In history, there were four major civilization namely

1. Mesopotamian
2. Chinese,
3. Egyptian
4. Indus Valley Civilization
Out of which, Indus Valley Civilization is the largest in largest in terms of its area(1,260,000 square
kilometres). It was spread over India, Pakistan, Afghanistan etc. Current findings scientists show that
the extent of the civilization was even bigger.

It had Ghagra-Hakra valley to the east, Makran Coast (Baluchistan) to the west, Afghanistan in
northeast and Daimabad (Maharashtra) in south.

During its peak, it had a population of 5 million (This is greater than present day population of New
Zealand. Most of its inhabitants were artisans and traders.). Out of the 5 million people, many of
them lived in villages. archaeologists are having tough time finding culture and society in which they
lived because of absence of any proper evidence. Their residences, were made of mud or wood
which gets damaged easily and hence no trace is available.

Due to its vast area, 1056 cities have been found. Out of these 1056 cities, 96 of them have been
excavated. Dholavaria, Rakhigarhi, Lothal, Kalibangan are some of the famous urban cities apart from
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Harappans are famous for their world-class drainage system. The usage of flush toilets, removal of
waste water, channelling fresh water into bathrooms – they were masters in this area.

Town planning was not limited to cities alone, every town, village and city had the same grid pattern
and every house constructed used the same bricks, which were of a particular dimension. The bricks
were same for all the houses.

Another interesting thing in Indus Valley Civilization is till date there is no evidences of any authority
or leader ruling this civilization.

In Lothal, one of the cities of the Civilization, water transport means were available and aquaculture
was practised.

These cities had spacious roads. Mohenjo-Daro roads were 10 metres wide and the smallest roads
width is estimated to be at least 1.5 m-3m.

The houses used burnt bricks and every house had the same planning (construction) but the rich
people had 3 storied houses while the normal ones had 2 storied houses. Those houses had
courtyards and terraces too.
Harappa was the first city to be discovered and it was discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921. Its
present location is in Punjab (Pakistan). It was present on the banks of River Ravi.

The second city to be discovered was Mohenjo-Daro. It was discovered by R.D. Banerjee. Its present
location is in Sindh (Pakistan). It was present on the banks of River Indus.The word Mohenjo-Daro
literally meant the “mound of dead”.

In Lothal (Gujarat), ruins of dockyard were excavated. Rice was cultivated there and there was a
game similar to Chess. People of Indus Valley Civilization traded with Mesopotamian Civilization from
there.

In a city called Chanduraho (Indus), evidences of cosmetics were found. Women used lipsticks and
other cosmetics. Even small dressing tables were found.

Lets some of their position in early periods.

1. They were the world’s first dentists.

2. Earliest scale to test purity of Gold.

3. The first people to domesticate Cotton.

4. Indus Valley Civilization people invented the world’s first buttons.

5. They made the world’s oldest signboard

Another astonishing fact about Induc Valley Civilization is that has surprised the researchers is the
absence of any structure which can be thought of central importance like a palace or a temple. The
presence of a temple or a palace is a standard feature of every other early civilization. There are
several public buildings like the Great Baths and granaries but no structure can be even remotely
related to a palace or temple. This has made some scholars to believe that Indus Valley cities were an
egalitarian society.

The discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, was a
significant archaeological breakthrough that shed light on one of the ancient world's most advanced
urban civilizations. The discovery of this civilization dates back to the early 20th century and has
since provided valuable insights into the history and culture of the Indian subcontinent.

Discovery:

1. Initial Excavations: The first significant discovery related to the Indus Valley Civilization was made
in 1826 when a British army deserter named Charles Masson stumbled upon the ruins of Harappa in
present-day Pakistan. However, it wasn't until the early 20th century that large-scale excavations
began.

2. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: The major archaeological sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were
unearthed in the 1920s and 1930s by a team of archaeologists led by Sir John Marshall. These sites,
located in present-day Pakistan, revealed the remains of well-planned cities with sophisticated
infrastructure.
Fundamental Features of the Indus Valley Civilization:
The Indus Valley Civilization exhibited several fundamental features that highlight its advanced
nature and significance:

1. Urban Planning and Architecture: The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization displayed remarkable
urban planning and sophisticated architectural techniques. The cities were constructed on a grid
system, with streets laid out in a precise manner. The buildings were made of baked bricks and
showcased advanced engineering, including complex drainage systems and public baths. The layout
of the cities suggests a high level of organization and centralized planning.

2. Trade and Economy: The civilization had a thriving trade network, as evidenced by the discovery of
seals, weights, and measures. The presence of dockyards at sites like Lothal suggests that maritime
trade played a significant role. Archaeological findings indicate that the civilization engaged in long-
distance trade, including the exchange of goods such as textiles, metals, and precious stones. The
existence of trade routes highlights the civilization's economic prosperity and connections with other
regions.

3. Writing System: The Indus script, discovered on numerous seals and artifacts, remains
undeciphered to this day. This writing system indicates that the civilization had a form of written
communication, although its exact nature and meaning are yet to be fully understood. The script is
characterized by distinct symbols and signs engraved on seals, pottery, and other objects.

4. Arts and Crafts: The Indus Valley Civilization exhibited artistic excellence through its pottery,
sculptures, jewelry, and figurines. The artifacts found at the archaeological sites reflect a high level of
craftsmanship and artistic expression. The pottery displays intricate designs, and the figurines depict
various animals and human forms. The use of motifs and patterns, such as geometric designs,
suggests a sophisticated artistic tradition.

5. Social Organization: The Indus Valley Civilization appears to have had a complex social structure.
The presence of granaries, public buildings, and distinct residential areas suggests a hierarchical
organization within the cities. However, the absence of monumental structures dedicated to religious
worship has led some scholars to speculate that the civilization had a more egalitarian social
structure. The existence of standardized weights and measures also indicates a system of trade and
commerce that required social organization and administrative control.

6. Technological Advancements: The civilization displayed advanced technological achievements. The

construction of well-planned cities with advanced drainage systems and public baths indicates
engineering expertise. The use of standardized bricks, advanced metallurgy techniques, and the
development of specialized tools and implements demonstrate the civilization's technological
prowess.
The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, holds significant importance in
several aspects. Let's discuss its significance under various headings:

1. Historical and Chronological Significance:

. Early Urban Civilization: The Indus Valley Civilization is one of the earliest urban civilizations,
predating ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Its well-planned cities, advanced infrastructure, and
organized trade networks challenged the conventional understanding of early urbanization.

. Ancient Trade Networks: The civilization's extensive trade networks and maritime connections
demonstrate the early development of long-distance trade routes and economic interactions,
establishing the region as a significant trade hub.

2. Technological Advancements and Urban Planning:

. Advanced Engineering: The sophisticated drainage systems, well-constructed buildings, and urban
planning of the Indus Valley Civilization showcase their engineering prowess. The standardized brick
sizes, sewage systems, and efficient water management indicate a level of technological
advancement ahead of its time.

. Urban Organization: The grid-based city layout, planned streets, and centralized public
infrastructure reveal a high degree of urban organization. The civilization's architectural
achievements set a precedent for subsequent urban planning and influenced future civilizations.

3. Economic and Trade Significance:

. Trade and Commerce: The presence of standardized weights, measures, and seals suggests a well-
developed trade and commercial system. The civilization engaged in long-distance trade, exchanging
goods such as textiles, metals, and precious stones. This economic activity contributed to its
prosperity and cultural exchanges with other regions.

. Agricultural Innovations: The Indus Valley Civilization developed sophisticated agricultural

techniques, including irrigation systems, that enabled them to support a large urban population.
Their agricultural practices and knowledge of crop cultivation had a significant impact on subsequent
agricultural societies in the region.

4. Cultural and Social Significance:

. Cultural Diversity: The Indus Valley Civilization was culturally diverse, evident from the presence of
different regional styles in pottery and artifacts. This indicates the coexistence and integration of
various cultural groups within the civilization.

