; eon, aymerpAy dojunjoy v s/umm 21¢ 8/4 Q00T 8/1 006, paads Vied doa-€ Wewnn.“dOa 9 ANNI * & ae VEARN “ICR 9 sojnaffe-pua s0yondiuvyy Tw oss 985 'EL 20} Suaunysuy oxfag qu) rung vor ruUpUTD, ata c z SLOGOW ~ ‘ fol grads “on's t: suo} “Weoid £ perupeds yoqoy peosg Jerid) : 4 LL BiqeyRobotics and industidt pinay ading carrying capac z ~ The load carrying capacity of a robiot depends on : G) Its physical size and construction + (i) ls capabitity to transmit foree and torque to the end effector in ~ While this capacity for very light models can be as low a Neight of end-effector), the heavier ch high as 1000 kg, 3. Speed of movement : “Speed of movement” Wis governed b the wrist, 15 keg (including 4 ve their capacities’ #8 the speed at which a robot is capable of manipulating its end-eiferte (i) The distance to be moved ; Gi) The weight of the part to be moved ; (iit) The accuracy required in placement of the part in position. — Heavier parts and higher placement accuracy demand slower moveme: the lighter parts can. be moved at faster speeds, — The ‘speed’ varies from. one point to another. . 4. Repeatability : . te /Repentabiity” is the measure of robot's ‘ability to position an object at a previously taug. point in the work envelope, : eae — Owing to inherent errovs robot will not be able to r 5. Control resolution’: . " Itrelates to the system's capability (both controller and the positioning device) to-didi: the range of the total movement into closely spaced points that can be identified. Thus it Weul represent the minimum noticeable movement achievable. It may be added that the controller can generate pulses of very small dufation but tt Positioning device should be able to respond and change its position accordingly. In suc acase: 2 anrs~ Range of movement pw “Control resolution = Sine otmovement where, 1 = Number of bits devoted to:a joint, and 2" = Number of addressable points. . 6. ‘Spatial resolution + : Present, particularly due to mechanical sources, tt ‘eturn’ to exact programmed point. Whereas control resolution concerns the resolution for only one link and one motior “spatial resolution” combines the control resolution of all motions and also considers.th mechanical errors in the points and associated Jinks. The spatial resolution varies depending on the exact position of wrist end becaus: certain joint combinations would tend to magnify the effect of the control resolution anc the mechanical errors. 7 . 7. Mechanical errors : The mechanical errors arise from : . Backlash in gears ; Hysteresis ; Deflection of links ; Hydraulic leaks etc. eeaee29 ion, Accuracy” is the ihe work envelope, Imensure of the ability of robot to postion the end of wrist ata desired location Let us consider the accuracy ‘tment for a single link and single tion (the, worst case would occur ayhen the desired location lies irectly between two adjacent control Spointsnr ;points set by control esolution).SThe- inaccuracies in ‘“nechanical ‘positioning system can considered to have normal distribution with a constant variance Notenal distribution, ‘of mechanical ervors Conta parts“ Repeat{abilty——— Control resolution 1.20 lesign improvemnts. Refer to Fig. 1.20. The following definition can be established : Pets, my (where, Accuracy “= Control resolution ae om 2 standard deviation of mechanical error) Repeatability = + 30 = 60 Spatial resolution = .Conttol resolution + 60 ” Spatial resoltition 2 i= As robots move in 3-dimensional space, the distribution of all above items ig.alsc \ 3-dimensional. The norn#il distribution in'3-D can be conceptualised.as a sphere whose mean is the programmed point and radius is equal to three-times standard deviation of the © repeatability error distribution. ¥ For modem robois the repeatability values are of the order of + 0.05 mm. ©. oNStability : i It relates to:the amount of overshoot and oscillations in robot motion as it is about to reach a certain location. —_ A'stable system has less oscillation but it becomes inherently slower in response. Example 1.1. One of the links ofa robot hs a telescoping arm with a stroke of 768 mn. The © control memory of the robot has 8-bit storage capacity for this axis. Determine.the control resolution © for the sare, a Solution. Given : Stroke length (or range of movement) =.768 mm Accuracy, in terms of spatial resolution Bit storage capacity for the axis, n = 8 : “pense th _ 768 Nay, controlresolution = Se =3mm (Ans) Example 1:2..A cartesian robot has a slide with a total range of 1.2 m and it is desired that = it will have a control resolution of 4.6 mnt on this axis. Determine the bit storage capacity which «the control memory miust possess to accommodate this. level of