QN.1. Laws of Conservation of Energy and First of Thermodynamics.

The Concept of energy and the hypothesis that it can neither be created nor destroyed were
developed by scientists in the early part of the nineteenth century and become known as the
Principle of conservation of Energy.
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that,
“Energy can never be created or destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another”
This is particularly confusing in the case of non-conservative forces, where energy is converted
from mechanical energy into thermal energy, but the overall energy does remain the same. The
only way to use energy is to transform energy from one form to another.
The amount of energy in any system, then, is determined by the following equation:
U T =U i +W+Q

 U T is the total internal energy of a system.

 U i is the initial internal energy of a system.
 W is the work done by or on the system.
 Q is the heat added to, or removed from the system.
It is also possible to determine the change in internal energy of the system using the equation:
∆ U =W +Q .
This is also a statement of the First law of thermodynamics.
While this equation is extremely powerful, they can make it hard to see the power of the
statement, the takeaway message is that energy cannot be created from nothing.

The First Law of Thermodynamics is equivalent to the law of conservation of energy.

When a system undergoes a complete thermodynamics cycle the intrinsic energy of the system is
the same at the beginning and end of the cycle. During the various processes that make up the
cycle work is done on or by the fluid and heat is supplied or rejected.

APPLICATION OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

01. Adiabatic Processes
An Adiabatic process is one during which no energy enters or leaves the system by heat.
Q=0
This is archived by:-
 Thermally insulating the walls of the system.
  Having the process proceed so quickly that no heat can be exchanged.

Since Q=0, ∆ E∫ ¿¿=W

If the gas is compressed adiabatically, W is positive so ∆ E∫ ¿¿ is positive and the temperature of

the gas increases.
If the gas expands adiabatically, the temperature of the gas decreases.
Some important examples of adiabatic processes related to engineering are:
 The liquefaction of the gases in a cooling system.
 The compression stroke in a diesel engine.
 The expansion of hot gases in an internal combustion engine.

02. Isothermal Process

An isothermal process is one that occurs at a constant temperature. This can be accomplished by
putting the cylinder in contact with some constant temperature reservoir.

Since there is no change in temperature, ∆ E∫ ¿¿=0. Then Q=-W

Any energy that enters the system by heat must leave the system by work. At right is a PV
diagram of an isothermal expansion.
The curve is Hyperbola. PV=nRT=constant
The curve is called ISOTHERM
 03. Isovolumetric Processes
An isovolumetric process is one in which there is no change in the volume. This may be
accomplished by clamping the piston at a fixed position. Since the volume does not change,
W=0.

From the first law, ∆ E∫ ¿¿=Q. if energy is added by heat to a system kept at a constant volume, all
of the transferred energy remains in the system as an increase in its internal energy.

04. Isobaric processes

An isobaric process is one that occurs at a constant pressure. May be accomplished by allowing
the piston to move freely so that it is always in equilibrium between the net force from the gas
pushing upward and the weight of the piston plus the force due to atmospheric pressure pushing
downward.

The values of the heat and the work are generally both nonzero. The work done is W=-P( V f -V i )
where P is the constant pressure.

QN.2. Reversible adiabatic process and polytropic process

 REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC PROCESS
Adiabatic process this refers to the one in which there is no heat transfer between the system and
its surroundings. This means that the system is thermally isolated and any change in the system’s
internal energy is solely due to work done on or by the system. Such a process can be reversible
or irreversible. Where in an adiabatic equation its lies in reversibility side only in all conditions.
Reversible adiabatic process is also known as an isentropic process, is a thermodynamic process
in which know heat is exchanged with the surroundings and the entropy remains constant
(reversible). The reversible process the system’s entropy does not change because the process
can be reversed without any changes to the surroundings.
We can describe the behavior of the reversible adiabatic by using ideal gas law and the adiabatic
equation. For an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic expansion or compression, the relationship
between the pressure(p) and volume(v) is given by:

P1v1y=p2v2y
where p1 and v1 are the initial pressure and volume, p2 and v2 are the final pressure and volume,
and y is the heat capacity ratio (also known as the adiabatic index or ratio of specific heats). The
value of y depends on the properties of the gas and is typically a constant.
In a reversible adiabatic expansion, the gas does work on its surroundings, causing its volume to
increase while its pressure decrease. Conversely, in a reversible adiabatic compression, work is
done on the gas, resulting in a decrease in volume and an increase in pressure.
Reversible adiabatic processes are often approximated in real-world situations by using well-
insulated system that minimize heat exchange with the surroundings. They are commonly
encountered in various fields, including the thermodynamics, engineering and atmospheric
science to describe the behavior of gases and other systems undergoing adiabatic
transformations.