. Artistic Expression: The civilization's artistic achievements, as seen in pottery, sculptures, jewelry,
and figurines, reflect their creativity and craftsmanship. The intricate designs and motifs reveal their
artistic sensibilities and contribute to our understanding of ancient art forms.

. Social Organization: The organization of the Indus Valley cities and the presence of public buildings
and granaries suggest a hierarchical social structure. However, the absence of grand religious
structures implies a more egalitarian society compared to other contemporaneous civilizations.
5. Legacy and Influence:

. Indus Script and Writing Systems: The undeciphered Indus script raises questions about the origin
and development of writing systems. Its existence suggests an advanced level of communication and
symbolic representation, which could have influenced subsequent writing systems in the region.

. Influence on Subsequent Civilizations: The Indus Valley Civilization's urban planning, architectural
techniques, trade practices, and agricultural innovations likely influenced later civilizations in the
Indian subcontinent, such as the Vedic civilization and early historic societies.
The Indus Valley Civilization's significance lies in its contributions to the understanding of ancient
urbanization, technological advancements, trade networks, cultural diversity, and social organization.
It serves as a testament to the achievements and complexities of early human societies and their
lasting impact on subsequent civilizations.

The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, can be broadly divided into
several stages based on the archaeological evidence and the chronological development of the
civilization. Although the precise dates and duration of each stage are still a subject of ongoing
research, the following stages provide a general framework for understanding the progression of the
Indus Valley Civilization:

1. Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE - 2600 BCE):

The Early Harappan Phase marks the beginning of settled agricultural communities in the region.
During this stage, small villages with mud-brick houses and rudimentary town planning emerged
along the Indus River and its tributaries. These settlements were characterized by the cultivation of
crops, such as wheat and barley, and the rearing of livestock. The pottery of this period featured
simple designs and shapes.

2. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE - 1900 BCE):

The Mature Harappan Phase represents the peak of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is characterized by
the establishment of large, well-planned cities with advanced urban infrastructure. The major cities
of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro flourished during this period. The urban layout followed a grid-like
pattern, with streets crossing at right angles, indicating a high level of urban planning. The houses
were constructed using standardized baked bricks. The cities had sophisticated drainage systems,
public baths, and granaries.

This phase witnessed significant advancements in trade and commerce. The civilization had extensive
trade networks, both inland and maritime, facilitating the exchange of goods such as textiles, metals,
and precious stones. The presence of standardized weights, measures, and seals suggests a well-
organized trade system. The civilization also had an agricultural economy, relying on efficient
irrigation systems for crop cultivation.

The art and craft of the Mature Harappan Phase showcased remarkable skills and creativity. The
pottery displayed intricate designs and painted motifs, while sculptures depicted various animals and
human forms. The civilization also developed a script, known as the Indus script, although its
meaning remains undeciphered.

3. Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE - 1300 BCE):

The Late Harappan Phase marks the decline and eventual collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is
characterized by the abandonment of some major cities and a shift in settlement patterns. The once-
thriving urban centers saw a decline in population, and smaller settlements became more
prominent. The urban planning and infrastructure witnessed a gradual deterioration during this
phase.

The reasons for the decline of the civilization are still debated among scholars, but possible factors
include environmental changes, such as the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra River, natural disasters,
and socio-political unrest.

It is important to note that the stages mentioned above are based on the available archaeological
evidence and interpretations. The chronology and duration of each stage are subject to revision as
new discoveries and research contribute to our understanding of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Nonetheless, this framework provides a general understanding of the developmental stages and the
overall progression of this ancient civilization.

Principal cities of the Indus Valley Civilization: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Ganweriwala.

Harappa:

Harappa, located in present-day Pakistan, was one of the major urban centers of the Indus Valley
Civilization. It was discovered in the 1920s and excavated extensively by archaeologists. Here are
some key features of Harappa:

1. Urban Planning: Harappa was meticulously planned with a grid-like layout, organized into a series
of rectangular blocks. The city covered an area of approximately 150 acres, comprising residential
areas, public buildings, and open spaces.