precision. (VTU- 2003)30 Robotics and Industrial Automat Solution, a5 = 1.2m oF 1200 mim ; Control resolution = 4.6 mri) « Siven Total rang Bit storage capacity, nz Control resolution = ce 46 = 120 = a » _ 1200 or, 2" = Te = 260.86 Taking log on both sides, we have 1 log, 2 = log, (260.86) on n= 108. (260.86) Tom 2 7 B02 say 8 (Ans) Example 1.3, The telescopic arm The robot has a 12-bit stora; retract: it ir ie p etn Jrom the pivot point. Determine the robot's control resolution for the ais (i) j 0g ° of rota ion, and (ii) on-linear scale in fully extended and retracted position. (VTU-2004) olution. Given : Range of rotation = 120° ; Number of bit storage capacity = 12. Maximum reach of extension, Aggy = 1500 mm ; Minimum reach retraction, H,,,, = 750 mi, (i) The control. resolution of “rotation” ™ 4 _ Range ofrotation, 120 _ ~ 7 = ore 0.0293" (Ans.) (if) The control resolution for- “translation” _ Range of movement (i: Haz —Hyin) _ 1500-750 ~ z ~) @ = 0.183-mm (Ans.) Example 1.4. The-niechanism connécting the wrist assembly is a twisting joint which can. be rotated through 7.5 revolutions fron the start to end position. It is ‘desired to have control resolution of rotation of + 0.34° at the least. What is the number of bit storage capacity'to achieve this résolution ? . Solution. Given : Range of rotation = 7.5°x'360° = 2700° ; Total control resolutior + 0.34° ie., 0.68°. Bit storage capacity, m: We know that, Range of rotation 7 Control resolution or, 0.68° = —— "= 3970.6 a or, i. Taking log on both sides, we get. ; ae ° n log, 2 = log, (3970.6)y 11,955 say 12. (Ans.) agynple 1.5. The angular position of a high speed molor shaft is monitored by an incrementot a encider-with 2 emitter detector pairs and 15 slots around the circumference. The precision 1é load shaft is measured and found to be 0,06 degree per count. What is the gear ratio between ici speed shaft and the load shaft ? iven : Number of slots, § = 15 ; Number of emitter detector pairs, 1 = 2; ihe angular control resolution;-A, = 0.06° (precision) ; Range of rotation = 2 = 360°. * The gear reduction ratio, G G = —300°____360"__ 2 100 Sx A, x(2)" 15x 0.06? x (2) The gear reduction ratio between high speed shaft and the load shaft = 100 : 1 (Ans.) Example 1.6. A cylindrical robot has a prisinatic joint with a range of travel of 900 mm. The nntrol Fifeniory for this joint has 10 bit capacity. It has been recorded that the associated mechanical curacies with the said arn show a random distribution of random variable of the robot position out the mean position of the taught point gives.a standard deviation of 0.08 mm. The standard ation is equal in all directions. ‘Calculate : (i) The controt resolution for the axis. (ii) The spatial resoliition for the prismatic joint. (iii) The accuracy defined. -- (io). The repeatability of the robot link. Solution. Given : Range of travel = 900 mm ; n = 10 bits ; The standard. deviation of mechanical inaccuracies, o = 0.08 mm. (9 x{he control resolution for the axis : ve ‘ Ri Coritrol-resolution’ = Sue ene) a = 0.8789 mm,” (Ans) Gear reduction ratio, (ii). The spatial resolbtion : Spatial resolution = Control resolution + 66 : = 0.8789 + 6 x 0.08 = 13889 mm (Ans. (iif). The-accuracy : . : . Control resolution 2 u Accuracy +30 = OST + 3108 = 0.6794 min (Ans) PAs Spatial resolution 1.3589 — 9 6794 mm) 2 2 (iv) The repeatability of the robot link : : The repeatability of the robot link = + 36 i . = + (3 x 0.08) = 4 0.24 mm (Ans.) (Alternatively : Accuracy = ‘18 ROBOTS PERFORMANCE TESTING *{. 0 1G% . In order to juidge the suitability of robots the following tests are performed on them:a2 1. Geometric values ioe include the following, : () Workspace : It is the envelope is the envelope reached by the centre of th wrist and the tool, using all available axis mations. ace Bete (ii) Static behaviour different load cases, (iit) Position accuracy : It icates the deformation of a fixed robot structure under the repeatable a bh lod and ada operating peat none ner ae n accuracy is based on two types of-errors : (®) Repeatability ertor; (U) Reversal error. . (iv) Path accuracy : It indicates a wv ave Path acisey :M ndtcates wt what evel of ascuragy programmed pth cir © Following are'the typical errors in path accuracy.of a robot : — Path accuracy or mean-path dispersion error’; —~ Trailing error or mean-path deviation ; — Overshoot during acceletation/decelerati rn (2) Reproduction of smallest steps : The-slip“tick effect may becoine serious, yikes the velocities are very los (vi), Synchronous srabel accuracy : It relates to, cages’ whefe robot has to petforn tasks sychronous to a moving conveyor'as in spray painting and assembly It provides information on the time réquired to achi (vii): Long-term behaviour : thermal stability. 