 POLYTROPIC PROCESSS
This involves many processes in practice approximate to a reversible law of the f0rm of
pvn=constant, where n is the constant. Both vapours and perfect gases obey this type of law
closely in many non-flow processes. They are used in various fields including thermodynamics,
fluid mechanics and engineering. This is used to approximate real world process and understand
the behavior of gases and fluids under different conditions. Such processes are internally
reversible.
From equation for any reversible process,

W=-∫ pdv
For a process in which pvn=constant, we have p= c/vn, where c is a constant.

Therefore,
v2
dv v
−n+ 1
v−n +1
−v−n+1
W=∫ n =-c[ ]=-c( 2 1
)
v1 v −n+1 −n+1

v 1−n
2 −v 1
1−n
p 2 v n2 v 1−n n 1−n
2 −p 1 v 1 v 1
w=-c( )=
n−1 n−1
since the constant, c, can be written as p1v1n or as p2v2n,
 v2
−¿
p1 v 1
such that Work input = p2 ¿
n−1
whereby the above equation is true for any working substance undergoing a reversible polytropic
process. It follows also that for any polytropic process we can write as:
p1 v2 n
=( )
p2 v1

QN.3. Irreversible process.

An irreversible process is a process in which the systems and the surroundings do not return to
their original condition once the process is initiated. In this, the process cannot happen
backwards, thus it is the natural process and cannot be reversed. Thermodynamically the process
departs from the equilibrium.
Examples of irreversible process are; burning of fuel, burning of paper, rusting of iron, and
ripening of fruits, magnetization or polarization with hysteresis, electric current flow through a
conductor.
Irreversible processes are characterized by flow of fluids with friction and sliding friction
between any two matters.
The condition for the process to be irreversible is that, the irreversible process occurs when the
pressure or volume of the system changes dramatically and instanteously and the volume
or the pressure does not have the time to reach equilibrium.
FACTORS FOR IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
The following are the most common causes of irreversibility;
1. Friction; the energy lost due to friction can never be regained, thus the direction of the process
cannot be reversed without supplying external work.
2. Unrestrained expansion of fluids; since the work and heat transfer involve a change in the
surroundings, the surroundings are not restored to their initial state, causing an
irreversible process.
3. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference; since it involves an increase in the
entropy of the system, leading to irreversibility.
4. Mixing of two different substances; since the system and the surroundings cannot be
simultaneously restored to their initial states.
QN.4. Reversible Flow and non-flow process.
Reversible Flow
The reversible process is the ideal process which never occurs, while the irreversible process is
the natural process that is commonly found in nature.
A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can return back in such that both the system
and the surroundings return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the
universe. It means both system and surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of
the reverse process.

In the figure above, the system has undergone a change from state 1 to state 2. The reversible
process can reverse completely and there is no trace left to show that the system had undergone
thermodynamic change. During the reversible process, all the changes in state that occur in the
system are in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other.
A process can be reversible only when it’s satisfying two conditions;
 Dissipative force must be absent.
 The process should occur in infinite small time

The process which can reverse back completely is a reversible process. This means that the final
properties of the system can perfectly reverse back to the original properties. The process can be
perfectly reversible only if the changes in the process are infinitesimally small. In practical
situations it is not possible to trace these extremely small changes in extremely small time, hence
the reversible process is also an ideal process. The changes that occur during the reversible
process are in equilibrium with each other, friction effects can be assumed to be negligible and
heat must never be transferred to or from the system through a finite temperature difference.
Non Reversible flow Processes.
Are the processes in which mass does not flow in or out of the system and so the processes of
heating /cooling /compression/expansion etc. are undergone by this fix mass of gas confined in
continuous closed boundary. In these processes some property of the gas may change and some
may not change based on which a particular process is characterized, By applying first law of
thermodynamics, the various forms of energy exchange can be calculated considering the
processes as reversible i.e. taking all internal/external losses due to friction etc as nil.
Consider a fix quantity of an ideal gas filled in a metallic cylinder as shown in below figure, one
side of which is covered or fixed by a solid end plate and other side is covered by a moving
piston. The outer wall of piston matches with inner wall of cylinder such that it makes a leak
proof sliding joint. This moving piston makes one of the boundaries of system as moving or
flexible.

