Dr. Carl E.

Balita Review Center

CBRC Headquarters
2nd Flr., Carmen Building, 881 G. Tolentino St. corner España Blvd., Sampaloc, Manila 1008

Academics and Services Department (ASD)

PHINMA Education Special Teaching Enhancement Program (STEP)

BUSINESS AND PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

Parts of Speech is a category of words according to how they function in a sentence. A word can act
more than one part of the speech. For instance, the word “present,” can act as a noun to mean the
word, “gift” or it can also act as a verb to mean the action, “to show.” The eight (8) parts of speech in
the English language are as follows:

1. NOUN: refers to the names of persons, places, things, or events. There are different types of
nouns as shown in the table below:

NOUNS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

Specific/ exact names Ms. Pia, Manila Ocean Park,
a. Proper Nouns
(capital letter) Baguio
generic names (small
b. Common Nouns teacher, street, fruit
letter)
Tangible; detected by
c. Concrete pencil, tv, sunlight
senses
Non-tangible which can
Fear, happiness, peace,
d. Abstract be felt (ideas and
freedom, honesty
feelings)
Audience, team, committee,
e. Collective Names of group
crowd
f. Count Can be counted Bottle, students, papers
Cannot be counted Water, air, sugar, food, flour,
g. Mass (Non-count)
(Measured only) coffee

2. PRONOUN: This refers to a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.

PRONOUN EXAMPLE
Personal Pronoun I, we, he, they, you, she, etc.
Demonstrative Pronoun This, that, those, it, such, there, etc.
Interrogative Pronoun Who, which, whose, what, whom, etc.
Relative Pronoun Who, which, that, whose, etc.
Indefinite Pronoun Both, any, some, none, one, many, etc.
Distributive Pronoun Each, every, either, neither, etc.
Reflexive Pronoun Myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, herself, etc.
Reciprocal Pronoun Each other, one another, etc.
 3. VERB: Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing.
a. Intransitive verbs are verbs that express action but that do not take an object. The subject
and verb express a complete thought without an object. The verb can, however, be followed
by an adverb or other modifier.
Examples: I ran. I ran swiftly. I ran in the race.

b. Transitive verbs are verbs that express action that terminates in, or is received by, an object.
The object of a transitive verb can be a noun, pronoun, or a noun clause or phrase.
Examples: I threw the ball. (Noun as object) We beat them. (Pronoun as object) I think that
you are correct. (Noun clause as object) Notice that the subject and verb alone, "We beat,"
would not make sense without an object to receive the action.

c. Linking verbs are verbs of the senses like "feel," "look," "smell," or "taste," and a limited
number of other verbs like "be," "seem," "become," or "remain" that link the subject of the
sentence with a complement. Linking verbs are always followed by an adjective, noun, or
noun phrase that acts as a complement. Examples: He is a lawyer. (Noun as complement) I
feel tired. (Adjective as complement) It seems that we will lose the game. (Noun clause as
complement) Passive-voice verbs are verbs that allow the subject to receive the action rather
than to do the action.

d. Passive-voice verbs are made by using some form of the verb "be" that is followed by a verb
ending in -en or -ed (unless the past participle of the verb is irregular). Only transitive verbs
can be turned into the passive form.
Examples: Our team was beaten at softball. ("By the opposing team" is implied.) The building
is destroyed by the wrecking crew. The ball was thrown by me. To help identify a passive verb,
ask, "Is the subject sitting there PASSIVELY waiting for something to happen to it, or is the
subject doing the ACTION?"

VERB TENSES—DEFINITIONS
Verb tenses are used to indicate time. There are six tenses.

VERB TENSES PAST PRESENT FUTURE

SIMPLE I studied English I study English. I will study English.
yesterday.
PROGRESSIVE I was studying I am studying I will be studying
English. English. English.
PERFECT I had studied I have studied I will have studied
English. English. English.
PERFECT I had been studying I have been I will have been
 CONTINUOUS English. studying English. studying English.

4. ADVERB: Words that modify/describes verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. It answers the
questions HOW, WHY, WHEN and WHERE.

TYPES OF ADVERBS USE EXAMPLE

1. Adverb of Manner Describes how actions The old woman on the
were done/carried out street walks slowly.
(Usually ends in –ly)
2. Adverb of Place Describes where an action They travelled down the
happens mountainside.
3. Adverb of Frequency Describes how often an I will always love you.
action occurs
4. Adverb of Time Describes when an action We went to Baguio last
happens month.
5. Adverb of Purpose Describes why an action Since it‟s your birthday, I
occurs will bring you to Manila
Ocean Park.