2. Kinematic values : — The kinematic values include cycle time, ‘speed, acceleration. — It invélves measuring of attainable cycle times for a defined sequence different areas of the working place, is 3. Dynamic values : — It involves determination of dynamic behaviour of ene components at the total structure. _— The response of the robot structure is elicited by: the following excitati methods: (a) Shaker (Sinus, random) ; , (c). Snapback (impact) ; 4. Power noise values : - = These valves are usually measured in décibel at a distance of one metre fi the working space.- 5.. Thermal values : — The changes in temperalu 1.19 ROBOTS KINEMATIC CONTROL p emi SE 1.19.1, Robot Arm Kinematics “Robot arm kinematics” deals with analytic with respect to a fixed reference coordinate system wi (b), Haminer (impact) 5 (@)- Drives (Sinus, random). re affect deviation of the'structure. ry of motion of a robot il study of the geomet ee forces/moments that c ithout regard to the“ndamentals of Robot < ao Went vil oriontation of Hheendeflecter af a rae ane abe ©, Forward and reverse kinematic @ When the position and orientation of endetfecto ‘am the given joint angles and tink parameters inematies” (Fig. 1.21) probleny Soe motiny. {Thus kinematics deats with the i pe moti Th s deals ¢ analytical deseripption of the 4 St the robot/As a function of time, in patticulay the wl at “tc ‘ Wen tance ice and the position Nie ati a anipulator, a the scheme is called the "Forward $ | doint ” Forward Position and || a angles ghorward orientation aff p Output \ “ trntatectr . Inputs nyt Link parameters: Fig. 1.21, Forward kinematics scheme. cS © When the joint angles and the different configurations of the manipulator are derived from the position and orientation of the end-effector, the scheme is known as the “Inverse/Reverse kinematics” problem. tion and Tn ang 3 7 arientation of ==> ene |” Me Output ‘ Td ay phd-oflector ea manipulator Inputs. v! Link parameters 1.22; Inverse kinematics scheme. fariables inv robot arm are the joint variables, and a task coordinale frame, the inverse kinemiitics problem Fi — Since’the independent v usually stated in terms of the reference “sused more frequently. © The inverse kinematics problem, in g Snost commonly used are : F (i). Matrix algebraic ; (ii) Iteratine, or ; : 3 (iii) Geometric approach. } 1,19.1.1. Transformations © For describing the position.and orientation of the tool with respect to the base i.ame it.is imperative to know and Jormulate the body attached coordinate*frame along, {he joint axis for each link in the manipulator-chain-of- the robot. ee The relation between the bedy attacheil frame with the base frame of reference is described seneraly can be solved by several techiques ; the 2 transformation matrix. ; @ The transformation ig represented by the following component transformations: B Rotation matrix ; (i) Translation oF pos (iif) “Perspective trasisformation ; (iv) Scalirg or stretching. jon vector ;a4 Robotics and Industrial Automat tions esicles moving points along vectors, itis possible to generate new positions in s by rotating them about an axis, tus derive the nula for a set of ortho, ¥, With respect to the x- lel us assume initially th set will be called x-rot, axes will remain fixed. Now as e frame defined by x-rot. and ler a point A located at x4, and y-tef, Fig. 1.23), In addition on Lop of the reference axes. Th of the point A war these the poift A (located in th onal axes rotated in a pian, -y reference axis (called as x:te hal a y-10l) is rotated antclockuise Wee e ate, © W.t4 the Feference axes. Now we cielt determine the location of the point won the reference axes (x-ref, and y-tet.), ay vere + xl. Fig. 1.23. Point in.a reference ffame, Fig. 1.24, Point rotated with respect i to reference frame and geometric ° Construction for rotation of axes,” Fig, 1.24 shows the point A rotated w.r-t. vefere for nce frame and geomietric constructi Tolation of axes. Line segment AL is perpendicular frorg thé point A to xref, a while line segment AM is perpendicular ftom the Point A.to the z-rot. axis. From the diagram we may write the following relationships : . = JOL| = JOP} —|LPy Ya = (LA| = |LN| + NAY JOP|*= JOM] os & © sx cos a oe oil JEN] = [PM] = |OM| sina : a xy sina oli : ILP| = |NM| = [MAJ sin ¥ =y, sina wi INA| = |MA| cos é = yy 0s a Combining these eqns., we get X= 2, cosa~y sina Ya = Xsin'a + y, cos a The above relationships allow us to determine the location of points affixed-to mov frames of reference in terms of afixed refer ence frame, The derivation in the x-y is easily extended to either y-z or z-x plane. : a