Closed System diagram.

When infinitely small heat 𝛅Q is supplied to gas from outside through the wall of cylinder, the
gas tends to expand and forces the piston weight F to move up. Let piston moves by a short
distance, dl. Then the infinitesimal work done can be calculated as;
Work = Pressure x Change in volume
Total work during a non-flow process 1-2 i.e. compression or expansion of gases can be
calculated as taking integral of P.dV

Thus, first law of thermodynamics can be written as:

All these reversible processes of heat exchange (Heating or Cooling) and work exchange
(compression or expansion) by a system of ideal gas with its surroundings can take place in
various ways as discussed below;

1. Constant volume (Isochoric) heating/cooling process

Let the piston is fixed at one point in the walls of cylinder such that volume V = Constant So the
ideal gas law PV/T = Constant will reduce to:

Now let a small increment of heat 𝛅Q is supplied to the gas. According to the 1st law of
thermodynamics,

As V = Constant, 𝛅W = P . dV = 0, then the equation was written

For any work substance (fluid)
Q = ∆U
And for perfect gas, the equation can be written as:

Thus knowing the values of 𝛅Q and Cv, ∆T (Increase in temperature) can be calculated and so
∆P can also be calculated from eq.
By measuring the small increment in temperature and pressure of system, the quantity 𝛅Q & ∆U
can also be calculated.

2. Constant pressure (Isobaric) process.

Let the piston is free to move in the cylinder and force, F or pressure, P on the piston remains
constant. So now the boundaries of the system can move and so the gas can expand or can be
compressed i.e. the system is able to exchange work.
Now let a small quantity of heat, 𝛅Q is supplied to the gas through the walls of cylinder. On
absorbing this heat, the temperature of gas will tend to increase and simultaneously the gas will
tend to expand against force F on the piston. Applying 1st law of thermodynamic to this
process.

For any working substance (fluid)

3. Constant temperature (Isothermal) Process

a. Steam
It can see, that the isothermal process for a wet steam lay at the constant pressure line also. Thus
the heat calculated by equation:
Q = H2 – H1
or
Q = U2 – U1 + W

b. Ideal gas (perfect gas)

The beauty of isothermal expansion or compression process (when the working substance is
ideal gas) is that the internal energy remains constant and so whole of the heat exchange by
system is converted to work and vice versa. However the process is difficult to visualize while
thinking that when the system (gas filled behind piston in the cylinder) absorbs heat, its
temperature should always increase. But what happens in the isothermal process that while
absorbing heat, simultaneously the gas expands thus decrease in its pressure and temperature
takes place and the net change in temperature is zero. While expanding, the gas gives positive
work equal to the heat supplied. Conversely also if the gas is compressed by doing extra work on
the gas, its pressure and temperature tends to increase, but simultaneously if the gas is cooled in
such proportion that the net change in temperature remains zero, the compression process
becomes isothermal. In this isothermal compression process, again the work supplied to the gas
is given away by the system in the form of heat. Applying first law of thermodynamics
to this isothermal process in which
du = 0, because dt = 0 𝛅Q = 𝛅W = P. dV

From ideal gas law

At T= constant Gas law reduces to PV = constant or

Putting this in equation

By using this equation, we can calculate the work exchange or heat exchange if we know the
change in pressure.

Since
QN.5. Derive a flow and non-flow equation.

CASE I:
THE STEADY FLOW EQUATION.
Since the steady flow process is that in which the condition of fluid flow within a control volume do not
vary with time, i.e. the mass flow rate, pressure, volume, work and rate of heat transfer are not the
function of time.

i.e. for steady flow

(dm/dt ) entrance = (dm/ dt)exit ; i.e.dm/dt = constant

dP /dt = dV /dt = dρ/dt = dEchemical = 0
Assumptions

The following conditions must hold good in a steady flow process.