5. ADJECTIVE: Words that MODIFY or DESCRIBE nouns or pronouns.

KINDS OF DEFINITION Examples

ADJECTIVES
1. Proper adjectives These are proper nouns  Australian native
used as adjectives. animals are unique.
 The June rain is ideal
for plants.
2. Adjectives of order These tell position (ex:  He was the last boy in
first, second, third) the queue.
 She was in third place
in her age race.
3. Possessive adjectives These tell who  This is our garden.
something belongs to  Is this your magazine?
(my, his, her, their, your,
its, our).
4. Numbering adjectives These tell how many.  There were several
girls in the play.
 There were five levels
in the building.
5. Compound adjectives These are adjectives  The feather-light
joined by hyphens. sponge won first prize.

6. CONJUNCTION: are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.
Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the choppiness of multiple
short sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined by conjunctions are parallel (share the same
structure).

Coordinating Conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and
clauses of equal grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions are
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by using the mnemonic device FANBOYS.

EX:

I‟d like pizza or a salad for lunch. We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things and
went to the library. Jesse didn‟t have much money, but she got by.

Correlative Conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together.
Some examples are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.

EX:

Not only am I finished studying for English, but I‟m also finished writing my history essay. I am
finished with both my English essay and my history essay.

Subordinating Conjunctions: Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses.

A subordinating conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or some other kind
of relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as,
although, though, while, and whereas. Sometimes an adverb, such as until, after, or before can
function as a conjunction.

EX:

I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

7. PREPOSITION: A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun
phrase to show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object.
Some examples of prepositions are words like "in," "at," "on," "of," and "to."

Prepositions of Direction
To refer to a direction, use the prepositions "to," "in," "into," "on," and "onto."

 She drove to the store.

 Don‟t ring the doorbell. Come right in(to) the house.
 Drive on(to) the grass and park the car there.
Prepositions of Time
To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions "in," "at," and "on."
Use "in" with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and seasons.

 He reads in the evening.

 The weather is cold in December.
 She was born in 1996.
 We rake leaves in the fall.

Use "at" with the time of day. Also use "at" with noon, night, and midnight.

 I go to work at 8:00.
 He eats lunch at noon.
 She often goes for a walk at night.
 They go to bed at midnight.

Use "on" with days.

 I work on Saturdays.
 He does laundry on Wednesdays.

To refer to extended time, use the prepositions "since," "for," "by," "during," "from…to," "from…until,"
"with," and "within."

 I have lived in Minneapolis since 2005. (I moved there in 2005 and still live there.)
 He will be in Toronto for 3 weeks. (He will spend 3 weeks in Toronto.)
 She will finish her homework by 6:00. (She will finish her homework sometime between now
and 6:00.)
 He works part time during the summer. (For the period of time throughout the summer.)
 I will collect data from January to June. (Starting in January and ending in June.)
 They are in school from August until May. (Starting in August and ending in May.)
 She will graduate within 2 years. (Not longer than 2 years.)

Prepositions of Place
To refer to a place, use the prepositions "in" (the point itself), "at" (the general vicinity), "on" (the
surface), and "inside" (something contained).

 They will meet in the lunchroom.

 She was waiting at the corner.
 He left his phone on the bed.
 Place the pen inside the drawer.

To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions "over" and "above." To refer to an
object lower than a point, use the prepositions "below," "beneath," "under," and "underneath."

 The bird flew over the house.

 The plates were on the shelf above the cups.
  Basements are dug below ground.
 There is hard wood beneath the carpet.
 The squirrel hid the nuts under a pile of leaves.
 The cat is hiding underneath the box.

To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions "by," "near," "next to," "between," "among,"
and "opposite."

 The gas station is by the grocery store.

 The park is near her house.
 Park your bike next to the garage.
 There is a deer between the two trees.
 There is a purple flower among the weeds.
 The garage is opposite the house.

Prepositions of Location
To refer to a location, use the prepositions "in" (an area or volume), "at" (a point), and "on" (a
surface).