2. Citadel and Great Granary: At the heart of the city was a raised platform known as the citadel,
which likely served as a fortified administrative or religious center. Adjacent to the citadel was a large
granary, suggesting a system for grain storage and distribution.

3. Housing: The houses in Harappa were made of standardized baked bricks. They varied in size and
construction, ranging from simple one-room structures to multi-story houses with courtyards. Some
houses had private wells and bathrooms, indicating a relatively high standard of living.

4. Great Bath: One of the iconic structures of Harappa is the Great Bath. It was a large public bathing
area, measuring approximately 39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep. The Great Bath is
evidence of the civilization's advanced engineering and communal use of water resources.

5. Craftsmanship and Artifacts: Harappa yielded a rich assortment of artifacts, including pottery,
sculptures, and jewelry. The pottery featured intricate designs and painted motifs. Numerous seals
made of stone or faience were also found, often engraved with animal motifs and inscriptions in the
Indus script.
Mohenjo-daro:

Mohenjo-daro, located in present-day Pakistan, was another prominent city of the Indus Valley
Civilization. It was discovered in the 1920s and is considered one of the most well-preserved urban
sites of the ancient world. Here are some notable features of Mohenjo-daro:

1. Urban Layout: Similar to Harappa, Mohenjo-daro had a carefully planned layout with straight,
perpendicular streets forming a grid pattern. The city covered an extensive area of around 250 acres
and was divided into two major sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town.

2. Great Bath: Mohenjo-daro also had a remarkable public bath, known as the Great Bath, which was
similar in design and purpose to the one in Harappa. It consisted of a large tank with steps leading
down to the water level and was likely used for ritualistic bathing or communal activities.

3. Citadel and Stupa: The Citadel of Mohenjo-daro was a raised platform encompassing public
buildings and possibly serving as a fortified administrative or religious center. An imposing structure
known as the "Great Stupa" was located within the Citadel, suggesting religious significance.

4. Sophisticated Drainage System: Mohenjo-daro is renowned for its advanced drainage system. The
city had an extensive network of interconnected brick-lined drains and sewers, ensuring efficient
disposal of wastewater and maintaining sanitation within the urban area.

5.Craftsmanship and Artifacts: The excavations at Mohenjo-daro revealed a wide range of artifacts,
including pottery, figurines, beads, and metal objects. The craftsmanship displayed in the artifacts
showcases the creativity and skills of the civilization's artisans.

Ganweriwala:

Ganweriwala, situated in present-day Pakistan, is a lesser-known but significant city of the Indus
Valley Civilization. Although it has received comparatively less archaeological attention, recent
research and surveys have highlighted its importance. Here are some key aspects of Ganweriwala:

1. Location and Discovery:

Ganweriwala is located in the Cholistan Desert of present-day Pakistan, near the eastern bank of the
Ghaggar-Hakra River. It was first identified as an archaeological site in the 1980s during a survey
conducted by the Archaeological Survey of Pakistan.

2. Size and Layout:

The exact size and layout of Ganweriwala are still not fully determined due to limited excavation and
research. However, it is believed to be a substantial settlement, potentially comparable in size to the
major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

3. Urban Features:
While detailed information about Ganweriwala is lacking, it is suggested that the city shared some
common features with other Indus Valley cities. These features include well-planned layouts with
organized streets and buildings made of standardized baked bricks.

4. Water Management:
Water management was crucial for the survival and sustenance of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Although specifics about Ganweriwala's water management systems are not known, it is likely that
the city employed similar techniques to other Indus Valley cities, such as the construction of wells,
reservoirs, and drainage systems for efficient water supply and waste disposal.

5. Cultural and Artistic Artefacts:

The archaeological excavations at Ganweriwala have yielded various cultural and artistic artifacts,
including pottery, beads, and tools. These findings provide insights into the material culture and
craftsmanship of the people who inhabited the city.

It is important to note that further archaeological investigations and research are required to gain a
more comprehensive understanding of Ganweriwala and its significance within the context of the
Indus Valley Civilization. As more discoveries are made and studies conducted, our knowledge about
Ganweriwala and its role in the ancient civilization may expand.