(a) The mass flow rate through the system remains constant.

(b) The rate of heat transfer is constant.

(c) The rate of work transfer is constant.

(d) The state of working; substance at any point within the system is same at all times.

(e) There is no change in the chemical composition of the system. If any one condition is not satisfied,
the process is called unsteady process.

Let;

A1, A2 = Cross sectional Area at inlet and outlet

ρ 1 , ρ 2 = Density of fluid at inlet and outlet

m1 , m2 = Mass flow rate at inlet and outlet
u 1 ,u 2 = I.E. of fluid at inlet and outlet
P 1, P 2 = Pressure of mass at inlet and outlet
ν 1 , ν 2 = Specific volume of fluid at inlet and outlet
V1, V2 = Velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet

Z 1 , Z 2 = Height at which the mass enters and leave Q = Heat transfer rate W = Work transfer rate
Consider open system; we have to consider mass balanced as well as energy balance.
 In the absence of any mass getting stored the system we can write; Mass flow rate at inlet = Mass flow
rate at outlet i.e., mf1 = mf2

since mf =density X volume flow rate=density X Area X velocity

= ρ . A .V ρ 1. A 1. V 1=ρ 2. A 2. V 2

or, A 1.V 1/ v 1= A 2. V 2/v 2; v 1 , v 2

= specific volume Now total energy of a flow system consists of P.E, K.E., I.E., and flow work

V2
Hence, E=PE+ KE+ IE + FW =h+ +gZ Now; Total Energy rate cross boundary as
2
heat∧work=Total energy rate leaving at(2)−Total energy rateleaving at(1)

Q−W =mf 2 h 2+( V 22

2 ) (
+ Z 2 g −mf 1 h 1+
V 12
2
+Z 1g )
For steady flow process, mf1=mf2=m

[
Q−W =m ( h 2−h 1 ) +
1
2( V 2 – V 1 )
2 2
+ g ( Z 2−Z 1 )
]
For unit mass basis

[
Q−WS = ( h 2−h1 ) +
1
2 ( V 2 −V 1 )
2 2
+ g ( Z 2−Z 1 )
]
WS =Specific heat work
May also be written as

dq−dw=dh+ dKE+ dPE

V 12
h 1+ + Z 1 g+ q 1−2
2
2
V2
or h 2+ +Z 2 g+W 1−2
2
 CASE II:

NON-FLOW EQUATION
A typical closed system is a gas enclosed in a cylinder by means of a piston.
The gas inside the cylinder is the control mass.

W Internal Q
Energy

From the first law

Q+W=∆E
Q + W = ∆Ek + ∆Ep + ∆U
But for a non-flowing gas, its velocity will be 0 to start with, and when it has
settled down after the process, its velocity will again be 0, so the change in
kinetic energy, ∆Ek = 0. Similarly, there is no significant change in potential
energy, so ∆Ep = 0. There will, however, be a change in the internal energy,
U. So, the non-flow energy equation (NFEE) becomes, simply,
Q+W =∆ U
Q+W =U 2 – U 1
where U 2 is the internal energy in state 2, after the process andU 1is the
internal energy in state 1, before the process.

QN.6. Give any design idea or research which can be done in your field that will involve the
application of engineering thermodynamics.
IMPROVING ENGINE OIL COOLER PERFORMANCE.
Oil coolers are sometimes necessary on tuned and high performance engines. The oil thins as the
temperature rises and therefore its lubricating properties may be reduced. The oil temperature
needs to remain at its ideal temperature or it will lose its viscosity.
Engine oil coolers can reduce oil temperature by as much as 30 degrees. Engine oil coolers also
assists in maintaining the right level of oil viscosity.
Way to improve engine oil cooler performance
The concept that show to be the most promising in an oil cooling perspective, is to connect an additional
heat exchanger in series after the current plate heat exchanger. This is a solution which will support the
current engine oil cooler by handling the additional heat produced during certain driving scenarios
which will implicate an alteration of the current oil cooling system design.