 They live in the country. (an area)

 She will find him at the library. (a point)
 There is a lot of dirt on the window. (a surface)

Prepositions of Spatial Relationships

To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions "above," "across," "against," "ahead of,"
"along," "among," "around," "behind," "below,"
"beneath," "beside," "between," "from," "in front of," "inside," "near," "off," "out of," "through," "toward,"
"under," and "within."

 The post office is across the street from the grocery store.
 We will stop at many attractions along the way.
 The kids are hiding behind the tree.
 His shirt is off.
 Walk toward the garage and then turn left.
 Place a check mark within the box.

Prepositions Following Verbs and Adjectives

Some verbs and adjectives are followed by a certain preposition. Sometimes verbs and adjectives
can be followed by different prepositions, giving the phrase different meanings. To find which
prepositions follow the verb or an adjective, look up the verb or adjective in an online dictionary, such
as Merriam Webster, or use a corpus, such as The Corpus of Contemporary American English.
Memorizing these phrases instead of just the preposition alone is the most helpful.
Some Common Verb + Preposition Combinations
About: worry, complain, read

 He worries about the future.

 She complained about the homework.
 I read about the flooding in the city.

At: arrive (a building or event), smile, look

 He arrived at the airport 2 hours early.

 The children smiled at her.
 She looked at him.

From: differ, suffer

 The results differ from my original idea.

 She suffers from dementia.

For: account, allow, search

 Be sure to account for any discrepancies.

 I returned the transcripts to the interviewees to allow for revisions to be made.
 They are searching for the missing dog.

In: occur, result, succeed

 The same problem occurred in three out of four cases.

 My recruitment strategies resulted in finding 10 participants.
 She will succeed in completing her degree.

Of: approve, consist, smell

 I approve of the idea.

 The recipe consists of three basic ingredients.
 The basement smells of mildew.

On: concentrate, depend, insist

 He is concentrating on his work.

 They depend on each other.
 I must insist on following this rule.

To: belong, contribute, lead, refer

 Bears belong to the family of mammals.

 I hope to contribute to the previous research.
 My results will lead to future research on the topic.
 Please refer to my previous explanation.

With: (dis)agree, argue, deal

  I (dis)agree with you.
 She argued with him.
 They will deal with the situation

8. INTERJECTION: Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They
are included in a sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust,
joy, excitement, or enthusiasm.

COMMUNICATION

The communication process refers to a series of actions or steps taken in order to successfully
communicate. It involves several components such as the sender of the communication, the actual
message being sent, the encoding of the message, the receiver and the decoding of the message.

PARTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication process has several components that enable the transmission of a message.
Here are the various parts:

Sender: This is the person that is delivering a message to a recipient.

Message: This refers to the information that the sender is relaying to the receiver.

Channel of communication: This is the transmission or method of delivering the message.

Decoding: This is the interpretation of the message. Decoding is performed by the receiver.

Receiver: The receiver is the person who is getting or receiving the message.

Feedback: In some instances, the receiver might have feedback or a response for the sender. This
starts an interaction.

COMMUNICATION MODELS

Model of Type of
Communication Model Brief Description

Aristotle argues that we should look at five

elements of a communication event to
analyze how best to communicate: speaker,
Aristotle’s Model Linear speech, occasion, target audience and effect.
 Model of Type of
Communication Model Brief Description

Lasswell‟s model is a basic framework for

analyzing one-way communication by asking
five questions: Who, said what, through
Lasswell’s Model Linear which channel, to whom, with what effects?

The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to

highlight the role of „noise‟ in communication,
Shannon-Weaver which can disrupt or alter a message
Model Linear between sender and receiver.

Berlo‟s S-M-C-R model explains

communication in four
Berlo’s S-M-C-R steps: Source, Message, Channel,
Model Linear and Receiver.

The Osgood-Schramm model looks at

reciprocal communication, showing how we
have to encode, decode, and interpret
Osgood-Schramm information in real-time during a
Model Interactive conversation.

The Westley and Maclean model shows that

Westley and our communication is influenced by
Maclean Model Interactive environmental, cultural and personal factors.

Barnlund‟s Transactional Model of

Barnlund’s Communication highlights the role of private
Transactional Model Transactional and public cues that impact our messages.

Dance‟s Helical Model sees communication

as a circular process that gets more and
Dance’s Helical more complex as communication occurs,
Model Transactional which can be represented by a helical spiral.

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

A communication barrier is anything that comes in the way of receiving and understanding messages
that one sends to another to convey his ideas, thoughts, or any other kind of information. These
various barriers of communication block or interfere with the message that someone is trying to send.
Below are the types of barriers of communication:

1. Physical – They include barriers like noise, closed doors, faulty equipment used for
communication, closed cabins, etc. Sometimes, in a large office, the physical separation
between various employees combined with faulty equipment may result in severe
barriers to effective communication.
 2. Psychological - There are various mental and psychological issues that may be
barriers to effective communication. Some people have stage fear, speech disorders,
phobia, depression etc. All of these conditions are very difficult to manage sometimes
and will most certainly limit the ease of communication.

3. Semantic barriers: Semantic barriers are also known as language barriers. These
barriers are caused due to improper communication between the sender and the
receiver.

4. Organisational barriers: Organisational barriers are those barriers that are caused due
to the structure, rules and regulations present in the organisation. The various types of
barriers that can be encountered due to superior subordinate relationships where the
free flow of communication is not possible.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Broadly Communication can be divided into three categories- verbal, non-verbal and visual. The
following sections will give details of each of these types and their sub-types.

1. Verbal Communication

This refers to Communication using spoken words of the language. But in the broader sense, the
written form of information is also a part of this. The word "verbal Communication" refers to a sort of
Communication in which a message is delivered orally, and it encompasses both oral and written
Communication. The goal of any Communication is for people to understand what we're trying to
express. The following categories are used to categorize verbal Communication:
 Oral Communication
 Written Communication
a. Oral Communication

Communication using spoken word through a channel or media in direct or indirect form; the
information here is passed only in the form of sound. The conversation is an oral mode of
Communication which can take place. face-to-face, over the phone or via voice messages. In oral
Communication, spoken words are used. Examples include face-to-face Communication, speech,
telephonic Communication, video, radio, television, and voice over the internet. Oral Communication
is influenced by pitch, loudness, tempo, and clarity of speech.

b. Written Communication

When information is delivered in the written form; letters, e-mails, texts, research reports, handbooks
or posters, even flyers or posts on social media are also considered Communication. In written
Communication, written signs or symbols are used to transmit information. A handwritten message
might be typed or handwritten. Messages can be sent via email, letter, report, note, and other kinds of
written Communication. The message in written Communication is influenced by the vocabulary and
grammar used, as well as the writing style, precision, and clarity of the language used. The most
popular mode of corporate Communication is written Communication. As a result, it's considered one
of the most valuable commercial talents.

2. Non-Verbal Communication

Here the Communication is wordless and mainly facilitates verbal Communication. Facial
expressions, body language, signs and symbols, gestures, etc fall under this category. Your
expression often shows how you associate with the message. If these non-verbal expressions are
under control, Communication can be regulated too. There are several types of it. Nonverbal
Communication refers to the sending and receiving of nonverbal messages. We can say that
Communication other than oral and written, such as gestures, body language, posture, tone of voice
or facial expressions, is called nonverbal Communication. The most significant part of nonverbal
Communication is the speaker's body language. The receiver's interpretation of the message is aided
by nonverbal Communication. Nonverbal cues generally represent the situation more accurately than
verbal cues. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts verbal Communication and hence affects the
effectiveness of the message

Other Types of Communication

There are two more types of Communication- Formal and informal Communication are two types of
Communication that might exist inside an organization.
1. Formal Communication

This occurs when there is a formal relationship between the deliverer(s) and the audience such
as in a business setup. Formal Communication in a company refers to Communication that
occurs through official channels. Communication between managers or employees in the
same cadre, as well as between superior and subordinate and vice versa, occurs.This can
again be of three types:

 Vertical, where the flow of information is along with the organisational structure (both up
and down)

 Horizontal, where Communication happens between organisations of similar levels

 Diagonal, where Communication occurs across the employees of different departments

2. Informal Communication

The extremely general Communication without any hint of formality among any random people
is termed as informal Communication. It is surprising that contrary to the popular belief, it is the
non-verbal mode that completes most of the Communication, almost 55% of it. Thus, the flow
of information is higher in this mode. Knowing the types and acquiring the right Communication
skill can ensure success in any venture one partakes in. This type of Communication spreads
swiftly and is difficult to track down the source. Sometimes, such Communication leads to
rumors and thus creates confusion in the organization.